STUDY MATERIALS

Name of the Department : Metallurgical Engineering

Semester : S6
Name of the Subject : PHYSICAL METALLURGY OF NON - FERROUS METALS & ALLOYS
Topic heading / Chapter name : Whole syllabus
Name of the faculty who prepared the Document : Tapas Kumar De ,
Lecturer in Metallurgical Engineering
Name of the institute : Engineering Institute For Junior Executives , Dalalpukur , Howrah
Mode of documents : PDF.
 PHYSICAL METALLURGY OF NON - FERROUS METALS & ALLOYS

Subject Code Course offered in Course 4 lecture contact Full Marks

MET / S 6 / T 4 / Part – III , 6TH. Duration periods 70
PMNFMA Semester 15 weeks ( @ 60 Minutes) per
week

OBJECTIVE
1. Gather knowledge about Non ferrous metals & alloys and its importance.
2. Gather knowledge about Copper & its Alloys .
3. Gather knowledge about Aluminum & its Alloys .
4. Gather knowledge about Babbitt Metal .

MODULAR DIVISION OF THE SYLLABUS

GROUP MODULE TOPIC CONTACT PERIODS

1 Introduction 10
A
2 Copper & its Alloys 20

B 3 Aluminum & its Alloys 20

4 Babbitt Metal 10
C

TOTAL PERIODS : 60
Reference Books : -

1. Engineering Physical Metallurgy - Y. Lakhtin .

2. Metallurgy for Engineers -- E. C. Rollason
3. Metal News --- The Indian. Institute of Metals .
4. Introduction to physical metallurgy -- Avner
EXAMINATION SCHEME

Objective Question Subjective Question

No of No of
Group Chapter No. of Marks No. of Marks
questions Total questions Total
questions for each questions for each
to be Marks to be marks
to be set question to be set questions
answered answered
A 1,2. 9 8 1 8 5 4 5 20
B 3 8 7 1 7 5 4 5 20
C 4 6 5 1 5 3 2 5 10
20 50
( PAGE - 1 )
 DETAIL COURSE CONTENT

1. Introduction

1.1 Review and listing of Important commercial applications of Non ferrous metals & alloys .
1.2 Review of industries associated with Non ferrous metals & alloys , their product and market .

2.0 Copper & its Alloys

2.1 Properties of pure Copper , pure Zinc , pure Tin .

22 Equilibrium diagrams of Cu – Zn binary system & discussion on its different phase .
2.3 Composition, properties, microstructure and uses of important industrial Cu – Zn alloys .
2.4 Equilibrium diagrams of Cu – Sn binary system & discussion on its different phase
2.5 Composition, properties, microstructure and uses of important industrial Cu – Sn alloys .
2.6 Heat treatment of important copper base alloys .
2.7 Effect of adding other alloying element with Cu – Zn & Cu – Sn alloys.

3.0 Aluminum & its Alloys

3.1 Properties of pure Aluminum , pure Silicon .

3.2 Equilibrium diagrams of Al – Cu binary system & discussion on its different phase
3.3 Composition, properties, microstructure and uses of important industrial Al – Cu alloys .
3.4 Heat treatment of important Al – Cu alloys .
3.5 Precipitation hardening phenomenon of Al - Cu alloys .
3.6 Equilibrium diagrams of Al – Si binary system & discussion on its different phase .
3.7 Composition, properties, microstructure and uses of important industrial Al – Si alloys .
3.8 Heat treatment & modification of important Al – Si alloys .

4.0 Babbitt Metal

4.1 Composition , microstructure and application of Tin base – Antimony – Copper Babbitt metal .
4.2 Composition , microstructure and application of Lead base – Antimony – Tin Babbitt metal .

===============xx===============

( PAGE - 2 )
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Review and listing of Important commercial applications of Non - ferrous metals & alloys .

Non-ferrous materials have specific advantages over ferrous materials. Non-ferrous metals include metals like
aluminium, copper, zinc and lead that find application in many industrial and infrastructural uses like real
estate, automotive, defence, rail, power etc.

1. They can be fabricated with ease .

2. Relatively low density .
3. High electrical and thermal conductivities.

Aluminium alloys :

1. These are characterized by low density .

2. High thermal & electrical conductivities .
3. Good corrosion resistant characteristics.
4. As Al has FCC crystal structure, these alloys are ductile even at low temperatures and can be formed
easily.
5. However, the great limitation of these alloys is their low melting point (660 C), which restricts their use at
elevated temperatures.
6. Strength of these alloys can be increased by both cold and heat treatment – based on these alloys are
designated in to two groups, cast and wrought.
7. Chief alloying elements include: Cu, Si, Mn, Mg, Zn. Recently, alloys of Al and other low-density metals
Like Li, Mg, Ti gained much attention as there is much concern about vehicle weight reduction. Al-Li alloys
enjoy much more attention especially as they are very useful in aircraft and aerospace industries.
8. Common applications of Al alloys include: beverage cans, automotive parts, bus bodies, aircraft structures,
etc.
9. Some of the Al alloys are capable of strengthening by precipitation, while others have to be strengthened
by cold work or solid solution methods.

Copper alloys :

1. Melting point : 1083°C , Crystal structure : face centered cubic ;

2. Corrosion resistance : Very good , High electrical conductivity, High thermal conductivity.
Good machinability, Good strength, Ease of fabrication , Non-magnetic .
3. Pure copper is red , Zinc additions produce a yellow colour , Nickel addition produce a silver colour .
4. Can be welded, soldered, brazed easily .
5. Unalloyed Cu is soft, ductile thus hard to machine, and has virtually unlimited capacity for cold work.
6. Most of these alloys are strengthened by either cold work or solid solution method.
7. Common most Cu alloys: Brass, alloys of Cu and Zn where Zn is substitutional addition (e.g.: yellow
brass, catridge brass, muntz metal, gilding metal);
8. Bronze, alloys of Cu and other alloying additions like Sn, Al, Si and Ni. Bronzes are stronger and more
corrosion resistant than brasses.
9. Beryllium – copper alloys , who possess combination of relatively high strength, excellent electrical
and corrosion properties, wear resistance, can be cast, hot worked and cold worked.
10. Copper and its alloys are commonly used in heat exchangers, pumps, valves, and condensers,
costume jewelry, coins , musical instruments, electronics, springs, bushes, surgical and dental
instruments, radiators, etc.

