Complementos de Transmissão de Calor

(Advanced Heat Transfer)

2022/2023
Prof. Sohel Murshed

Part IB: Condensation

Chapter 10*
Ø Condensation: Types and general considerations
Ø Film condensation: Mechanisms and correlations
Ø Dropwise condensation: Mechanisms and correlations
-Everyday life: Example- condensation on automobile
windows, power plant.
-Heat pipes, heat exchangers, condenser

*Ref. 1 (Incropera Book) in the list of main bibliography CTCal|SM

 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
General Considerations
v Condensation occurs when temperature of a vapor is reduced below its Tsat by brining
it into contact with a surface (solid, liquid or gas) having temperature (Ts) below Tsat
of the vapor. Two distinct forms of condensation are found at the solid surface:
Ø Film Condensation
§ Condensate forms liquid film which flows downward and provides a
resistance to heat transfer between the vapor and the surface.
§ Film thickness increases in the flow direction.
§ Thermal resistance is reduced through use of short vertical surfaces
and horizontal cylinders.
§ Characteristic of clean, uncontaminated surfaces.
Ø Dropwise Condensation
§ Condensate forms droplet at the surface and is covered by countless
droplets of varying size.
§ Thermal resistance is greatly reduced due to absence of a continuous film.
§ Surface coatings may be applied to inhibit wetting and stimulate dropwise
condensation.
§ Qdropwise>10+ Qfilm. CTCal|SM 2
 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation (VIDEOS)

Dropwise and Film

condensations on silicon
(wafer) surfaces.

Ø Dropwise Condensation

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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
General Considerations
Ø Homogeneous condensation
§ Where vapor condenses out as droplets suspended
in a gas phase to form a fog

Ø Direct contact condensation

§ It occurs when vapor is brought into
contact with a cold liquid

Dropwise and Film condensations on silicon (wafer) surfaces- example.

v Heat transfer coefficient of dropwise condensation is

order magnitude larger than that of film condensation.

v Only surface condensations (film and dropwise

condensation) will be studied here.

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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate

Ø Distinguishing Features
§ Thickness (d ) and flow rate m! of condensate
increase with increasing x
§ Generally, the vapor is superheated (Tv ,¥ > Tsat )
and may be part of a mixture that includes
noncondensibles.
§ A shear stress at the liquid/vapor interface induces
a velocity gradient in the vapor, as well as the
liquid.
§ The latent heat of vaporization (hfg) released
during condensation is transferred through the
film to the plate surface
§ Like forced convection involving a single phase, heat transfer in
condensation also depends on whether the condensate flow is laminar or
turbulent. CTCal|SM 5
 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Film Condensation-Reynold Number (Re) Relations
ØThree flow regimes are identified film condensation and they are
distinguished by Re defined with hydraulic diameter as:
" ! # " $" &'# #" $" &#" $" ! &*̇
!"! = %"
= ( %"
= %"
= +%
"

Another Re relation:

The actual heat transfer:

Modified hfg:
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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Film Condensation and Regimes on a Vertical Plate

Some disagreement exists about the value of Re at which the flow

becomes wavy laminar to turbulent.
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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate

Ø Nusselt Analysis for Laminar Flow (wave-free except Incropera et al.)

Simplified assumptions:
Ø The wall and pure vapor are at constant Ts and Tsat, respectively.
Ø The flow of condensate is laminar and the properties of liquid film
are constant.
Ø Heat transfer across the film is by conduction(linear temperature
distribution). No advection within the film.
Ø Negligible shear stress at liquid/vapor interface. ® ¶u = 0
¶y y =d

Ø The acceleration of the condensate layer is negligible.

Ø Negligible momentum and energy transfer by advection in the film.

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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate (wave-free)
Newton’s second law of motion for the volume
element in the vertical x-direction can be written:

Integrating from y=0 (where u=0) to y (where u=u(y)):

u(y) can also be obtained from X-momentum Eq.

for the film.

