CHAPTER 10: Liquids and Solids

BASIC QUESTIONS
Basic Question 1
10.1 Compare boiling points of given compounds T,G
Arrange the following molecules in increasing order of boiling point:
HF, HCl, HBr, HI. Explain your answer.
HCl, HBr, HI, HF
HF is the only one exhibiting H bonding. All the others are bonded by dipole-dipole. H-
bonds are stronger, so HF will have the highest boiling point. HCl is the smallest, HI is the
largest, London dispersion forces (LDF) depend on the number of electrons present in the
molecules. Since HI has the largest number of electrons it will have the strongest LDF. And
hence the second highest boiling point after HF and so on.

Basic Question 2
10.1 Identify the major intermolecular forces found in given species T, G
Identify the major intermolecular forces that exist in the following molecules:
HCl, NH3, CO2, CH4.
HCl : dipole-dipole
NH3 : H – bonding
CO2 : London dispersion
CH4 : London dispersion

Basic Question 3
Account for each of the following:
10.1 Explain the state of an element in terms of its intermolecular forces T
a) At 25oC and 1 atm, F2 is gas, whereas I2 is solid.
Both have the same type of intermolecular forces, namely LDF forces. LDF increase
in strength with the increase in the number of electrons and protons present. I2 is
larger and so has more electrons and protons. I2 has much stronger LDF making it a
solid whereas F2 is a gas.
 8.5 Explain the difference in melting point between ionic salts in terms of its lattice T
energy values
b) The melting point of MgO is greater than the melting point of CsCl
Lattice energy of MgO is greater than CsCl since both the anion and cation in MgO
carry twice the charges on anion and cation of CsCl. Hence, more energy is required
to break the MgO crystal than CsCl crystal, so MgO has a greater melting point.

10.1 Explain the difference in water solubility between compounds T

c) Ammonia, NH3, is very soluble in water, whereas phosphine, PH3 is only moderately
soluble in water.
Ammonia is able to H-bond with water so it is highly soluble.
Phosphine cannot H-bond, but is polar. Therefore, it will be slightly soluble.

10.1 Explain the difference in melting point between elements in terms of intermolecular T
forces
d) Si melts at a much higher temperature than I2.
Si forms a network solid like carbon. The large number of covalent bonds that must
be broken to liquefy the solid requires a very high temperature. In I2, there is LDF
forces which are relatively much weaker and hence can be broken at a much lower
temperature.

Basic Question 4
a) Draw a phase diagram for water. Identify on the diagram the following:
The solid, liquid and gas regions;
the solid – liquid, solid – gas, and liquid – gas equilibrium lines; the triple and
critical points.
b) How does the melting point of ice vary with the pressure?
a)

liquid 
solid 

gas

F
AD: solid – liquid equilibrium
AE: liquid – gas equilibrium
AF: solid – gas equilibrium
b) The melting point decreases as pressure increases, AD line has a negative slope.

Basic Question 5
Draw a phase diagram for CO2. How does the melting point of CO2 vary with the
pressure?

The melting point increases as pressure increases, the slope of equilibrium line between
solid and liquid is positive.

Basic Question 6
T

7.7 Identify type of atomic orbitals involved in bonding given the bond angle
(a) In the H2Se molecule, the H–Se–H bond angle is close to 90°. On the basis of this
information, which atomic orbitals of the Se atom are involved in bonding with the H
atoms?
The atomic orbitals involved in bonding with the H atoms in H2Se are p (specifically,
4p) orbitals. The three p orbitals are mutually perpendicular (i.e., at 90°) to one
another.

(b) Two types of intermolecular forces present in liquid H2Se are London (dispersion) forces
and dipole-dipole forces.

10.1 Compare the strength of intermolecular forces

(i) Compare the strength of the London (dispersion) forces in liquid H2Se to the
strength of the London (dispersion) forces in liquid H2O. Explain.
 The strength of the London forces in liquid H2Se is greater than that of the
London forces in liquid H2O. The electron cloud of H2Se has more electrons
and is thus more polarizable than the electron cloud of the H2O molecule.

(ii) Compare the strength of the dipole-dipole forces in liquid H2Se to the strength of
the dipole-dipole forces in liquid H2O. Explain.
The strength of the dipole-dipole forces in liquid H2Se is weaker than that of
the dipole-dipole forces in liquid H2O. The net dipole moment of the H2Se
molecule is less than that of the H2O molecule. This results from the lesser
polarity of the H–Se bond compared with that of the H–O bond (Se is less
electronegative than O).
OR
Dipole dipole forces in water, mainly H-bonds, are stronger since O-H bond
is more polar.

Basic Question 7
T

The compound pentane, C5H12, occurs in three isomeric forms, n-pentane, 2-methylbutane and
2,2-dimethylpropane.