( PAGE - 3 )
COPPER BRASS BRONZE

Magnesium alloys:

1. The most sticking property of Mg is its low density among all structural metals.
2. Mg has HCP structure, thus Mg alloys are difficult to form at room temperatures. Hence Mg alloys are
usually fabricated by casting or hot working.
3. As in case of Al, alloys of Mg are cast or wrought type, and some of them are heat treatable. Major alloying
additions are: Al, Zn, Mn and rare earths.
4. Common applications of Mg alloys include : hand - held devices like saws, tools, automotive parts like
steering wheels, seat frames, electronics like casing for laptops, camcoders, cell phones etc .

Titanium alloys:

1. Ti and its alloys are of relatively low density, high strength and have very high melting point.
2. They are easy to machine and forge.
3. However the major limitation is Ti is its chemical reactivity at high temperatures, which necessitated special
techniques to extract. Thus these alloys are expensive.
4. They also possess excellent corrosion resistance in diverse atmospheres, and wear properties. Common
applications include : space vehicles, airplane structures, surgical implants, and petroleum & chemical
industries.

Refractory metals :

1. These are metals of very high melting points. For example: Nb, Mo, W and Ta.
2. They also possess high strength and high elastic modulus.
3. Common applications include: space vehicles, x-ray tubes, welding electrodes, and where there is a need
for corrosion resistance.

Noble metals:

1. These are eight all together: Ag, Au, Pt, Pa, Rh, Ru, Ir and Os.
2. All these possess some common properties such as : expensive, soft and ductile, oxidation resistant.
3. Ag, Au and Pt are used extensively in jewelry, alloys of Ag and Au are employed as dental restoration
materials; Pt is used in chemical reactions as a catalyst and in thermo couples.

1.2 Review of industries associated with Non ferrous metals & alloys , their product and market .

Hindalco Industries Ltd : Hindalco Industries was founded in the year 1958, headquartered in Mumbai,
Maharashtra. It is offering aluminum and copper product. Hindalco is aluminum manufacturing company and a
subsidiary of Aditya Birla Group. Its different businesses are aluminum, copper, cargo handling, chemical,
fertilizers, acid etc.

( PAGE - 4 )
Hindustan Zinc Ltd : Hindustan Zinc Limited (HZL) is an integrated mining and resources producer
of zinc, lead, silver and cadmium. It is subsidiary of Vedanta Resources . Its products are zinc, lead, silver,
cadmium. Hindustan Zinc Limited was incorporated from the erstwhile Metal Corporation of India on 1966 as a
Public Sector Undertaking.

National Aluminium Company Ltd : NALCO was founded in the year 1981. It was incorporated as a public
sector enterprise of the Ministry of Mines, Government of India. It is offering a wide range of products
including Aluminium Metal, Alumina & Hydrate, Rolled Product and Power .

Hindustan Copper Ltd : Hindustan Copper Ltd was founded in the year 1967. It’s headquartered in Kolkata,
India. It is is a Government-owned corporation in the Central Public Sector Enterprise under the Ministry of
Mines (India), Government of India. It is only vertically integrated copper producer in India engaged in a wide
spectrum of activities ranging from Mining, Smelting, Beneficiation, Refining and Continuous Cast Rod
manufacturer. It produces gold, silver, nickel selenium, tellurium, sulphate and fertilizer as by products.

Precision Wires India Ltd : Founded in 1989 by Atlas Wires Ltd. (Atlas) and Mahendra Mehta & family, PWIL
was later merged with Atlas in 2001 and has been amongst the most successful companies in the wire
industry in India. It offers wide range of products including : Enamelled Round Winding Wires , Enamelled
Rectangular Winding Wires , Continuously Transposed Conductor , Paper Insulated Copper Conductor.

Ram Ratna Wires Ltd : They offer wide range of products like Building Wires ; Control Cables ; Data Cables ,
Instrumentation Cables , Auto Cables , Power Cables , Single Cores , Drag Chain and Servo Cables ,
Appliance Wiring Material , Silicon Cable , Fire Resistance Cable , Application Based Cables .

Arcotech Ltd : The company was promoted in the year 1981 and producing all Non-Ferrous alloys including
Bronze, Copper, Brass, Nickel Brass, Silver Bearing Copper, Tin Bearing Copper etc.

Gravita India Ltd : Gravita India Ltd is one of the largest lead producer in India established in the year 1992
at Jaipur. Its products are lead, aluminum and plastic.

Nile Ltd : The company is involved into manufacturing of Lead Alloys and Pure Lead. The company is
delivering quality products. Its products are Pure Lead, Lead Antimony Alloys, Lead Selenium Alloys, Lead
Calcium Alloy and Lead Tin Alloys,

Hind Aluminium Industries Ltd : They are manufacturing Alloy Wire Rods, EC Wire Rods, Flipped Wire
Rods, Aluminum Conductors, Wind Power and Solar Power.

Market :

1. Indian demand for non-ferrous metals is expected to grow at 8 per cent between 2016 and 2021, in line with
strong economic prospects .

2. The performance of the non-ferrous metals industry in India has “far outpaced” the global trend owing to its
huge raw material reserves, wide demand base and relatively low cost of production.

3. The downstream products like copper wire and aluminium foils are still dominated by imports as the
downstream industry is relatively undeveloped in India.
( PAGE - 5 )
4. India has seen a strong growth in the recycling industry. Over time the share of recycled metals has
increased considerably and is now almost equivalent to the global level . However it conceded that
legislatory intervention is required to contain the level of scrap imports that still dominate the sphere.

5. China influenced the global demand, pricing and profitability of non-ferrous metals .

6. The demand for non-ferrous metals grew at a steady pace with a CAGR [ Compound annual growth rate is
a business and investing specific term for the geometric progression ratio that provides a constant rate of
return over the time period ] of 2.8 per cent during 2013 to 2016 in line with global GDP growth of 3.4 per
cent during the same period.

7. China, with its sheer population as well as advancement of manufacturing , is the largest consumer of non-
ferrous metals and majorly influences the dynamics of the industry. The recent slowdown in China has
significantly impacted the global industry in terms of demand and supply, trade, prices and profitability.

