Foundry Technology

Reference books:-
 ASM metals Hand book.
 Principles of Metal Casting- Heine and Rosenthal, Tata McGraw Hill
 Foundry Technology – R.K.Jain
 Foundry Technology –Beeley
 Production Technology –O.P.Khanna
 Foundry Technology –M.K.Muralidhara.

Introduction
Chapter 1
Review of metals and alloys used in foundries
1. Ferrous Metals:-
a) Grey cast iron
b) Malleable iron
c) Nodular iron/Ductile iron/ SG iron
d) Steels

2. Non-Ferrous alloys:-
1) Al-Cu alloys
 LM11(Al -4 1/2 % Cu)
 LM12 (Al -10%Cu)
Used in aircraft components and highly stressed areas.

2) Al-Si alloys:-
These have excellent castability, corrosion resistance, pressure tightness, wear resistance,
dimensional stability at high temperature and good mechanical properties.
Al-12%Si is especially used for making automobile pistons.

3) Bronze (Copper-Tin alloys):-

They have good strength and hardness and are used for gears, worms, bearing plates, liners etc.

4) Gun-Metal (G-bronze):-
Used in marine applications as it has good resistance to sea water corrosion and has 88% copper
and 10% tin.

5) Bell Bronze:-
Made up of 78%Cu-22%Tin. It is produced by pit moulding. It produces musical sound when
struck and hence used for making bells.

6) Al-Bronze:-
Made up of 86% Cu, 10% Al, 4% Iron. It has high strength and good corrosion resistance and can
be used for making gears, bearings, sleeves, etc.

7) Leaded bronze:-
Made up of 85% Cu, 5% Zn, 5%tin, 5% lead. They are used for making valve seats, nuts, lock
plates, etc.
 Magnesium based alloys:-
a) AM alloys –Aluminium and magnesium.
b) AZ alloys – Al and Zn.
c) EZ alloys – Rare earth & Zirconium.
d) ZK alloys –Zinc & Zirconium.
e) HK alloys –Thorium & Zirconium.

Classification of foundries:-
1. Based on type of metal cast.
i. Ferrous foundry –Grey cast iron, ductile iron, malleable iron, steels.
ii. Non Ferrous foundry –Mg, Al, Cu, Brass, Bronze.

2. Based on nature of work.

i. Jobbing foundry:-
It is one that usually contracts to produce a casting or a small number of castings of a
given kind.
ii. Production foundry:-
This is a highly mechanised shop which requires that a large number of given kind of
castings be made in order to produce them at a low cost.
iii. Semi-production shop:-
It is one in which a portion of work is jobbing in nature and the balance is production
casting.
3. Based on organizational frame work:-
a. Captive foundry:-
It is one which is an integral part of the same manufacturing company and where castings
are consumed mainly in the products of the parent organization.
b. Independent foundry:-
It is a separate company that produces castings for any number of customers.

Casting characteristics of metals and alloys

1. Oxidation of pure metals in the solid state.

2. Gases in liquid metals.
3. Fluidity.
4. Hot tearing.
5. Shrinkage phenomenon in casting.

Gases in liquid metals:-

Molten metals are prone to get gas entrapment in them. The gases present in air or in
the furnace atmosphere tend to get dissolved easily in molten metals because of the
decrease in the destiny of the molten metals.

Hydrogen, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen are some of the gases that are absorbed
by molten metal during melting. The dissolution of gases is quantitatively
represented by a term solubility of gases in molten metal.
Solubility is defined as the amount of gas which can be absorbed by a given amount
of metal under particular condition of temperature & pressure. Gas dissolution
causes defects in the casting. It is possible to minimise gas dissolution by
1. Melting in vacuum.
2. Pouring the molten metal in chill moulds.
3. By using a good feeding practice in which bubbles of air/gas are not allowed to
enter the mould.

Source of gases absorbed by metals:-

1. Furnace atmosphere :-
Oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
moisture from the used fuel, refractories, metal charges etc account for gases.
2. Gases derived from refractories, skimmers, another source of gas is moisture in
the refractory materials, skimmers, ladles etc.
3. Gases from hydrated corrosion compounds in the charge.
4. Fluxes: - many fluxes used for aluminium & magnesium contain salts such as
Mg Cl2 these contribute to gas absorption.

