2012

International Symposium on Power Electronics,

Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion

Optimal Size Selection for Step-Up Transformers

for Wind Generation Plants
S. De Caroº, T. Scimoneº, A. Testaº, A. Yasin⃰
ºDCIIM, University of Messina, Italy, Viale Ferdinando Stagno D'Alcontres 31, – 98166 Messina,
⃰ n Najah National University, Faculty of Engineering, Energy Engineering Dept., P.O. Box 721, Nablus-Palestine
A

Abstract - This paper presents a general design The aim of this work is to develop a general
methodology to optimally select the ratings of step-up methodology to accomplish the selection of the optimal
transformers for grid connected Wind Turbine Generators
on the basis of the statistical distribution of the wind energy size of step-up transformers and power converters for
and the mathematical model of the plant. The methodology grid connected WTG plants, either directly delivering
exploits a probabilistic approach based on the evaluation of power to the utility network, either equipped with energy
the so called LPPP (Loss of Produced Power Probability)
storage systems. An approach has been developed to
index. The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and the Discount
Payback Period (PBP) can be computed from the results of estimate the probability that the transformer and the
the LPPP analysis and exploited to detect the most power converters are unable to deliver a part of the
advantageous solution. energy captured by wind turbines to the utility grid, due
to power losses and/or excess of generated power. Such
Index Terms — Wind Turbine Generators, Power
Generation, Transformers, Energy Storage.
an approach is based on an analysis of the LPPP (Loss of
Produced Power Probability) index [5, 6], that has been
derived from the well-known LPSP (Lost of Power
I. INTRODUCTION Supply Probability) technique used to design generation
plants operating in island mode [7, 8].
A step-up transformer is required to connect single Wind
Turbine Generators (WTGs), or arrays of WTGs, to the
medium voltage utility grid, in order to suitably boost the
inverter output voltage (380÷690 V) to the medium
voltage range (13.8÷46 kV), as shown in Fig. 1.
The step-up transformer is a key element when designing
a WTG power system, as it processes the whole
generated energy. However, not only the efficiency and
the cost of the transformer are of primary concern, but
also the influence of the transformer size on the amount
of energy delivered to the main grid. In fact, while a
transformer featuring a rated power close to the WTG
peak power makes theoretically possible to fully transfer
the captured wind energy to the utility network, in
practice this lead to an oversize of the transformer, the
power converters and the power lines. Moreover, a too
large transformer would operate for long times at a
reduced efficiency. On the other hand, a too small step-
up transformer would represent a bottleneck, preventing
an optimal exploitation of the wind energy [1].
Some forms of energy storage can be introduced in wind
farms to improve the power availability, also enabling
highly profitable functions, such as peak shaving, load
shifting, and power quality control. The selection of the
size of the step-up transformer becomes more complex
when considering plants with energy storage capabilities,
as the optimal solution must take also into account the
cost of the energy storage system, charge/discharge
power losses and their effects on the cost and efficiency
Fig. 1- Two possible Wind Farm configurations.
of the whole system [2-4].