8. The country accounts for 52 per cent of the global aluminium consumption. In Asia, consumption showed a
declining trend in Japan but was compensated by a higher demand from India and the middle east . North
America has also firmed up since the global financial crisis. Prices recovered because of supply cuts in
China and healthy demand growth.

9. In case of copper, world refined consumption grew at a CAGR of 3 per cent from 2012 to 2016 driven
mainly by increasing consumption in China.

10. Consumption of zinc, which is the fourth most widely used metal in the world also grew at a CAGR of 3
per cent during 2012 to 2016. China which contributes to 47 per cent of the global zinc consumption,
along with India, lent to the majority of the demand due to the respective governments’ efforts to boost
investment in real estate and infrastructure.

11. Subsequent pick up in manufacturing activity in China helped in a healthy growth in galvanised steel
production , the single largest consumer sector of zinc.

2.0 Copper & its Alloys

2.1 Properties of pure Copper , pure Zinc , pure Tin .

Properties Pure Copper :

 Melting point : 1083°C
 Crystal structure : Face Centered Cubic .
 Density : 8.93 x 103 kg/m3
 Young's modulus,E : 122.5 GPa
 Tensile strength : 220 MPa
 Electrical resistivity : 1.67 x 10 - 8 Ω m at 20°C
 Corrosion resistance : Very goodHigh electrical conductivity, High thermal conductivity, Good
corrosion resistance, Good machinability, Good strength, Ease of fabrication , Non-magnetic .
 Pure copper is red , Zinc additions produce a yellow colour , Nickel addition produce a silver colour .
 Can be welded, soldered, brazed , easily finished by plating or lacquering
 Applications of Pure copper for Sheet, for architectural cladding , Tubes, for heat exchangers and
domestic installations , Cables , wires , electrical windings , electrical contacts , electrical conductors .
( PAGE - 6 )
  99.9% Cu. and 0.02 to 0.05% oxygen combined with copper as the compound cuprous oxide (Cu2O ) .
 This is called electrolytic tough - pitch copper (ETP) or. Oxygen - free high conductivity copper
(OFHC) .

As cast, copper oxide and copper form an interdendritic eutectic mixture (Fig.1).

After working and annealing, the interdendritic network is destroyed and the strength in improved (Fig.2).
( Fig.1 ) ( Fig. 2 )

Fig.1 Copper - copper oxide eutectic in cast tough - pitch copper. Lightly etched with sodium dichromate
Fig.2: Particles of copper oxide (black spots) in wrought tough-pitch copper. Lightly etched in ammonium
hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide

Properties Pure Zinc :

 Crystal structure is HCP
 density – 7.13 g / cm³;
 color – bluish-white;
 zinc is a low-melting metal, with a melting point of 420 °C;
 the elasticity and malleability of the metal increases when it is heated to 100 °C;
 when heated to 200 °C, zinc loses its elasticity and turns to a gray powder;
 Zn has a high heat capacity and heat conductivity;
 Zinc is a weak metal with less than half the tensile strength of mild carbon steel. It is generally not
used in load-bearing applications, although inexpensive mechanical parts can be die cast from
zinc.
 Pure zinc has low toughness and is generally brittle, but zinc alloys generally have high impact
strength compared to other die casting alloys.
 Between 212 and 302 degrees Fahrenheit, zinc becomes ductile and malleable, but at elevated
temperatures, it reverts to a brittle state. Zinc alloys greatly improve on this property over the
pure metal, allowing more complex fabrication methods to be used.
 Zinc’s conductivity is moderate for a metal. Its strong electrochemical properties, however, serve
well in alkaline batteries and during the galvanizing process.

Microstructure of pure Zinc , 100X , etchant 10 grams NaOH in 100 ml D.I.water for 5 seconds

( PAGE - 7 )
Properties of Pure Tin :

 Atomic Symbol: Sn
 Atomic Number: 50
 Density: 7.365g/cm3
 Melting Point: 231.9°C (449.5°F)
 Boiling Point: 2602°C (4716°F)
 Mohr's Hardness: 1.5
 Tin is a soft, malleable, ductile and highly crystalline silvery-white metal. When a bar of tin is bent, a
crackling sound known as the "tin cry" can be heard from the twinning of the crystals. Being so soft, tin is
rarely used as a pure metal; instead, it is combined with other metals in order to make alloys that possess
tin's numerous beneficial properties. These include a low toxicity level and a high resistance to corrosion.
 β-tin (the metallic form, or white tin, BCT structure), which is stable at and above room temperature, is
malleable. In contrast, α-tin (nonmetallic form, or gray tin), which is stable below 13.2 °C , is brittle. α-tin
has a diamond cubic crystal structure, similar to diamond, silicon or germanium. α-tin has no metallic
properties at all because its atoms form a covalent structure in which electrons cannot move freely. It is a
dull-gray powdery material with no common uses other than a few specialized semiconductor applications.
These two allotropes, α-tin and β-tin, are more commonly known as gray tin and white tin, respectively.
 Although the α-β transformation temperature is nominally 13.2 °C (55.8 °F), impurities (e.g. Al, Zn, etc.)
lower the transition temperature well below 0 °C (32 °F) and, on the addition of antimony or bismuth, the
transformation might not occur at all, increasing the durability of the tin.

Pure tin, 100X, 2% nital etchant for 2 seconds

( PAGE - 8 )
 22 Equilibrium diagrams of Cu – Zn binary system & discussion on its different phase .

Copper - zinc phase diagram

 Equilibrium diagram of Cu – Zn system shows that , the region of α - solid solution is quite wide , extending
from 0 to 39 % Zn . With larger amount of Zn , a second solid solution β is observed . Two forms of this solid
solutions are recognized , namely β exist above 454°C and β ’ ( Beta prime ) exist below 454°C .

 In alloys containing above 39 % to 46 % Zn , α and β ′ co- exist at normal temp after slow cooling .

 With more than 50 % Zn another solid solution γ is found .

( PAGE - 9 )
 The tensile strength and ductility of Cu – Zn alloys increases with increasing amount of Zn up to about 38 %.

 With appearance of β solid solution , the strength continues to increase , but the ductility begins to decrease.