Experimental determination of solubility of gases in molten metals (Floe &

Chapman on SO2 -Cu system)

The experimental setup consists of a small induction furnace in which a silica tube is
inserted. Two monometers are provided to read the gas pressure. A known amount of
pure copper is taken in the silica tube. The silica tube is fused & connected to the
monometers. Copper is melted in vacuum & its temperature is maintained constant
throughout the experiment.
A known quantity of sulphur dioxide is allowed by opening the valve. Gas
absorption by the molten metals takes place. Equilibrium is allowed to establish until
monometers show a constant reading. The process is repeated for different quantities
of gas until equilibrium pressure slightly higher than atmospheric pressure is
reached.

Vo is the volume of gas that can get this equilibrium pressure.

In order to determine the amount of gas dissolved in metal an indirect method is
used.

The volume of an insoluble gas needed to fill up the absorption bulb system under
the same conditions of temperature & pressure is determined with molten copper in
the silica tube. This is called as the hot volume.
Pure nitrogen does not dissolve in copper &can be allowed to enter the system
without harm. Let the hot volume be Vb, then the volume of gas that is SO2
dissolved in molten copper is (Vo-Vb) cc. this quantity can be used to determine the
solubility of gas in 100g of molten copper.

Effect of temperature on solubility:-

The solubility of gases increases as the temperature increases up to the boiling point
the vapour pressure of molten metal causes equilibrium to be setup & no more gases
can be dissolved. Zn, Cd, Mg can be allowed to boil under reduced pressure to get
less gas dissolution.

Variation of solubility of gas in a metal is given by,

d/dt(logs) = - AH/RT2

A – Surface area.
S – Solubility of gas at TK.
H – Heat of solution of gas in metal.
Effects of pressure:-

Solution of compound gases in metals:-

Compound gases such as sulphur dioxide of multi atomic gas molecules also
dissolve in molten metals.

Degassing of molten alloys:-

1. Pre solidification degassing :-

Metal is cooled slowly to freezing point, then heated rapidly & cast.
2. Degassing using other gas jets :-
It is done using inert gases like nitrogen, helium, arogen or chlorine or halogen.
3. Use of active gases (chlorine gas) :-
Chlorine reacts with aluminium to form aluminium chloride (Al 2Cl3). Aluminium
chloride is in gaseous state in the molten metal. Hydrogen fuses into Al 2Cl3 &
bubbles. The bubbles escape to the surface.
4. Treatment with chloride :-
ZnCl2, CuCl2.
5. Vacuum degassing :-
 1. Static bath treatment :-

The ladle of molten metal can be kept within a chamber which can be sealed &
evacuated. Alternately the ladle may be sealed with a cover.

2. Induction degassing :-

The molten metal is transferred from the melting unit into a pre treated bath
surround by induction stirring coil. The entire thing is kept in a chamber
which can be sealed & rapidly evacuated.
6. Stream droplets degassing:-
In this case, first an empty laddle containing molten metal is kept above this
chamber. The molten metal is tapped through the scaled annulus. Degassing is
accomplished during exposure of molten metal in the form of falling stream to
vacuum.
7. Solid degasifiers:-
Solid degasifiers like hex chloromethane are used. After lapping, the degassing
tablet is put into it. This is generally used for magnesium & aluminium alloys.

Fluidity:-
Fluidity is the ability of molten metal to flow through narrow channel & fill the mold
cavity. It also assists in producing casting having uniform properties. Fluidity is
determined by spiral fluidity test. The mould cavity is in the form of spiral having
standard dimensions. Molten metal is poured at the center of the spiral & is allowed
to flow through the spiral mould. After travelling through a particular distance, the
solidification commences. The length of the spiral path at which the casting has
solidified gives the measure of fluidity of the metal.

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Factors affecting fluidity:-

1. Nature of metal/alloy:-
Pure metals, eutectics & narrow freezing range alloys exhibit higher fluidity.
2. Temperature:-
Fluidity increases as the paring temperature increases.
3. Trace elements:-
Some elements like phosphorus affect fluidity (P, Si)
4. Mould cavity:-
The size of sand grain, binder used & moisture in sand affects fluidity.