Draw the structural formula of a given organic isomer

(a) Draw the structural formula of each of the isomers (include all atoms). Clearly label each
structure.
H H H H H

H - C – C – C – C – C –H n-pentane

H H H H H

H H H H

H-C–C–C–C–H 2-methylbutane

H H H

H–C–H

H
 H

H–C–H

H H

H–C–C–C–H 2,2-dimethylpropane

H H

H–C–H

10.1 Identify molecule with highest boiling point in a list

(b) On the basis of molecular structure, identify the isomer that has the highest boiling point.
Justify your answer.
The isomer n-pentane has the highest boiling point. In all isomers, the intermolecular
forces are London (dispersion) forces These are greatest in n-pentane because
molecules of n-pentane, with its linear structure, can approach one another more
closely and can form a greater number of induced temporary dipoles than the other
isomers which have more compact structure.

Basic Question 8
T

10.1 Explain the difference in water solubility between compounds T

(a) Structures of the 1-aminopropane molecule and the propane molecule are shown below.
1-aminopropane is soluble in water, whereas propane is not. Account for the difference in
solubility. You must discuss both of the substances in your answer.

1-aminopropane propane
1-aminopropane is polar (and capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water).
Propane is nonpolar. 1-aminopropane will dissolve in water because of the strong
hydrogen bonds (or dipole-dipole intermolecular interactions) that exist between the
lone pair of electrons on 1-aminopropane’s nitrogen atom and the solvent water
molecules. No such strong intermolecular interaction can exist between propane and
water, so propane is insoluble in water.
 10.1 Explain the difference in boiling points of compounds T
(b)
i. Structures of the diethyl ether molecule and the butanol molecule are shown below. The
normal boiling point of diethyl ether is 270 K, whereas the normal boiling point of ethanol
is 371 K. Account for the difference in boiling points. You must discuss both of the
substances in your answer.

diethyl ether butanol

The intermolecular forces of attraction among molecules of diethyl ether consist of

London (dispersion) forces and weak dipole-dipole interactions. In addition to
London forces and dipole-dipole interactions that are comparable in strength to those
in diethyl ether, butanol can form hydrogen bonds between the H of one molecule and
the O of a nearby butanol molecule. Hydrogen bonds are particularly strong
intermolecular forces, so they require more energy to overcome during the boiling
process. As a result, a higher temperature is needed to boil butanol than is needed to
boil diethyl ether.

ii. The normal boiling point of Br2 (l) (238 K) is higher than the normal boiling point of
HBr(l) (188 K). Account for the difference in normal boiling points based on the types of
intermolecular forces in the substances. You must discuss both of the substances in your
answer.
The intermolecular forces in liquid Br2 are London (dispersion) forces, whereas the
intermolecular forces in liquid HBr consist of London forces and dipole-dipole interactions.
Since the boiling point of Br2 is higher than the boiling point of HBr, the London forces
among Br2 molecules must be greater than the London and dipole-dipole forces among HBr
molecules. The greater strength of the London forces between Br2 molecules occurs because
Br2 has more electrons than HBr, and the strength of the London forces interaction is
proportional to the total number of electrons.

10.1 Explain the difference in melting points of compounds T

(c) CO2 melts at 181 K, whereas SiO2 melts at 1,883 K. Account for the difference in
melting points. You must discuss both of the substances in your answer.
In the solid phase, CO2 consists of discrete molecules with London (dispersion)
forces among the molecules. These forces are relatively weak and are easily
overcome at a relatively low temperature, consistent with the low melting point of
CO2.
In solid SiO2, a network of Si and O atoms, linked by strong covalent bonds, exists.
These covalent bonds are much stronger than typical intermolecular interactions, so
very high temperatures are needed to overcome the covalent bonds in SiO2. This is
consistent with the very high melting point for SiO2.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following accounts for the fact that liquid CO2 is not observed when a
piece of solid CO2 (dry ice) is placed on a lab bench?

[-A-] The phase diagram of CO2 has no triple point.

[-B-] The normal boiling point of CO2 is lower than its normal freezing point.
[-C-] CO2(g) is a molecular solid.
[-D-] The critical pressure for CO2 is approximately 1 atm.
[-E-] The triple point for CO2 is above 1 atm.

10.7 Describe the type of solid the named substance forms T

For questions 2 – 5, describe the type of solid the named substance forms.