 The β and γ are not as ductile as of α solid solution . If the structure of the alloy contains an appreciable
amount of γ phase , the alloy will be quite brittle and of little engineering value .

 Hence those alloy , which contain only α – solid solution , can be easily hot or cold worked . Whereas those
alloys that contain both α and β phase , will not with stand heavy cold working and therefore must be formed
while hot .

 Alloys that contain mostly β solid solution can be hot rolled , forged or extruded easily .

 When γ solid solution is present , both cold and hot working are difficult . Such alloys are only use in the form
of castings.

2.3 Composition, properties, microstructure and uses of important industrial Cu – Zn alloys .

Designations system for copper - base alloys :

Wrought alloys :

100xx - 159xx. : Commercially pure Cu

160xx - 199xx. : Nearly pure Cu but age hardenable due to Cd, Be or Cr
2xxxx : Cu-Zn (brass)
3xxxx : Cu-Zn-Pb (leaded brass)
4xxxx Cu-Zn-Sn (tin bronze)
5xxxx Cu-Sn and Cu-Sn-Pb (phosphor bronze)
6xxxx Cu-Al (aluminium bronze)
7xxxx. Cu-Ni (cupronickel), Cu-Ni-Zn (nickel silver)

Cast alloys :

800xx - 811xx : Commercially pure Cu

813xx - 828xx : 95-99% Cu
833xx -899xx. : Cu-Zn alloys containing Sn, Pb, Mn, or Si
9xxxx. : Other copper alloys, including tin bronze, aluminium bronze, cupronickel and nickel silver.

Brasses - alloys of Copper and Zinc :

 Zinc is cheaper than copper, so brasses are more economical than pure copper.
 Brasses are widely used in a variety of applications .
 Where electrical conductivity is important, pure Cu is used.
 α - brasses - alloys containing up to 36% zinc :
 Yellow α - brasses : 20 to 36% zinc.
 Red brasses : 5 to 20% zinc .

( PAGE - 10 )
Yellow α - Brasses

 Contain 20 to 36% zinc .

 Good strength & high ductility.
Common practice : Stress relief anneal after cold working to prevent season cracking/stress corrosion
cracking.
 This is because of high residual stresses left in the brass as a result of cold working.

Micrograph of cold worked and annealed deoxidized copper. Some of the equi-axed crystals show pronounced
annealing twins.

 α - Brass and other α - phase copper alloys have a similar microstructure .

 Yellow α - brasses are also subject to a pitting corrosion, called Dezincification. When brass is in contact
with sea water or fresh waters that have a high content of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

 Dezincification : Dissolution of the alloy and a subsequent deposition of porous non-adherent copper.
Action of this kind, unless stopped , will eventually penetrate the cross section of the metal and lead to
leakage through the porous copper layer. Small amounts of tin/antimony minimize dezincification in yellow
brasses.

Stress-corrosion cracking in a brass (cartridge brass)

 Most widely used yellow α - brasses : Cartridge brass, 70 Cu - 30 Zn , Used for the manufacture of
cartridge, shell cases , radiators, lamp fixtures, locks, hinges, bullet casing because of its high ductility .

( PAGE - 11 )
 lamp fixtures Bullet Casings radiators locks

Red Brasses :

 Contain between 5 and 20% zinc

 Better corrosion resistance than yellow brasses
 Not susceptible to season cracking or dezincification .
 For example, Gilding metal —> 95 % Cu + 5 % Zn --> used for coins, medals tokens, emblems.
 Commercial bronze —> 90 Cu + 10 Zn --> costume jewelry, lipstick cases, marine hardware,screws,
rivets
 Red brass —> 85 Cu + 15 Zn --> electrical circuit, sockets, heat exchanger tubes .
 Low brass —> 80 Cu - 20 Zn - -> ornamental metal work, thermostat bellows, musical instruments.

Bellows Thermostats: The bellows thermostat was one of the earliest devices for regulating the temperature of
an internal combustion engine.

α + β brasses :

 Contain from 54 to 62% copper, remaining zinc .

 These alloys consist of two phases α and β1
 β1 is harder and more brittle at room temperature than α . That's why, these alloys are more difficult to
cold-work than the α brasses .
 At elevated temperatures, the β phase becomes very plastic , Therefore, heat-treat into the single phase
Β – region , then they have excellent hot-working properties.
 Most widely used α+ β1 : Muntz metal (60 Cu - 40 Zn, ) .
 High strength & excellent hot-working properties.
 Applications : architechtural, large nuts and bolts, condenser tubing .

( PAGE - 12 )
 Architechtural Nuts and Bolts Condenser Tubing

Cast structure of Muntz Metal shows dendrites of alpha (dark) in a matrix of beta (white) ,
Etched in ammonium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide

 If we add 0.40 to 0.80% Pb to Muntz metal, machinability will be improved .

 Naval Brass : also known as "tobin bronze" 60 Cu - 39.25 Zn - 0.75 Sn , which is : High resistance to salt-
water corrosion .

 Uses : Condenser plate, welding rod, piston rods, propeller shafts, valve stems.

 Typical Applications : For the manufacture of ships' screws and marine fittings , brazing alloys.

 No commercial alloys are made containing more than 50% zinc, as above this value, the presence of y
phase in the structure would embrittle the alloy.

( PAGE - 13 )
2.4 Equilibrium diagrams of Cu – Sn binary system & discussion on its different phase

 Equilibrium diagram of Cu – Sn system shows that , it has a more limited region of homogenious solid
solution than Cu – Zn system .

 Those alloys containing up to 8 % Sn , are readily cold workable , used for sheets , wire , coins .

 Alloys containing above 8 % to 12 % Sn are resistance to sea water mainly used for gears , machine
parts , bearings , marine fittings .

 Alloys containing above 12 % to 20 % Sn are used for bearings .

 Alloys containing above 20 % to 25 % Sn are used for bells . It is very hard and brittle , mostly used in
cast condition .

2.5 Composition, properties, microstructure and uses of important industrial Cu – Sn alloys .

 Tin Bronze : Called as phosphor bronzes because phosphorus is always present as a deoxidizer in
casting . Tin contains between 1 and 11% . Phosphorus between 0.01 and 0.5% . Properties : High
strength. toughness, high corrosion resistance, low coefficient of friction , freedom from season cracking
Applications : Diaphragms, bellows, lock washers, cotton pins, bushings, clutch disks, springs.