Hot tears:-
As castings cool, they contract & if there are restrained from contracting in
certain areas, because of their geometry or mould conditions, parts of the casting
 may then be placed in tension. If these tensile stresses arise when the metal is
weak, it cannot resist these sleeves & cracks.

Factors affecting hot tears:-

1. Casting design:-
If casting contains sharp bends, sudden changes in the cross section, very thin
sections joined to thick sections, the hot tearing tendency is increased.
2. Mould variables:-
The property of the collapsibility of the moulds & cores & the provision for
contraction of the mould is a very important factor in inhabiting hot tearing
tendencies.CO2 cores cause more hot tears than oil sand cores.
3. Composition:-
The presence of small quantity of eutectic as grain boundary film during
solidification increases the hot tearing tendency. Hot tearing increases from zero
for pure metal to a maximum approximately corresponding to the first appearance
of eutectic & again decreases as eutectic content further increases.
4. Grain size:-
Fine grains in the castings make the castings free from hot tears.
5. Temperature gradient:-
Hot tearing can be reduced by promoting directional solidification towards the
riser.
6. Solidification shrinkage rate:-
Contributes towards internal stresses in the castings which leads to the formation
of hot tears.
 Oxidation of pure metals in solid state:-
Oxidation of metals & alloys during melting & holding is one of the major
problems faced by foundry men. According to “pilling & Bedworth”, the kinetics
of oxidation of solid metals are governed by the nature of oxide form. If the
volume of the oxide is less than that of the metals from which it was formed. The
rate of oxidation remains constants or increases with time. But if the volume of
oxide exceeds that of the metals producing it, the rate of oxidation diminishes
with time according to the parabolic relation.
W2 = Kt

Consider the oxidation of a small weight of metal ‘M’ of density σm according to

the relationship.

Pm + Qo = MpOq

If the atomic weight of metal ‘M’ is ‘m’ then the weight of oxide produced is
given by

W * [Pm + 16q/Pm]

Volume of oxide = W/σo[Pm + 16q/Pm]

σo = Density of oxide.

The ratio of the oxide formed to that of metal consumed is called pilling
Bedworth ratio. Thus pilling Bedworth ratio
= W/σo [Pm + 16q/Pm] / W/σm

P – B ratio = σm/σo [Pm + 16q/Pm]

The following table gives the P – B ratio of some common metals.

Cu Fe Ni Mg Al Zn
1.74 2.18 1.5 0.78 1.27 1.64

P – B ratio for heavy metals exceeds unity suggesting a compact of continuous firm
of oxide will be formed on the surface of the molten metal.

When P – B ratio is less than unity oxide does not occupy sufficient space to cover
the metal surface. Oxygen has direct access to the metal through the cracks in the
film & diffusion is no longer rate controlling process. Oxidation of metals during
melting increases the melting losses considerable.

Casting characteristics:-
1. Gray cast iron:-
• Oxidation: - Due to its higher carbon percentage, it is not prone to oxidation.
• Gas pick up: - Hydrogen & N2 are insoluble in grey cast iron. Only small
amounts of oxygen will be soluble which has a tendency to make the metal to
solidify as white iron.
• Fluidity: - Increases with increases in carbon equivalent
CE = (%C + 1/3%Si + 1/3%P)
Since grey cast iron has CE = 4 or more thus have very good fluidity &
therefore any intricate shaped castings can be made. Si increases fluidity.
• Shrinkage: - Liquid to solid shrinkage is negligible.
• Hot tear: -It is found to be more prone in pasty type alloys than skin forming
alloys. Normal grey cast iron has eutectic composition & hence is of skin
forming type as a result gray cast iron is not much prone to hot tears.
• Structure: -