B.Cs.: CTCal|SM 9
 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate (wave-free)
Ø The mass flow rate of the condensate at a location x is determined from:

%&'! ('! − '" )+ #

Substituting u(y), we have: "̇ # =
3-!
whose derivative with respect to x is (I)

The rate of heat transfer from the vapor to the plate through the liquid film is
equal to the heat released as the vapor is condensed
(II)
From Eqs.(I)&(II):
Integrating from x=0 (where +=0) to x=x (where +=
+(x)), the liquid film thickness at any location x:
1/ 4
é 4kl µl (Tsat - Ts ) x ù
d ( x) = ê ú
g r
ë l l ( r - r v ) h fg û CTCal|SM 10
 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate (wave-free)
The heat transfer rate from the vapor to the plate at a location x:
1/ 4
é 4kl µl (Tsat - Ts ) x ù
Replacing d ( x ) = ê ú
ë g rl ( rl - rv ) h fg û

The average heat transfer

coefficient over the entire plate:
This equation underpredict h because it does not take into account the effects of the
nonlinear temperature profile in the liquid film and the cooling of the liquid below the
saturation temperature. Thus Rohsenow added thermal advection effects with the latent heat
and modified laten heat as:

This correlation may be used for inclined surface (.<p/2) and g= gcos..
It may also be used for condensation on the inner or outer surface of a vertical tube or
radius R, if R>>d. CTCal|SM 11
 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate (wave-free Laminar)-Features
v Velocity profile in the film: v Flow rate per unit width:
3 !
m g rl ( rl - r v ) d
Gº =
b 3µ l
v Local and average heat transfer coefficients:
=>

v Average Nusselt Number: h¢fg = h fg (1 + 0.68 Ja )

1/ 4
h L é r g ( r - r ) h¢ L3
ù
c p (Tsat - Ts )
l l v fg
Nu L = L = 0.943 ê ú
kl ë µ k
l l ( Tsat - T s ) û Ja º ® Jakob number
h fg
v Total heat transfer and condensation rates: v Condensation number, Co

q = h L A (Tsat - Ts ) l l

! q
m=
All liquidhproperties
¢fg should be evaluated T =(T +T )/2.
f sat s
(Vertical Plate)
However, ⍴v and hfg should be evaluated at Tsat. CTCal|SM 12
 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate )*+ &$ ≫ &% !"#$, &$ − &% ≈ &$
Ø Wave-free laminar regime ( Red < 30 ) : Modified Average Nu
h L (n / g )
2 1/ 3
l
= 1.47 Red -1/3
(=Co) (10.38)
4 g rl ( rl - r v ) d 3
Red =
kl 3µl2
Ø Flow at the bottom of the plate- wavy laminar regime ( 30 < Red < 1800 ) :
Ø The waves at the liquid– vapor interface tend to increase heat transfer.
Ø It also complicate the analysis and make it very difficult to obtain analytical solutions.
Ø The increase in heat transfer due to the wave effect is, on average 20% (McAdams,1954)
but it can exceed 50%.
Ø Average h in wavy laminar condensate flow for "! ≫ "" , Kutateladze (1963) had:
h L (n l2 / g )
1/ 3
Red
= (10.39)
kl 1.08 Re1.22
d - 5.2
Simpler alternative to above Eq.:

Re in the wavy laminar region:

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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Flow at the bottom of the vertical plate- Turbulent regime (Red >1800):

Correlation proposed by Labuntsov (1957)

h L (n l2 / g )
1/ 3
Red
= (10.40)
kl 8750 +58 Pr -0.5 ( Red0.75 - 253)

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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Calculation Procedure
Ø Assume a particular flow regime and use the corresponding expression for
h L(Eq. 10.38, 10.39 or 10.40) to determine Red .
Ø If value of Red is consistent with assumption, proceed to determination of
!
q and m .
Ø If value of Red is inconsistent with the assumption, recompute its value
using a different expression for h L and proceed to determination of
!
q and m .