 Silicon Bronzes : Commercial silicon bronzes, generally contain < 5% Si are single phase alloys . So
these alloys are not hardenable by heat treatment. Properties : Silicon bronzes are the strongest of the
work-hardenable copper alloys. Mechanical properties comparable to those of mild steel & corrosion
resistance is comparable to that of copper. Applications : Tanks, pressure vessels, marine construction,
hydraulic pressure lines .

 Aluminum Bronzes : Most commercial aluminium bronzes —> contain 4 to 11% AI .

( PAGE - 14 )
 Single phase Al – bronzes : Properties : 1. Good cold working properties ; 2. Good strength combined
with corrosion resistance to atmospheric and water attack . Uses : Condenser tubes, corrosion-resistant
vessels, nuts, bolts, for protecting sheathing in marine applications.

 Two-phase Al-bronzes : 1. They can be heat-treated to obtain structures similar to those in steel. 2. Cold-
working properties are not good . 3. α + β Al - bronzes are quench hardenable . Water quenched from
815 - 870°C and Tempered at 370 - 590°C to increase strength and hardness . 4. 10.7% Al bronze
quenched ( β ) —> martensite β . On furnace cooling from above the eutectoid temperature, β will
transform to a lamellar structure resembling pearlite in steel. Uses : gears. propeller hubs, blades. pump
parts , bearings. Bushings , nonsparking tools , drawing and forming dies.

 Cupro - nickels : Copper - nickel equilibrium diagram shows : It shows complete solubility ( both at liquid &
solid states) , That is why, all cupronickels are single - phase alloys . They are not heat-treatable. Their
properties change only by cold working. Properties : (1) High resistance to corrosion fatigue (2) High
resistance to corrosive & erosive action of rapidly moving sea water. Uses : Condenser, distiller,
evaporator .

 Nickel Silvers : Essentially ternary alloys of copper (50 - 70%) nickel (5-30%) zinc (5 - 40%) . Properties :
Excellent base metals for plating with chromium, nickel or silver. Uses : Rivets, screws, zippers, costume
jewelry, nameplates .

 Important etchants for coppers. brasses, bronzes , nickel silver , aluminum bronze .
1. 20 ml NH4OH, 0 - 20 ml H2O, 8- 20 ml H202 . Immersion or swabbing 1 minute.
2. Cr03 (saturated aqueous solution) . Immersion or swabbing .
3. 10 g (NH4)2 S208 and 90 ml H2O ; Immersion : use cold or boiling.
4. 5 g FeCl3, 100 ml ethanol, 5-30 ml Hcl ; Immersion or swabbing for 1 second to several minutes.
5. 5 Parts HNO3, 5 parts acetic acid, 1 part H3PO4 , Immersion .
6. Equal parts of NH4CI and H2O . Immersion .

2.6 Heat treatment of important copper base alloys .

Different combinations of properties can be produced by varying the heat treatment of copper and its alloys-
influencing strength, hardness, ductility, conductivity, impact resistance, and inelasticity.

Common heat treatments applied to copper and its alloys are:

 Homogenizing to reduce chemical segregation and coring of cast structures, and create a more
uniform structure in hot worked materials .
 Annealing to soften work hardened (strain-hardened) materials .
 Stress relief to stabilize properties and improve strength and dimensions particularly for cold worked
parts, and to reduce residual stress .
 Solution treating and precipitation (age) hardening to provide increased strength by precipitation of
constituents from solid solution .
 Quenching hardening by a martensitic-like transformation followed by tempering .

( PAGE - 15 )
 Homogenizing : Homogenizing is applied to dissolve and absorb segregation and coring found in some
cast and hot worked materials, chiefly those containing tin and nickel. Diffusion and homogenization are
slower and more difficult in tin bronzes, silicon bronzes and copper nickels than in most other copper alloys.
Therefore, these alloys usually are subjected to prolonged homogenizing treatments before hot or cold
working operations. The high - tin phosphor bronzes ( above 8% Sn ) are noted for extreme segregation.
Although these alloys sometimes are hot worked, usual practice is to roll them cold, making it necessary to
first diffuse the brittle segregated tin phase, thereby increasing strength and ductility and decreasing
Generally, two annealed tempers are available: light anneal, which is performed at a temperature slightly
above the recrystallization temperature, and soft anneal, which is performed several hundred degrees
higher, at a temperature just below the point at which rapid grain growth begins. When annealing copper that
contains oxygen, the hydrogen in the atmosphere must be kept to a minimum to avoid embrittlement. For
temperatures lower than about 480oC, hydrogen preferably should not exceed 1%.These objectives are
accomplished by homogenizing at about 760oC.
 Annealing : Softening or annealing of cold worked metal is accomplished by heating to a temperature
that causes recrystallization and, if maximum softening is desired, by heating well above the recrystallization
temperature to cause grain growth.
 Stress Relieving : Stress relieving is aimed to reduce or eliminate residual stress, thereby reducing the
likelihood that the part will fail by cracking or corrosion fatigue in service. Parts are stress-relieved at
temperatures below the normal annealing range that do not cause recrystallization and consequent
softening of the metal. An additional benefit of a thermal stress relieving is dimensional stability of cold-
formed parts. Also, it is often advisable to stress relieve welded or cold formed structures. For these
structures, stress-relieving temperature is 85 to 110oC above that used for mill products of the same alloy.
 Precipitation Hardening : High strength in most copper alloys is achieved by cold working. Solution
treating and precipitation hardening is applied to strengthen special types of copper alloys above the levels
ordinarily obtained by cold working. Examples of precipitation hardening copper alloys include the beryllium
coppers, some of which also contain nickel, cobalt or chromium; the copper-chromium alloys; the copper-
zirconium alloys; the copper-nickel-silicon alloys and the copper-nickel-phosphorus alloys. All precipitation-
hardening copper alloys have similar metallurgical characteristics: they can be solution treated to a soft
condition by quenching from a high temperature, and then subsequently precipitation hardened by aging at
a moderate temperature for a time usually not exceeding 3 h. The main advantages of these alloys are:

 Customer fabrication is easily performed in the soft, solution-annealed condition.