2. Ductile iron (S.G.iron) or nodular iron:-

• Oxidation: - Ductile iron is more prone to oxidation due to presence of Mg

which is added as a noduliser.
• Gas pickup: -It is severe as compared to gray cast iron.
Mg + H2O = MgO + H2 metal mold reaction. He picked up in the mold & H2
results in gas porosity. This is called metal mold reaction.
• Fluidity: - Since CE of ductile iron is high its fluidity is good.
• Shrinkage: - Liquid to solid shrinkage is quite considerable hence proper
risering is required.
• Hot tear: - Addition of Ni – Mg alloy to get graphite nodules. Makes the metal
to solidify as a pasty type alloy. Hence s.g .iron is more prone to hot tear than
gray iron.
3. Aluminium:-
• Oxidation (drossing):-
 Aluminium alloys are extremely prone to oxidation. Aluminium gets
oxidized to Al2 O3 & forms dross on top of the molten metal.
• Gas pick up :-
Gas absorption in the form of dissolved hydrogen is very serious in
aluminium alloys under the metal is degassed properly .The resulting castings
show porosity.
• Fluidity :-
Pure aluminium has very poor fluidity. The addition of silicon improves
fluidity.
• Shrinkage :-
Pure aluminium has considerable solidification shrinkage of about 6% hence
adequate risering is to be provided.
• Hot tear :-
Al – Si alloys have less tendency for hot tears compared to other alloys.

Carbon equivalent:-

Addition of silicon to cast iron eutectic makes the solidification over a range of
temperature. It shifts the eutectic towards the left. The shift is 1/3rd percentage for
every 1% of silicon added.

Addition of phosphorus also results in the similar effect as that of silicon. The
effect of silicon & phosphorus on cast iron can be expressed in terms of carbon as
carbon equivalent.

CE = %C + 1/3%Si + 1/3%P

FOUNDRY REFRACTORIES
INTRODUCTION:-
Refractories (Heat resistant materials) are the back bone of foundries.
Refractories form the crucibles and furnace bottoms which contain the metal
during melting. They comprise the furnace walls and the roof which reduce heat
losses and contain gases. Molten metal is carried in refractory ladles and poured
into refractory moulds. Refractories are the common denominators of all the
processes carried out at elevated temperatures. Foundry refractories are usually but
not always oxides of elements (MgO, SiO2, Al2O3 and mixtures of these and
others). Earlier these materials were available from ore bodies, fire clay, quartzite
(ganister), dolomite and magnesite. Owing to increasing demand and research
carried out in this area tremendous improvements have taken place and a wide
range of refractory material has been created. The best known of these being
magnesia from sea water, and zirconia.

Classification of refractories:-
Based on chemical nature we have acidic, basic and neutral refractories.
Acid refractories are oxides of metalloids such as silica (SiO2), and P2O5.
Basic refractories are metal oxides such as MgO and CaO.
Just as acid and bases react to form salts, acid and basic refractories react to form
compounds.
MgO + SiO2 = MgSiO3
CaO + SiO2 = CaSiO3

The compound formed is relatively low melting point liquid or slag which tends to
erode and weaken the refractory structure.
That is MgSiO3 is a liquid slag. Therefore acid refractories are not used in contact
with basic refractories at high temperatures. Instead neutral refractories are used to
separate acids and bases.

Neutral refractories: - these are materials that react sufficiently slowly so that they
can be used at high temperature in contact with either acid or basic refractories.
Chrome ore and carbon are the major neutral refractories used in practice.

Chrome may be considered the basic material although it fulfils the requirement
of a neutral refractory. Also many refractory bricks are now made of mixtures of
both chrome ore and magnesia (MgO) their degree of basicity depends on amount
of magnesium oxide in the brick.

Slag:-
Slags are essential features in melting and refining or many metals. These slags are
either acidic or basic depending on the relative content of acid and basic oxides. In
cast iron and steel foundries, acid slags can be used when sulphur and phosphorous
elimination is not necessary but when these impurities must be removed, basic
slags are essential. Basic slags react with acidic refractories, eroding and
weakening the furnace structure. Hence basic slags are used commonly with only
basic refractories and acid slags with acid refractories.

Refractory raw material:-

Most refractory materials are obtained from ore bodies of reasonably high purity.
Over half of all refractories used are obtained from ores or essentially pure silica
(quartzite) or from ores that are predominantly compounds of silica and alumina
(fire clays and similar clays).
Magnesium oxide MgO is obtained from chemical treatment of
magnesium-bearing brine.
Chrome (Cr2O3) is obtained from chrome ore. Some refractories are now
produced chemically from pure elements or compounds.
Silicon carbide (SiC) is produced by high temperature reaction of silica with
carbon.
‘Super refractories’ such as thoria, beryllia etc are produced for specific purposes
by special leaching, chemical and thermal methods.