978-1-4673-1301-8/12/$31.00 ©2012 IEEE

571
 II. THE PROPOSED APPROACH interval are obtained by composition of the power losses
of all the rectifiers and the inverters present in the plant:
The value of the LPPP index over a given observation
time T, gives an estimation of the amount of energy  
() =    () + 
  ()  (2)
converted by wind turbines into mechanical energy but
not delivered to the utility grid as electrical power. It takes Moreover, average transformer no load and copper losses
into account the energy lost due to the efficiency of the can be computed as:
mechanical gear, the power converter and the transformer,  () = 
+ ( ⁄ ) ∗  () (3)
as well as, the energy lost due to excesses of produced
power. It may also take into account the presence of an Where Pv are the no-load losses and Pc the rated copper
Energy Storage System (ESS) and limitations about the losses. Copper losses can be simply referred to an
power delivered to the utility network due to grid stability average operating temperature, or, more precisely,
reasons. computed from an estimated operating temperature
Once that the amount and the type of wind turbine is profile on the basis of the ambient temperature and the
stated, the LPPP index can be computed as a function of load. Cooling power and stray power losses can be also
the transformer rated power. A LPPP index analysis considered for a better accuracy.
enables a straightforward detection of the optimal If Pi(k) is less than 1.1Pn, the Loss of Produced Power
transformer rated power on the basis of statistic wind (LPP) is computed as:
speed diagrams.
() = [ () +  
() ]∆t (4)
Considering the case of variable speed wind generators,
the power converter equipping each WTG is composed Otherwise, LPP over the k-th interval is computed as:
by the cascade connection of a PWM rectifier and a
PWM inverter. AC generators could be PM synchronous () = [ () +  () +  
()]∆t (5)
machines (PMSG), wound rotor synchronous machines
The value of the LPPP index is then determined as
(WRSG) or induction machines (IG).
follows:
While some other different criteria can be considered, it
is assumed for simplicity that Pn, the rated power of the  = ∑ 
 LPP(k)⁄∑ P (k) (6)
single substation transformer serving the wind farm, or
the total power of the step-up transformers connecting A complete flowchart of the LPPP algorithm is sketched
each WTG to the utility grid, is equal to the sum of the in Fig. 2
rated power of all the inverters of the plant.
To accomplish the LPPP analysis over a given time
window T, the last is divided into N intervals 'T.
Typically, T is equal to one day and 'T is one hour long. Pi(k)>=1.1Pn
The analysis can be expanded over one year considering Yes NO
an average speed profile for each month, or considering
specific wind speed profiles for all the days of the year. Eq(5) Eq(4)
The total power generated by wind turbines during the k-
the time interval Pi(k) can be computed from daily wind
speed profiles trough mathematical models of the wind
K+1
turbines.
In this paper, two probabilistic approaches are designed
for sizing step up transformers. The first one is for
6
conventional wind farms and the other for wind farms Fig. 2- Flowchart of LPP algorithm without ESS
with ESS.
A. Conventional wind Farm The LPPP index is zero if, ideally, all the wind energy
Accounting for a maximum 110% overload of the power converted over a day by the WTGs is fully delivered to
converters and the transformers, if Pi(k) is greater than the utility grid.
110% of Pn, the excess power is lost as it cannot be The lost energy and the associated loss of profit can be
processed. The average lost power is computed as: evaluated as follows:

 () = [ () − 1.1 () ] (1)  = ∑!

" () (7)

#$ = ∑!
" # ()() (8)
Average power converters losses during the k-th time =

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Where Ce(k) is the energy selling price per kWh during P*,-/2344 (k) = [  
() + P529,-/.2344 (k)] (12)
the k-th interval. The selling price can be considered
constant, or variable according to the rules of the modern Where (:2 
.2$;; ) is the power lost by the
energy market. bidirectional converter serving the ESS and  
() is
The energy effectively delivered to the grid Egrid and the defined in Eq.(2). In this case, if Pi(k) is larger than 1.1Pn
proceeds from the sale of this energy can be computed and the state of charge (SOC) of the ESS is lower than
as: 100%, the excess energy is not lost, as it can be stored
% = ∑!
"[ ()∆& − ()] (9) into the ESS, taking into account the charge efficiency.
The state of charge of the ESS is then suitably increased
through a mathematical model of the specific ESS
#$ = ∑!
" # ()[ ()∆& − ()] (10) considered, and the LPP is computed as:

The Load Factor (LF) is a well known quality figure () =

defined as the ratio between the energy yearly produced
2 $;; ()]∆t (13)
by the plant and what would be ideally produced by
always operating the system at the rated power. It can be
computed from Egrid according to the following equation:
[ ()(1 − < ) +  () +  
Where Kc is the ESS charge efficiency. When the SOC
reaches its maximum value, the ESS cannot be charged
anymore and the LPP is then computed as in Eq. (5):
' = % ⁄( ∗ 8760) (11) However, if the excess power outreaches the ESS
maximum power PESSMAX the surplus power is anyway
B. Wind Farm with ESS lost. In this case the LPP is computed as:
A more complex procedure is adopted to determine the
LPPP index if an Energy Storage System is included in () = [ () − $;;>?@ + (1 − < )$;;>?@ +
the plant, as shown by the flowchart drawn in Fig. 3. + () +  
2 $;; ()] ∆& (14)

Total converter power losses are defined as:

If, in the last case, the SOC reaches its maximum

Fig. 3- Flowchart of the LPP algorithm with ESS

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value, the LPP must be computed as in Eq. (5). If Pi(k) is
lower than the transformer rated power, some energy can
be drawn from the ESS to keep the transformer at the
power Popt corresponding to the transformer maximum
efficiency working point. In this case, if the difference
between the optimal power Popt and Pi(k) is greater than
PESSMAX then the SOC of the ESS is decreased and the
LPP is computed as shown in eq. (15):

() = AB C −  ()D (1 − <E ) +  () +

+ 
2$;; ()F ∆& (15)

Fig. 5- Wind turbine output power vs. wind speed.

where Kd is the ESS discharge efficiency.
Differently, if the SOC has reached its minimum level,
then the LPP is computed using Eq. (5).
If Popt -Pi(k) is lower than PESSMAX the LPP is computed
using Eq. (15).
If Pi(k) is greater than Popt but lower than 1.1 Pn, all the
power is delivered to the utility network and LPP is
computed according to Eq. (5). If Pi(k) is lower than Pn
and the SOC is close to the minimum allowable value,
the LPP is computed according to Eq. (5).
A. Conventional wind farm
Results carried out from the application of the proposed
approach to the case of a conventional wind farm are shown
in Fig. 6.
The optimal size of the transformer results 3.6 MVA, this
solution features the highest IRR and the lowest PBP.

III. TRANSFORMER RATINGS SELECTION

An application of the proposed approach is here
presented, taking into account a 4.5MW wind farm.
According to the two plant configurations drawn in Fig.
1 the goal can be either the selection of the size of the
single transformer connecting the plant to the grid, or the
selection of the total rated power of the transformers
connecting each WTG to the utility grid, under the
hypothesis that the wind speed is the same for all the
turbines. Either the case of a conventional plant, either
the case of a plant equipped with an ESS are considered.
A typical daily wind speed profile on the site where the
plant it is supposed to be located is shown in Fig. 4.
Moreover, it is assumed that the wind turbine output
power Pi depends from the wind speed according to the
function drawn in Fig. 5.
Fig. 4- Daily wind speed profile.
Fig.6- LPPP, LF, IRR and PBP as function of Pn
The influence of the green energy selling price on the
selection of the step-up transformer can be also
investigated. Three different scenarios are considered,
assuming different energy selling prices. Namely: 0.3,
0.35 and 0.4 €/kWh. Optimum solutions are identified in
Fig.7, which correspond to the solutions granting the
highest IRR and the lowest PBP in the three cases.
Although economical indexes are significantly affected
by the price of the energy, the best value of profitability
indexes occur at the same rated power in the three cases.
The sensitivity of the optimal solution to wind data
profiles variations is also investigated. For this purpose,
two additional wind data sets have been obtained by
multiplication of original wind speed profiles by a
suitable variance factor, namely: 1.30 (30% variation in
excess) and 0.7 (30% variation in defect).
According to Fig. 8, wind data variations have
remarkable effects on the localization of the optimum
solution. In fact, the optimal rated power is respectively,