Modified Nu for
condensation on
a vertical plate:

Ø Verified experimentally by Gregoring (1974) for water at 1<Re<7200. CTCal|SM 15

 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Re in previous correlations (Eqs.38-40) is associated with - (at x=L) and if -
is unknown, it is convenient to use ./1 relations without Re$

and

, (/&'( 0/& )
&'& - -, (3"- /5)./0
!"! = +
2%" -)*
= 4P 6"
= 4P $%7
where the dimensionless parameter P is
The average Nu in terms of P
h L (n l2 / g )
1/ 3

= 1.47 Red-1/3
kl

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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Inclined Plates
This can be obtained by replacing g in velocity
profile by gcosθ
This equation yields satisfactory results for θ ≤60° and it
can also be used for wavy laminar flows as an
approximation.
Horizontal Tubes and Spheres
Nusselt’s analysis of film condensation on vertical plates can also be extended to
horizontal tubes and spheres (outer surface).
The average HTC for film condensation on
the outer surface of a horizontal tube (D):
For sphere (D) the constant 0.729 to be replaced by 0.815.
A comparison of the HTC (h) relations for a vertical tube of height L and a
horizontal tube of diameter D gives:

hver =hhoriz gives L = 2.77D. For L>2.77D: hhoriz > hver CTCal|SM 18
 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Film Condensation on Radial Systems
v A single tube or sphere (smooth):
1/ 4
é g rl ( rl - ru ) kl3h¢fg ù
hD = C ê ú
ë µ l ( Tsat - Ts ) D û
Tube: C =0.729 Sphere: C=0.826

v A vertical tier of N tubes: Sphere

( )
1/ 4
é g rl rl - r k 3h¢fg ù
u
h D,N = 0.729 ê l
ú
êë N µ l ( sat
T - Ts) D úû

Ø Why does h D , N decrease with increasing N?

n = -1/6
Ø How is heat transfer affected if the continuous
sheets (c) breakdown and the condensate drips from
tube to tube (d)?
As individual drops impinge on the lower tube, turbulence and Tube(s)
waves propagate throughout the film, enhancing heat transfer.
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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Film Condensation for a Vapor Flow inside a Horizontal Tube
v Condensers in refrigeration and AC systems involve vapor condensation inside
horizontal or vertical tubes.
• If vapor flow rate (u) is small, condensate flow is circumferential and axial:
æ r um ,u D ö
Reu ,i = ç u ÷ < 35, 000 :
è µu øi
1/ 4
é g r ( r - ru ) kl h¢fg ù
3
h D = 0.555 ê l l ú
ë µ l ( Tsat - Ts ) D û
h¢fg º h fg + 0.375 (Tsat - Ts ) Low vapor velocity
High vapor velocity

Dobson and Chato [1998] proposed

correlation for local h at high velocity:
:
Xtt is the Martinelli parameter for turbulent
flow in both liquid and vapor phases
Valid only when mass flow rate per Ac exceeds 500 kg/(s.m2)
• For larger vapor velocities, flow is principally in the axial direction and
characterized by two-phase annular conditions. CTCal|SM 21
 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Dropwise Condensation
Ø It is characterized by countless droplets of varying
diameters on the condensing surface instead of a
continuous liquid film, is one of the most effective
mechanisms (preferred mode) of heat transfer.
Ø The small droplets that form on the surface grow due to
continued condensation, coalesce into large droplets, and
slide down, clearing the surface and exposing it to vapor.
There is no liquid film to resist heat transfer.
Ø Typically, HTC (h) for dropwise condensation are an order of magnitude larger
(e.g. 10 times) than those for film condensation.
Ø Large HTC leads to smaller surface area and eventually smaller condenser.
Ø The challenge in dropwise condensation is not to achieve it, but rather, to
sustain it for prolonged periods of time.
Griffith (1983) recommends simple correlations for dropwise condensation of steam
on copper surfaces:
where Tsat is in °C

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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Problem: Determine the condensation and heat rates per unit width of a vertical
plate having a uniform temperature of 54˚C on one side which is exposed to
saturated steam at 1 atm if (a) the plate height is 2.5m and (b) the height is halved.
Solution:

Assuming Film condensation and

negligible non-condensables in steam.

We have:

a) Now the dimensionless parameter P:

As P > 2530, the flow is turbulent.

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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
For turbulent regime, we have

Then the heat and condensation rates per unit width :

b) If the length is halved (L = 1.25 m), P will be halved, P = 1810.