Forms or refractories:-
Refractory raw materials are crushed, ground and sized. They are then mixed
with other materials as desired and fabricated into shapes such as bricks and
blocks. The forms available for foundrymen includes prefabricated shapes, mortars,
coatings, plastic mixes and castables. The various bricks commercially available in
wide variety of size and shapes are shown below.
In brick construction, a refractory mortar is generally used to bond the brick work
into a solid unit on firing and to provide cushion between irregular surfaces of the
bricks. One combination is plastic plate with volume constant grog (calcined clay).
The mortar is some times thinned with water and used as coating for the face of
refractory walls to seal the joints further or to protect the wall from destructive
elements in the furnace.

Structure of refractories:-
The structure of non-metallic refractories resemble the structure of metals.
Refractories are generally crystalline; they combine with one another in the solid
state to form solid solutions, mechanical mixtures or compounds.

Figure shows the phase diagram of silica-Alumina system. The various silica
alumina phases are crystobalite, mullite and corundum.
Phase diagram for calcium oxide-Magnesia system.

Foundry mechanization/modernization:-
Need for mechanisation:-
If the number of castings required from a given foundry increases then it becomes
increasingly economical to resort to mechanized equipments. Production of
castings not only depends on handling these equipments but also to obtain
maximum benefit from the equipment. Thus for such reasons mechanization &
modernization play a major role in preparation of mould, sand, mixing, handling,
coal making, material handling, knockoff etc.

Modernisation:-
Modernisation is utilization of newer technologies with distinct advantage.
Mechanisation refers to utilization of machinery for work previous done manually.
Modernisation includes changing over to better conditions, techniques &
methods. This helps in
1. Improving quality of the castings.
2. Reducing production cost.
3. Increasing safely to the workers & good ergonomics.
4. Reducing total cycle time.

Mechanisation helps in
1. Improving quality of castings.
2. Faster rate of production with reduced production cost.
3. Use of wide range of equipments.
Mechanised foundry flow sheet:-
Advantage of mechanization:-
1. From the same floor area much higher production rates can be achieved.
2. A large saving in labour & time by the use of sophisticated equipments for
sand mixing, heavy lifting, knockoff & other laborious operations carried out
mechanically.
3. It creates more hygienic & healthy working conditions for shop workers &
effects an increase in their earning through higher production.
4. It improves the quality of casting produced by facilitates closer dimensional
tolerances, minimising defects &providing better surface finish.
5. Overall production cost is reduced due to faster rate of production &
elimination of large number of hand operations.

Disadvantages:-
1. Retrenchment & unemployment.
2. Mechanisation is not possible for small foundries.
3. Mechanisation is not possible for jobbing foundries in which there is no
repetitive orders.
4. There is gradual disappearance of skilled human force.

Furnace technology:-
Steel melting – electric arc furnace:-
1. Direct arc furnace:-
A direct arc furnace consists of heavy steel shell lined with refractory bricks. The
roof is made of steel with silica bricks fixed in position. 2 or 3 graphite electrodes
are placed which can be raised or lowered. The furnace is charged through the
charging door & the electric arc is drawn between the electrodes & the metal
charge by lowering the electrodes. After the melting process de-slaging is done &
the metal is poured by tilting forward to tapping ladles.

Advantages:-
1. Thermal efficiency is about 70%.
2. There is definite refining of metal.
3. There can be temperature & heat control.
4. Used for steel melting.

Disadvantage:-
1. Initial costs are high.
2. Heating cost increases.

Indirect arc furnace:-

Pit furnace:-

The furnace is installed in a pit hence called as pit furnace. It consists of steel
shell lined on the inner side. It is closed at the bottom with the grate & covered at
the top with a removable lid.

The metal to be melted is put in a crucible which is embedded in the burning coke
& metal charge is melted. Since molten metal does not come in contact with fuel
there is no pick up of elements from the coke. A blower is used to provide the
necessary air for combustion of coke while the charge is melting. Once the charge
melts & acquires the required pouring temperature, the crucible is brought out of
the furnace with tongs & taken to the place of pouring.
Pot furnace:-

Reverberatory air furnace:-

The furnace has shallow hearth with large surface area to the flame. The roof is
made up of high heat duty fire bricks & the bottom layers are lined with fire
bricks. Pulverised coal & air enter at one end & the ash & smoke are removed at
the other end. The furnace is charged with layers of 20% light scrap, 40% heavy
scrap, 20% medium scrap & finally 10% light scrap.