2. NaCl

[-A-] Lattice of positive and negative ions held together by electrostatic forces
[-B-] Closely packed lattice with delocalized electrons throughout
[-C-] Strong single covalent bonds with weak intermolecular forces
[-D-] Strong multiple covalent bonds with weak intermolecular forces.
[-E-] Monoatomic molecules held together with strong polar bonds

3. Pb

[-A-] Lattice of positive and negative ions held together by electrostatic forces
[-B-] Closely packed lattice with delocalized electrons throughout
[-C-] Strong single covalent bonds with weak intermolecular forces
[-D-] Strong multiple covalent bonds with weak intermolecular forces.
[-E-] Monoatomic molecules held together with strong polar bonds

4. OS2

[-A-] Lattice of positive and negative ions held together by electrostatic forces
[-B-] Closely packed lattice with delocalized electrons throughout
[-C-] Strong single covalent bonds with weak intermolecular forces
[-D-] Strong multiple covalent bonds with weak intermolecular forces.
[-E-] Monoatomic molecules held together with strong polar bonds
5. CCl4

[-A-] Lattice of positive and negative ions held together by electrostatic forces
[-B-] Closely packed lattice with delocalized electrons throughout
[-C-] Strong single covalent bonds with weak intermolecular forces
[-D-] Strong multiple covalent bonds with weak intermolecular forces.
[-E-] Monoatomic molecules held together with strong polar bonds

6. Small samples of two unknown pure clear liquids are poured out on a lab bench. It is
observed that liquid B evaporates faster than liquid A. Therefore, which of the following
statements must be true?
I. Liquid A has a stronger intermolecular forces than liquid B
II. Liquid A has a greater molecular mass than liquid B.
III. Liquid A has a lower boiling point than liquid B.

[-A-] I only
[-B-] II only
[-C-] I and II only
[-D-] I and III only
[-E-] I, II and III

7. The best explanation for the fact that diamond is extremely hard is that diamond crystals

[-A-] are made up of atoms that are intrinsically hard because of their electronic structures.
[-B-] consists of positive and negative ions that are strongly attracted to each other.
[-C-] are giant molecules in which each atom forms strong covalent bonds with all of
its neighbouring atoms.
[-D-] are formed under extreme conditions of temperature and pressure.
[-E-] contain orbitals or bonds of delocalized electrons that belong not to single atoms but
to each crystal as a whole.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Section 10.1

1. Know what intramolecular forces are:

What are intramolecular forces? Bonds within a molecule.

2. Know what intermolecular forces are:

What are intermolecular forces? Bonds between molecules.

3. Know microscopic processes occurring when substances change state.

What happens on the microscopic level when a solid is melted then evaporated? Is its
chemical identity changed?
As a solid is melted, intermolecular forces are broken and the particles can move past
each other forming a liquid. When a liquid evaporates, all forces are broken, the
particles are free from each other. The chemical identity of the substance doesn’t
change.

4. Know the three types of Van der Waal forces

Name the three types of Van der Waal forces
London dispersion forces
Dipole-dipole forces
H-bonds

5. Know what dipole-dipole forces are and between what types of molecules do they act.
What are dipole-dipole forces? Between what type of molecules do they act?
Dipole-dipole forces exist when molecules with dipole moments can attract each other
electrostatically by lining up so that the positive and negative ends are close to each
other.
These forces act between polar molecules.

6. Know what hydrogen bonding is.

What is hydrogen bonding?
A force of attraction between an H atom covalently bonded to a F, O or N atom in one
molecule and the lone pairs on F, O or N atom in another molecule.

7. Identify molecules that exhibit H-bonding

Can H bonding occur in any of the following compounds :
CH4, NH3, CH3 – O – CH3, C2H5OH
In NH3, C2H5OH

8. Know effect of H bond on boiling point of liquids

How does the presence of H-bonds in water affect its boiling point compared to the other
Group (VI) hydrides?
H-bonds increase the boiling point of water compared to the other group (VI) hydrides.
9. Know what London dispersion forces are and between what type of molecules are they
most prominent.
What are London dispersion forces? Between what type of molecules are they most
prominent?
Force of attraction due to an instantaneous dipole that occurs accidentally in a given
atom that then induces a similar dipole in a neighboring atom.
These forces exist between noble gas atoms and between non-polar molecules.

10. Know that London dispersion force increase as the number of electrons increases
On what factor do London dispersion forces depend?
Number of electrons in atom or molecule and molecular shape.

11. Know that polarizability indicates the ease with which the electron cloud can be
distorted.
What is polarizability?
Polarizability indicates the ease with which an electron cloud can be distorted.

12. Know that polarizability depends on the charge and size of species
Which is more polarizable an iodide or a chloride ion?
Polarizability depends on size and charge of ions. The larger an anion and the greater
is its charge the more polarizable it is. I- and Cl- carry the same charge but I- is larger,
therefore, I- is more poalrizable.

13. Know that H-bonds are the strongest Van der waal forces while London dispersion
forces are the weakest.
Compare the strength of the various Van der Waal forces
H-bonds are the strongest Van der waal forces while London dispersion forces are the
weakest.

Section 10.4

14. Know the metallic bond model.

Describe metallic solids.
Metals are composed of cations arranged in a lattice surrounded by a “sea” of
delocoalized valence electrons.