 The precipitation-hardening heat treatment performed by the fabricator is relatively simple. It is carried
out at moderate temperatures, usually in air. Controlled cooling is not needed, and time of treatment is
not of critical importance.
 Different combinations of properties - including strength, hardness, ductility, conductivity, impact
resistance and inelasticity - can be obtained by varying hardening times and temperatures. The
particular requirements of the application determine the type of hardening treatment.

 Spinodal Hardening : Hardening results from a miscibility difference in the solid solution resulting in ultra
fine chemical segregation of the alpha crystalline phase. Thus spinodal alloys exhibit excellent dimensional
stability after hardening. Common spinodal hardening alloys include copper-nickel alloys with additions of
chromium or tin.

 Order Hardening : When short range ordering of dissolved alloying elements occurs within the copper
matrix, the alloys are called order hardening. These alloys nearly saturated with an alloying element dissolved
in the alpha phase after significant cold working under respond by ordering when annealed at relatively low
temperatures. Order hardening alloys typically exhibit improved stress relaxation, and the process is usually
( PAGE - 16 )
performed after the final fabrication step. Examples of order hardening alloys include some silicon and
aluminum bronzes with silicon and copper-zinc-aluminum-cobalt alloys.

 Transformation Hardening : Transformation hardening mechanisms resulting from quenching at high

temperatures induces internal changes producing harder, stronger phases. Tempering such structures
improves toughness and reduces hardness in a similar manner to that of alloy steels. Quench hardening alloys
include aluminum bronzes, nickel - aluminum bronzes, and a few copper zinc alloys.

2.7 Effect of adding other alloying element with Cu – Zn & Cu – Sn alloys.

 Strength : Solid solution strengthening of copper is a common procedure. Small amounts of an
alloying element added to molten copper will completely dissolve and form a homogeneous
microstructure (a single phase). At some point, additional amounts of the alloying element will not
dissolve; the exact amount is dependent on the solid solubility of the particular element in copper. When
that solid solubility limit is exceeded, two distinct microstructures form with different compositions and
hardness. Unalloyed copper is relatively soft compared to common structural metals. An alloy with tin
added to copper is known as bronze; the resulting alloy is stronger and harder than either of the pure
metals. The same is true when zinc is added to copper to form alloys known as brass. Tin is more
effective in strengthening copper than zinc, but is also more expensive and has a greater detrimental
effect on the electrical and thermal conductivities than zinc. Aluminum (forming alloys known as
aluminum bronzes), Manganese, Nickel, and Silicon can also be added to strengthen copper. Another
copper strengthening method is precipitation hardening. The process involves quenching a
supersaturated solid solution from an elevated temperature, then reheating to a lower temperature (aging)
to allow the excess solute to precipitate out and form a second phase. This process is often used for
copper alloys containing beryllium, chromium, nickel, or zirconium. Precipitation hardening offers distinct
advantages. Fabrication is relatively easy using the soft solution - annealed form of the quenched
metal. The subsequent aging process of the fabricated part can be performed using relatively
inexpensive and unsophisticated furnaces. Often the heat treatment can be performed in air, at moderate
furnace temperatures, and with little or no controlled cooling. Many combinations of ductility, impact
resistance, hardness, conductivity, and strength can be obtained by varying the heat treatment times and
temperatures.

 Electrical and Thermal Conductivity : Pure copper is a very good conductor of both electricity and
heat. The best way to increase the electrical and thermal conductivity of copper is to decrease the
impurity levels. The existence of impurities and all common alloying elements, except for silver, will
decrease the electrical and thermal conductivity of copper. As the amount of the second element
increases, the electrical conductivity of the alloy decreases. Cadmium has the smallest effect on resulting
alloy's electrical conductivity, followed by increasing effects from zinc, tin, nickel, aluminum, manganese,
silicon, then phosphorus. Although different mechanisms are involved in thermal conductivity, the
addition of increasing amounts of elements or impurities also produces a drop in thermal
conductivity. Zinc has very minor effect on the thermal conductivity of copper, followed by increasing
effects from nickel, tin, manganese, silicon, and serious effects from phosphorus. Phosphorus is often
used to deoxidize copper, which can increase the hardness and strength, but severely affect the
conductivity. Silicon can be used instead of phosphorus to deoxidize copper when conductivity is
important.

( PAGE - 17 )
 Color : Pure copper has a reddish gold color which quickly oxides to a dull green. Since copper often
contains natural impurities or is alloyed with more than one element, it is difficult to state the specific
effect each alloying element has on the resulting alloy's color. Electrolytic tough pitch copper contains
silver and often trace amount of iron and sulfur and has a soft pink color. Gilding copper is a reddish
brown color and contains zinc, iron, and lead. Brass is often used as an ornamental metal, since it has
an appearance very similar to that of gold and is much less expensive. Brasses contain varying amounts
of zinc, iron, and lead and can vary from reddish to greenish to brownish gold. Nickel silver, which
contains nickel, zinc, iron, lead, and manganese, can have a grayish - white to silver appearance.

3.0 Aluminum & its Alloys

3.1 Properties of pure Aluminum , pure Silicon .

 Pure aluminium is soft, ductile, corrosion resistant and has a high electrical conductivity. Aluminium is
one of the lightest engineering metals, having a strength to weight ratio superior to steel.

 Density of Aluminium : Aluminium has a density around one third that of steel or copper making it one of
the lightest commercially available metals. The resultant high strength to weight ratio makes it an
important structural material allowing increased payloads or fuel savings for transport industries in
particular.

 Strength of Aluminium : Pure aluminium doesn’t have a high tensile strength. However, the addition of
alloying elements like manganese, silicon, copper and magnesium can increase the strength properties of
aluminium and produce an alloy with properties tailored to particular applications. Aluminium is well suited
to cold environments. It has the advantage over steel in that its’ tensile strength increases with decreasing
temperature while retaining its toughness. Steel on the other hand becomes brittle at low temperatures.

 Corrosion Resistance of Aluminium : When exposed to air, a layer of aluminium oxide forms almost
instantaneously on the surface of aluminium. This layer has excellent resistance to corrosion. It is fairly
resistant to most acids but less resistant to alkalis.