The coal powder is ignited & flame is adjusted to about 80% of the length. Once
initial metal cool formation starts, flux, mainly lime stone & silica sand is
charged to form an acidic slag. Now burner is adjusted to form a short flame.

The white iron formed is tapped at around 1440 C.

Advantages:-

1. Due to shallow surface area of hearth the area of contact between slag &
molten metal is increased which helps in effective refining of molten metal.
2. It helps in taking out samples of molten metal at any time of operation.
3. It is possible to get exact composition any specified temperature.

Applications:-
1. Mainly used for producing white iron.

Induction furnace:-
1. High frequency or coreless.
2. Low frequency.

High frequency/coreless:-

This type of furnace has a primary helical coil of water cooled copper tubing &
the secondary is the charge of the metal to be melted. A high frequency current of
1000 – 3000cycles is supplied by a motor generator. By induction, secondary
currents called eddy currents are produced in the charge. These currents flow due
to potential difference between various parts of the charge. The resistivity of the
metal causes current to flow & heat is generated, thereby melting the metal. In
ferrous metals (magnetic) the loss due to hysteresis produces extra amount of
heat. The furnace capacity varies from 0.3 to 0.6 tonnes.

Operation:-
A weighted charge of metal is placed in the furnace. High frequency current
passing through the primary coil induces secondary current in the metal charge.
The heat is developed in the outer part of the charge & it is carried to the centre
by conduction. When the metal starts melting it forms a pool in the bottom of the
furnace. A stirring action occurs in the molten metal & causes it to rise against
un-melted metal transferring heat to it thereby speeding the melting process. The
stirring action ensures uniformity of composition. Once melt is ready, metal is
poured through ladles by tapping or tilting the furnace. The furnace lining must
be carefully checked & crack sealed to prevent any leakage of molten metal
which would damage the copper coil.

The water circulation is continued after the furnace is shut till the furnace is
cooled.
Advantages:-
1. Simpler in construction.
2. Melting rate is very high.
3. The heat of energy rate is readily controlled.
4. The homogeneity of melt composition takes place due to magnetic stirring
action.

Disadvantages:-
1. Initial cost is high.
2. It is generally restricted to melting of high quality of metals.
3. The thermal efficiency is about 60%.

Low frequency induction furnace (core type):-

A core type induction furnace operates as an ordinary transformer. The primary

coil has many turns & is wound on a laminated steel core where as secondary of
the transformer has one turn which is a channel or a loop of liquid metal within
 the furnace. A plug is provided at the bottom for emptying molten metal. The first
step in starting operation of furnace is
1. Filling up the channel with a liquid metal that is obtained from some other
furnace. This liquid metal constitutes the secondary current of the circuit. The
secondary current is induced in the metal bar around the core & heat is generated
due to resistance of metal to the flow of secondary currents. The metal charge
gets heated & slowly stirred as the melting process proceeds. A pouring spout is
placed in the molten charge. The molten liquid metal can be taken out through the
plug, provided at the bottom of the container or can be ladled using pouring
spout.
Advantages:-
1. Melting rate at high.
2. Melting losses are very low.
3. Uniformity in composition of the melt & temperature control is effective.
4. High thermal efficiency (around 80%).
5. Cast iron & high strength allows are melted.
Disadvantages:-
1. It is limited to one alloy because for melting different alloys, the furnace has
to be emptied, cleared & started with molten metal every time.
2. It is suitable only for continues operation.
3. If the molten metal obtained from other furnaces solidifies after being poured
into the channel or loop, it is not possible to re-melt the metal in the heat
generated in the secondary coil.

Cupola:-
Melting of grey iron (CI) by cupola has many advantages:-
1. Continuous melting: - ladle of molten metal may be tapped from the
furnace at regular intervals.
2. Low cost of melting: - the raw materials and operating costs are very low.
3. Chemical composition control: - is possible by proper furnace operation
with continuous melting.
4. Adequate temperature control for fluidity in pouring castings can be
obtained.