574
3.1MVA and 3.8 MVA when a 0.7 or a 1.3 multiplication
variance factor is used.
Fig. 7. Sensitivity to energy selling price.
All the economical indexes are strongly influenced by
variations in wind data as they directly affect the amount
of produced energy. Specifically, if the average wind
speed raises, the IRR improves.
The load factor is also remarkably affected by wind data
variations; as it is clear from Fig.8. As a result, LF at
optimum points is respectively 21.7%, 33.8% and 44.5% in
case of 0.7, 1 and 1.3 variance factors.
Fig. 8 . Sensitivity to wind speed profiles variation
B. Wind Farm with ESS
Although any energy storage technology can be
considered by the proposed approach, Vanadium Redox
Batteries (VRB) have been selected for the Wind Farm
under consideration. In a VRB-ESS the energy is
transferred to the electrolyte, rather than being stored
into the electrodes as in conventional batteries. As a
result, a VRB-ESS can be easily charged, discharged and
recharged over 10,000 times (from 20% to 80% of the
state of charge) with a high efficiency (65%÷ 75%),
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while ensuring a power availability greater than 98%.
Moreover, a VRB-ESS is easily scalable either in power,
either in storage capability, respectively acting on the
number of flow cells and the size of the electrolyte tanks.
If compared with lead-acid batteries, VRB show some
advantageous features, such as: compactness, shorter
charge times, an increased discharge depth, a longer
lifetime and lower maintenance costs. Moreover, VRB
systems are suitable to perform either short time
operations, such as compensation of load peaks and
voltage drops, either medium or long time operations, as
required by energy management strategies.
Economical indexes (IRR and PBP) featured by different
combinations of transformer size and ESS capacity are
shown in. Fig. 9. Three different ESS sizes are
considered, namely: 1500, 1000, 500 kWh. The
performance of the conventional plant is also plotted for
comparison.
The optimal size of the step up transformer in the four
cases is identified. As it is possible to observe, by
reducing the capacity of the ESS the optimal size of the step
up transformer increases. In fact, the optimal rated power of
the transformer at 1500, 1000, 500 kWh results 2.2, 2.5 and
3MVA, respectively.
Fig.9 -IRR and NPV vs. transformer ratings for different EES capacities
LPPP and Load factor featured by optimal solutions for
the different ESS capacities are shown in Fig. 10. As it is
possible to observe, increasing the capacity of the ESS
the LF improves. Moreover, the value of the LF
corresponding to the optimal size of the transformer is
around 40%, which is accord with the standard load
factor of wind power plants.
The influence of the energy selling price on step-up
transformer ratings, taking into account a 500kWh ESS,
is shown in Fig.11. Three different selling prices,
namely: 0.3, 0.35 and 0.4 €/kWh are considered.
The optimal solution in all the three cases is 3MVA.
Such as result agrees with that obtained in the case of a
wind farm without ESS.
Fig. 10- LPPP and LF vs. transformer ratings for different ESS sizes
Fig.11. . Sensitivity to energy selling price.
The above described procedure to analyze the sensitivity
of the optimal size of the step up transformer to wind
profiles variations has been exploited also in the present
case, assuming the presence of a 500 kWh ESS.
According to Fig. 12 wind data variations have a
significant effect on the optimal size of the step-up
transformer, as best solutions are 2.8, 3 and 3.7 MVA in
case of 0.7, 1 and 1.3 multiplication variance factors,
respectively.
Fig. 12. Sensitivity to wind speed profiles variation
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IV. CONCLUSION
A general methodology has been presented to detect the
optimal rated power for a single substation transformer
serving a wind farm, or the total power of the step-up
transformers connecting each WTG of a wind farm to the
utility grid.
Such a methodology is based on a probabilistic analysis
of some quality and economical indexes on the basis of
the statistical distribution of the wind energy and the
mathematical model of the plant. The considered plant
can feature a traditional structure without an energy
storage system, or can include a ESS to improve energy
production scheduling capabilities.
The proposed approach has been applied to the case of a
a 4.5MW grid connected wind farm with and without an
ESS. It has found that the optimal rating of the
transformer become lower with the introduction of an
ESS, while load factor is improved. Moreover, optimal
ratings are not sensible to the energy selling price but is
strongly affected by wind data variations.
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