 Thermal Conductivity of Aluminium : The thermal conductivity of aluminium is about three times greater
than that of steel. This makes aluminium an important material for both cooling and heating applications
such as heat-exchangers. Combined with it being non-toxic this property means aluminium is used
extensively in cooking utensils and kitchenware.

 Electrical Conductivity of Aluminium : Along with copper, aluminium has an electrical conductivity high
enough for use as an electrical conductor. Although the conductivity of the commonly used conducting
alloy (1350) is only around 62% of annealed copper, it is only one third the weight and can therefore
conduct twice as much electricity when compared with copper of the same weight.

 Reflectivity of Aluminium : From UV to infra-red, aluminium is an excellent reflector of radiant energy.

Visible light reflectivity of around 80% means it is widely used in light fixtures. The same properties of
reflectivity makes aluminium ideal as an insulating material to protect against the sun’s rays in summer,
while insulating against heat loss in winter.

( PAGE - 18 )
Pure Silicon ( Si ) :

 Silicon is a metalloid , have characteristics of both metals and non-metals.

 Silicon never occurs as a free element . Examples include sand, quartz, clays, flint, etc. It is always
combined with one or more other elements as a compound.
 The melting point of silicon is 1,410°C , Its density is 2.33 grams per cubic centimeter. Silicon has a
hardness of about 7 on the Mohs scale.
 Silicon is a semiconductor. A semiconductor is a substance that conducts an electric current better than a
non – conductor — like glass or rubber — but not as well as a conductor — like copper or aluminum.
 Silicon's most important application is in electronic equipment. Silicon is one of the best materials from
which to make transistors and computer chips. The total weight of silicon used for this purpose is relatively
small. Much larger amounts are used, for example, to make metal alloys. An alloy is made by melting and
mixing two or more metals. The mixture has properties different from those of the individual metal .

3.2 Equilibrium diagrams of Al – Cu binary system & discussion on its different phase .

3.3 Composition, properties, microstructure and uses of important industrial Al – Cu alloys .

 Aluminum alloys are normally classified into three groups: wrought non-heat-treatable alloys, wrought
heat treatable alloys, and casting alloys.
 Alloys which do not respond to heat treatment , called non – heat - treatable , such alloys cannot be
strengthened by precipitation hardening ; This alloy consist of a homogenious solid solution and are
characterised by a comparatively low strength and high ductility , they are hardened primarily by cold
working. The wrought non – heat - treatable alloys include Al – Mn , Al – Si , Al – Mg series .
 Alloys which require heat treatment to develop optimum properties and have limited solubility in solid
state is called wrought heat treatable alloys . They are generally precipitation hardened to develop quite
high strength levels. These alloys include : Duralumin ( Al-Cu-Mg system ) , Avial ( Al-Mg-Si ) .
 Casting alloys : Silumin , an Al – Si alloy with addition of Mg , Mn , Cu .

 Al – Cu system in which maximum solid solubility of Cu in Al is 5.65% at 548 C that decreases with
decreasing temperature.
 ( PAGE - 19 )
 The precipitation strengthening process involves the following three basic steps: - Solutionizing (solution
heat treatment), where the alloy is heated to a temperature between solvus and solidus temperatures and
kept there till a uniform solidsolution structure is produced.

 Quenching, where the sample is rapidly cooled to a lower temperature (room temperature) and the
cooling medium is usually water. Alloy structure in this stage consists of supersaturated solid solution.

 Aging is the last but critical step. During this heat treatment step finely dispersed precipitate particle will
form. Aging the alloy at room temperature is called natural aging, whereas at elevated temperatures is
called artificial aging. Most alloys require artificial aging and aging temperature is usually between 100
150°C .

 Precipitation strengthening and reactions that occur during precipitation can be best illustrated using the
Al-4%Cu (duralumin) system. Figure depicts the Al - rich end of the Al-Cu phase diagram. It can be
observed that the alloy with 4%Cu exists as a single phase α-solid solution at around 550 C, and at room
temperature as a mixture of α ( with less than 0.5%Cu) and an inter-metallic compound, CuAl2 (θ) with
52%Cu. On slow cooling α rejects excess Cu as precipitate particles of θ. These particles relatively coarse
in size and can cause only moderate strengthening effect.

 In Aluminium rich end of Al - Cu phase diagram , by rapidly cooling the alloy, a supersaturated solution
can be obtained at room temperature. As a function of time at room temperature, and at higher
temperatures up to 200 C, the diffusion of Cu atoms may take place and the precipitate particles can
form. For the particular alloy, Al-4%Cu , five sequential structures can be identified: (a) supersaturated
solid solution α, (b) GP1 zones, (c) GP2 zones (θ” phase), (d) θ’ phase and (e) θ phase, CuAl2.

 Not all these phases can be produced at all aging temperatures. GP1 and GP2 zones are produced at lower
temperatures, and θ’ and θ phases occur at higher temperatures. The initial stages of precipitation are the
most difficult to analyze because of the extremely small size of the particles and their relatively uniform
distribution. GP zones meant for Guinier - Preston zones which have a definite composition and structure.

3.6 Equilibrium diagrams of Al – Si binary system & discussion on its different phase .

( PAGE - 20 )
  Aluminium - silicon alloys form a eutectic at 12.6 wt % silicon, the eutectic temperature being 577 oC. This
represents a typical composition for a casting alloy because it has the lowest possible melting temperature.
 Among Al - Si alloys, hyper-eutectic family (>12.6% Si) has been used in applications where high wear and
strength resistance as well as low thermal expansion are needed .The more Si an Al-Si alloy contains, the
lower its thermal expansion coefficient will be; this characteristic and excellent wear resistance of hyper-
eutectic Al-Si has made this family of Al-Si alloys as number one choice for vehicle engine
applications, i.e. cylinder head, clutch housing and, blocks.