Limitations:-
1. Low carbon percentages in the iron below about 2.8% are difficult to attain
because of direct contact of molten iron and the carbonaceous fuel.
2. Some alloying elements such as chromium and molybdenum are in part lost
by oxidation.
 Constructional features:-

Steps involved in cupola:-

1. Preparation of refractory lining, bottom, tap hole and slag-hole.
2. Lighting and burning in coke bed.
3. Charging.
4. Melting.
5. Tapping and slaging.
6. Dropping the bottom.
Characteristics:-
1. Cupola size:-
Cupolas are rated by numbers 0-12 and vary in capacity designated as melting
rate in tons per hour approximately 1 to 35 tons per hour.
2. Shell diameter:-
 The outer shell diameter is the diameter which ultimately limits the capacity or
cupola. Shell diameter varies from 27 to 108 inches.

Steps involved:-
1. Preparation of cupola:-
The slag and the fuse on the lining and around the tuyers from the previous run
are cleaned. Any broken bricks are repaired with the mixture of fire clay and
silica sand. As soon as the patching is done and the bottom is prepared, the
bottom doors are raised and held in proper position.
2. Charging the cupola:-
As soon as the coke bed is built up to the correct height, pig iron and scrap may
be charged. The proportion of scrap is 25-50%. 2-4% ferromanganese is used. A
certain amount of lime stone (CaCO3) is added as flux beside flu spar and soda
ash (Na2cl3) are used as flux.
3. Soaking of iron:-After the furnace is charged it is kept as such for about 45
minutes. The charge gets slowly heated up. Since the air blast is kept shut during
the process it causes the iron to get soaked.
4. Opening of air blast:-
At the end of the soaking period the air blast is open. The tapped hole is kept
closed. As melting proceeds, the contents of the charge move gradually
downwards.
5. Pouring:-
When sufficient metal collects in the hearth, the slag hole is opened and the slag
is removed. Then the plug from the tap hole is removed. Molten metal coming
out of the spout is collected in the ladles and is carried to the moulds for pouring.
6. Dropping the bottom.

Lining:-
Fire clay type refractories are commonly employed for cupola lining purposes. The
patching materials used are:
• Fire clay
• Ganister/silica
• Graphite
• Ground fire brick
• Crushed fire stone
• High temperature cement
• Ground coke
• Saw dust
• Cereal flour.

Flux used in a cupola is usually lime stone, approximately 205 the weight of coke
(charge).
Chemical reactions:-
Two principle types of chemical reactions that is oxidizing & reducing are encountered.
1. Oxidizing reactions
• C + O2(g) = CO2(g)
• 2C + O2 = 2CO(g)
• Si + 2O = SiO2
• Si + xFeO = yFe + SiO2(S) + 2Fe
• Mn + FeO(slag, solid) = MnO + Fe
Reducing reactions:-
• SiO2(solid refractory, slag) + 2C = Si + 2CO(g)
• MnO(liquid, slag) + C = Mn + CO(g)
• Al2O3(solid) + 3C = 2Al + 3CO(g)

‘Griffin’s hot blast cupola’:-

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The most widely used method for heating the cupola blast is of the type shown in figure.
Separate air – preheaters employing an external source of heat, gas or fuel are
frequently used for this purpose. The principle advantage of externally fired units is that
there operation is independent of cupola effluent gas analysis & does not require control
of cupola charges.

Developments in cupola:-
1. Secondary tuyers:-
 The air supplied mainly goes through the primary tuyers only some part goes
through secondary tuyers. Hence to introduce air at different points in small
quantities so that carbon monoxide is converted to carbon dioxide an exothermic
reaction, secondary tuyers are introduced. The temperature of metal & the
melting rate is increased.

2. Uniblast cupola:-

Here air enters tuyers through steel pipes. It supplies air at each tuyers at equal
pressure hence called uniblast cupola.
3. Water cooled cupola:-
The portion of the cupola shell corresponding to melting & pre heating zones are
cooled from outside by having water jackets during the operation. Water absorbs
heat from the shell but does not attain temperature above its boiling point. Water
cooling permits very high temperature inside the cupola during combustion of
coke bed.

Cupola charge calculations:

1) A cupola uses 200kg charge and is made up of the constituents of the following
compositions.