Since 15.8 < P < 2530, the flow regime changes to wavy laminar flow and we need
to use following correlation:

=>

Now the heat and condensation rates per unit width:

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 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Alternative solution with Reynolds number based relations
All properties in previous solution remain the same
Assuming
Assuming turbulentturbulent (noEq.
flow conditions, strong
10.39 isreason!) condition
the appropriate and
correlation, correlation:
( )
2 1/ 3
hL n ! g Red
= Red > 1800 (1) (3)
k!
(
8750 + 58 Pr -0.5 Red0.75 - 253 )
Not knowing Red or h L , another relation is required. Combining Eqs. 10.33 and 10.35,
¢
" fg
mh ¢
h fg
(2)
æ Red µ! b ö
hL = = ÷A T -T . (4)
A ( Tsat - T ) çè ø ( satEq. (4)
4 Substituting ) for h L into Eq. (3), with A = bL,
Combining Eqs.(1) and (2) and Red µ! bh fg ¢ Red k!
= × . (3) (5
using A=bL 4 ( bL ) ( Tsat - T ) 8750 + 58 Pr!-0.5 0.75
(
Red - 253 n 2 g
!
1/ 3
)( )
Using appropriate properties with L = 2.5 m, find

365 ´ 10-6 N × s m 2 ´ 2388 ´ 103 J kg

(6)
4 ´ 2.5m (100 - 54 ) K
1 0.668 W m × K
= ×
8750 + 58 ( 2.29 )
-0.5
( Red0.75 - 253 ) ( é -6 2
)4 2 2
ê 365 ´ 10 973.7 m s 9.8m s ú
ù
1/ 3

ë û
Red = 2979 . CTCal|SM 25
 ADVANCED HEAT TRANSFER
Part IB: Condensation
Since Red > 1800, the flow is turbulent, and using Eq. (4) or (3), find
From Eq.(2): h = 5645 W m 2 × K .
L
ANALYSIS:
Now the heat and (a)condensation
The heat transfer and
rates percondensation
unit width: rates are given by Eqs. 10.32 and 10.33,
q ¢ = h L L ( Tsat - Ts ) ! ¢ = q ¢ h fg
m ¢ (1,2)
From the rate equations (1) and (2), the heat transfer and condensation rates are
q ¢ = 5645 W m 2 × K ´ 2.5m (100 - 54 ) K = 649k W m <
! ¢ = 649 ´ 103 W m 2388 ´ 103 J kg = 0.272 kg s × m .
m
(b) If the height of the plate were halved, L = 1.25 m, and turbulent <flow
he appropriate b) correlation,
If the height of the exist,
patetheis LHS of L=
halved, Eq.1.25m
(5) may
andbeflow
reevaluated
is assumed and
thethe equation solved to o
same
(turbulent)
Eq. 10.39 Eq.
is the(3) Red = 1280 .
gives: correlation,
ulent flow conditions, appropriate
Since Re > 1800, the Since
flow is 1800 > Re
turbulent, d , using
and the flow
Eq. is
(4)not
or turbule
(3), find
g)
1/ 3
As Red <1800,> 1800 the flow is not d
(3)turbulent but wavy-laminar and need to use right

!
)
- 253 = Red
correlations to determine
8750 + 58 Pr -0.5 ( Red0.75 - 253)
Red >and =
1800 h which
L 5645are:
Since 1800 > Red , the flowThe
Example 10.3. For L = 1.25 m with wavy
(3)W m 2 × K .
is notcalculation yields
turbulent, but wavy-laminar. The proce
00 > Re
Since 1800 > Re
d , the d , the
flow flow
is not is not
turbulent,turbulent,
but but wavy-laminar.
wavy-laminar. The d = 1372
Example 10.3. For L = 1.25 m with wavy-laminar flow, Eq. 10.38 is the
yield: ReThe
procedure procedure
now now
follows h Lt
follows
that of
The calculation yields
eExample
10.3. For10.3. For Lm=with
L = 1.25 1.25wavy-laminar
m with wavy-laminar
flow, Eq.flow,
10.38Eq. q ¢ =appropriate
10.38
is the 299
is kW m correlation.
the appropriate
2 m!¢
correla
Red = 1372 yield: h L = 5199 W m × K
The calculation
ulation yields yields
q ¢ = 299 kW m ! ¢ = 0.125 kg s × m .
m
2 2
Red = 1372 Red the
Now = 1372 h L = 5199
heat and condensation rates W= unit
h Lper 5199 ×KW m
m width ×K
for L=1.25m:
q ¢ = 299 qkW¢ = 299
m kW m ! ¢ = 0.125
m m! ¢kg
= 0.125
s × m .kg s × m . <
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