 Al - Si alloy phase diagram consists of a primary solution ( α – Al ) and eutectic and pure Si. Al and Si
forms eutectic alloy at a composition of 12.6 at% Si and temperature of 577 C. During solidification of Al-Si
eutectic alloy, α - Al and Si crystallizes simultaneously from the liquid and thereby forming eutectic
microstructure that is characterized by coarse Si – phase dispersed in α - Al (solid solution of Al and Si)
matrix. The Si can crystallize in the form of discrete particles or needle shaped crystals or sheets or flakes.
The shape as well as size of the Si - phase dictates the mechanical properties of the Al-Si eutectic alloys.
Coarse Si - particles, flakes or needles are found to have detrimental effect on the mechanical properties
(strength, ductility etc ). Therefore, these alloys are modified by adding Na, Sr in minute quantities (up to
0.05 at %) . The shape, size, distribution of Si - phase can be modified by addition of such minute quantities
of Na or Sr during casting of Al-Si eutectic alloys. The microstructure of the modified alloys becomes finer
than unmodified and thus leads to improvement in mechanical properties. The mechanism of such
modification is still controversial.

 Al - Si alloys solidify by a primary precipitation of dendrites ; an illustration of primary aluminium dendrite

(α- Al) structure embedded in Al - Si eutectic is shown in Figure . In hypoeutectic Al-Si alloys primary
aluminium solidifies dendritically and grows in direction. Dendrites are often drawn having four secondary
arms growing around the primary stem at each junction which is true for cubic structures. The undercooling
depends on the cooling rate, the concentration of the alloying element in the melt and the type of the alloying
element. It is well established that the undercooling increases with increasing cooling rate and increasing
concentration of the alloying element.

 Microstructure of the Al-Si cast alloys primarily consists of a primary phase (α-Al) and eutectic mixture of Al-
Si. The amount of eutectic mixture in the microstructure depends on the level Si. The eutectic mixture
contains soft Al as matrix containing Si particles. The morphology of Si-particles is plate-like which may be
altered upon modification treatment. The presence of Cu, Mg and Fe in the alloy leads to formation of
various intermetallic compounds in the microstructure of the alloy. The most common intermetallic phases
are Al2Cu, Mg2Si, α - Al12(Fe,Mn)3Si2 and β-Al5FeSi.

 Increasing cooling rate refines all microstructural features in size, changes the morphology of eutectic Si
from large and elongated plates-like to small and rounder ones and decreases the size of all intermetallic
compounds regardless of their type. Although an increased cooling rate refined eutectic Si-particles, the
plate-like morphology of them remained unaffected. However a Sr treatment may modify the coarse plate-like
morphology of Si-particles to fine fibrous.

( PAGE - 21 )
 ( PAGE - 22 )

4.0 Babbitt Metal

4.1 Composition , microstructure and application of Tin base – Antimony – Copper Babbitt metal .
When it comes to Babbitt metal, this soft metal has amazing properties when used as a bearing material.
Manufacturers can use Babbitt metal to perform bearing repairs or to create new bearings that are lined with
this material. It can bond to steel, cast iron and bronze as it has fluid forming capabilities. It is conformable
while being corrosion resistant. The material can withstand varying heavy loads and have a good run in when
used against other shaft materials such as steel. Babbitt metal is available as ingot, and as wire for flame
spraying applications as well as metalizing applications.

There are two main Babbitt materials that are generally in use: tin-based Babbitt and lead-based Babbitt.

Composition of Tin-based Babbitt : Sn : 90 % , Sb : 4.5 % ; Cu : 4.5 % You can find some tin-based Babbitt
that is completely lead-free if you are using it in machinery that will handle or transport food. Although Babbitt
is considered a soft metal, the tin adds a hardness to its characteristics to offer more load-carrying capabilities.

One of the reasons that manufacturers select tin-based Babbitt is that it provides low wear as well as low
friction resistance. It flows well when under pressure, which is ideal when used with machinery where there
may be inadequate lubrication along bearings and shafts that are operating at high speeds. It can absorb dirt
particles from lubrication systems that become trapped into the metal surface.

The high thermal-connectivity of tin-based alloy allows it to carry heat away from machinery. So hot spots are
less of a problem that can break down moving machine parts.

Due to having high load capabilities, tin-based Babbitt bearings can be used in compressors, electric motors,
heavy machinery, and marine work.

4.2 Composition , microstructure and application of Lead base – Antimony – Tin Babbitt metal .
Composition of Lead base Babbitt : Pb : 80 % , Sb : 15 % ; Sn : 5 % . Most commonly-used, lead-based
Babbitt will also contain tin as well as antimony. This material has excellent corrosion capabilities, which
makes it ideal for shipboard applications and other work where there will be high humidity and moisture. Like
tin-based Babbitt, lead-based Babbitt also provides good frictional capabilities and can adhere well to both
bronze or steel. It also can wear well, as it is desired in machinery that will be in operational use for long
periods of time. With high thermal conductivity, and great conformity, lead-based Babbitt is normally used by
manufacturers in applications that will experience shock loads. Several lead-based Babbitt products have a
uniform grain structure so that it can be used with heavy loads at low, steady speeds in conditions that can
have high grit and external heat. Yet more often, lead-based Babbitt is preferred for low and medium speed
( Page – 23 )
machinery and bearings that will experience light loads, such as unidirectional loads and moderate cyclic
loads. Lead - based Babbitt is an economical alloy as it can be used for general purpose machinery, line
shafting, and machine shops. It can also be used in farm machinery, cement machinery, conveyors, elevator
applications and steel mill machinery.

To select whether to use a lead-based Babbitt or tin-based Babbitt bearings, consider the load bearing factors
and the surface speed of the shaft. Other factors to keep in mind include bonding capabilities, lubrication
requirements and the continuity of service. High speed and heavy loads will require tin-based Babbitts, while
lead-based Babbitts are desired for low speed and low load carrying applications. When using standard
Babbitt materials, normal limits for each alloy are:

 Lead-based Babbitts: Surface speeds of 100 min. to 1,000 max. (#feet per minute) and loads of 100 to
500 pounds per square inch
 Tin-based Babbitts: Surface speeds of 1,000 min. to 2,400 max. (#feet per minute) and loads of 100 to
2,000 pounds per square inch.

Microstructure shows darker background which is plastic matrix , consisting of alpha solid solution of Sb in Sn.
The light cube shaped crystals are the Sn-Pb compounds . The star shaped crystals are the compound
Cu3Sn , which are even harder than SnSb crystals .

( Page – 24 )

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