15. Know that in metallic solids, valence electrons are delocalized.

Are the valence electrons localized or delocalized in a metallic solid?
Valence electrons are delocalized in a metallic solid.

16. Explain metallic properties in terms of delocalized electrons.

List and explain the properties of metals.
Metals:
 Have a silvery lustre, Valence shells of metals have few valence electrons
compared to valence orbitals. Electrons eaily absorb energy and jump to a
 higher energy orbital than its groound state. As they fall back to the lower
energy level, they emit light which is percieved as a silvery lustre.
 Conduct electricity and heat, the delocalised valence electrons are mobile. These
mobile electrons are free to travel throughout the metal crystal as dictated by
the potential imposed on the metal. They also account for the efficiency of the
conduction of heat through metals. When one end of a metal rod is heated, the
mobile elctrons can rapidly transmit the thermal energy to the other end.
 Are malleable and ductile, the metal ions can be easily moved as the metal is
hammered into a sheet or pulled into a wire since the atoms are dispersed in sea
of electrons with no directional bonding holding them together.

Section 10.5

17. Know that in a network solid, atoms are held together in a lattice of covalent bonds.
What is a network solid?
A network solid is an atomic solid containing strong directional covalent bonds.

18. Know that in a network solid, all electrons are localized.

Are electrons localized or delocalized in a network solid?
Electrons are localized in a network solid.

Section 10.8

19. Be able to define the enthalpy of vaporization.

What is the definition of the heat of vaporization?
Heat of vaporization is the energy required to vaporize one mole of a liquid at a
pressure of one atmosphere.

20. Know that the heat of vaporization depends on the type and strength of intermolecular
substances.
On what factor does the heat of vaporization depend?
The heat of vaporization depends on the type and strength of intermolecular forces.

21. Know that vapour pressure is the pressure of a vapour over the liquid at equilibrium.
Define Vapour pressure.
Vapour pressure is the pressure of the vapor over its liquid at equilibrium.

22. Know that vapour pressure is dependent on temperature and intermolecular forces.
On what factors does vapour pressure of a liquid depend?
Vapour pressure is dependent on temperature and intermolecular forces.

23. Know what sublimation means.

What is sublimation?
Sublimation is the process by which a substance goes directly from the solid to the
gaseous state without passing through the liquid state.
24. Know what a heating curve is.
What is a heating curve?
Heating curve is a plot of temperature versus time for a substance where energy is
added at a constant rate.

25. Be able to define the enthalpy of fusion.

Define enthalpy of fusion is?
Enthalpy of fusion is the enthalpy change that occurs to melt a solid at its melting point.

26. Know why the value of Hfus is significantly less than Hvap for same substance.
Explain why, for a given substance, the value of Hfus is significantly less than Hvap.
Fusion involves separating the particles small distances apart, not all intermolecular
forces are broken. Vaporization involves separating the particles infinite distances
apart, ALL intermolecular forces must be broken.

27. Be able to define the melting/boiling point of a substance.

How are the melting and boiling point of a substance defined?
Melting point is the constant temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid. This
occurs when the solid and liquid have identical vapor pressures.
Boiling point is the constant temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas at any point
in the liquid. This occurs when the liquid has a vapor pressures equal to the
atmospheric pressure.

28. Be able to define the normal melting/boiling point of a substance.

How are the normal melting and boiling point of a substance defined?
Norma melting point is the constant temperature at the solid and liquid have identical
vapor pressures under conditions where the total pressure is 1 atm.
Boiling point is the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is
exactly equal to 1 atm.

Section 10.9

29. Know what a phase diagram is.

What is a phase diagram?
A phase diagram is a convenient way of representing the phases of a substance as a
function of temperature and pressure.

30. Know what the triple point is.

Define triple point.
Triple point is the point on a phase diagram at which all three states of a substance are
present.

31. Know what the critical point is.

Define the critical point.
Critical point is the point on a phase diagram at which the temperature and pressure
have their critical value, it is the end point of the liquid-gas line.
32. Know what the critical pressure is.
Define the critical pressure.
Critical pressure is the min pressure required to produce liquefaction of a substance at
the critical temperature.

33. Be able to name the various phase changes.

Name the following phase changes:

To
From Solid Liquid Gas
Solid N/A Melting / Sublimation
fusion
Liquid Freezing N/A Boiling /
evaporation
Gas Deposition Condensation N/A

34. Know the significance of the negative slope of solid - liquid line in H2O phase diagram.
The slope of the s-l line of the phase diagram of water is negative. What effect does this have
on the variation of the freezing point of water with pressure? Why?
As the external pressure increases, freezing point decreases

35. Know how the boiling point varies external pressure.

How does the boiling point vary with surrounding pressure?
As the external pressure increases, boiling point increases