C Si Mn S P
20% pig iron 3.4 2.4 0.7 0.015 0.16
15% pig iron 3.6 2.9 0.6 0.016 0.14
35% new scrap 3.4 2.4 0.5 0.03 0.2
30% returns 3.3 2.6 0.6 0.04 0.16
Find the analysis of the iron obtained from cupola melting.
i. Carbon :

Loss due to oxidation = carbon pickup from coke.

 PI1  2000 x 0.2 x 0.034 = 13.6 Kg
PI2  2000 x 0.15 x 0.036 = 10.8 Kg
Scrap  2000 x 0.35 x 0.034 = 23.8 Kg
Returns  2000 x 0.3 x 0.033 = 19.8 Kg
Total =68Kg.
%carbon = 68/2000 = 3.4%
ii. Silicon:-
Consider silicon of about 2-3%
Assume loss of 3%
PI1  2000 x 0.20 x 0.024 = 9.6 Kg
PI2  2000 x 0.15 x 0.029 = 8.7 Kg
Scrap  2000 x 0.35 x 0.024 = 16.8 Kg
Returns 2000 x 0.3 x 0.026 = 15.6 Kg
Total = 50.7Kg.
Less (Losses) =1.5kg
Net consumption = 49.17kg
%Si = 49.17/2000 = 2.45%.
iii. Manganese:-
iv. Sulphur:-
v. Phosphorous:-
2) A cupola uses 6000kg charge and is made up of the constituents of compositions
shown
3) A small ductile iron jobbing foundry has received an order to make 6 kgs of
ductile iron for the following composition.
Cast iron:-
Is an alloy of iron, carbon (up to about 4%) & silicon (up to about 3.5%) which is
not usually malleable as cast.

1. Grey cast iron:-

After solidification a large portion of its carbon is distributed as free in flake
form. Grey cast iron presents a grey saity surface when fractured.
2. White cast iron:-
An iron having a composition such that after solidification its carbon is present
in a chemically combined form as cementite (Fe3C – iron carbide)
3. Mottled iron:-
Iron of intermediate composition which freezes partly as white iron & partly as
grey iron.
4. Chilled cast iron:-
It normally freezes as grey iron but is caused to freeze white in some location by
rapid cooling during solidification that is chilling.
5. Malleable iron:-
An iron with ductility or malleability by heat treating a white iron casting. The
carbon in malleable iron is present as nodular shaped aggregates of graphite.
6. Nodular cast iron:-
Ductility iron, spheroidal graphite cast iron (higher strength):-. A specifically
prepared iron treated in the molten condition with a small percentage of
magnesium, cerium or other agents that will cause a large portion of its carbon to
occur as spheroids than flakes.
This type of cast iron presents a bright steely surface when fractured.

Graphitisation:-
The influence of chemical composition on the properties & uses of cast iron is
largely relayed to the 2 alloying elements carbon & silicon & their effects on the
process of as their percentage increases. If carbon & silicon are both below certain
percentages a white iron is formed. If either carbon & silicon is held constant & the
other is increased the iron changes from white to mottled to grey.

Micro structure of cast iron:-

1. Graphite:-
Carbon in cast iron may occur in free or elemental conditions as graphite.
Several forms of graphite differing from the flake shape occurs in cast iron. The
amount, size, shape & distribution of graphite in cast iron greatly influence their
properties. Flake graphite reduces ductility in grey cast iron.
2. Cementite:-
 The carbon in cast iron may occur entirely or in part in the chemically
combined form as Fe3C or cementite.
Cementite is very hard & brittle & confers these properties on irons in which it is
a major component. Cementite also occurs as the constituent of the Pearlite.
3. Ferrite:-
Ferrite may be defined as a solution of normal temperature, BCC crystalline
form of iron & small amounts of carbon & is relatively soft, ductility & of
moderate strength. Ferrite in cast iron occurs as free ferrite in Pearlite.
4. Pearlite:-
Pearlite consists of a mixture of ferrite & cementite arranged in alternate
lamellae. Pearlite in cast iron is strong & moderately hard & has some ductility.
5. Austenite:-
Austenite may be defined as a solution of carbon & high temperature FCC
crystalline form of iron which occurs during solidification & which during slow
cooling changes to ferrite, Pearlite, or mixture of both.
Austenite as part of microstructure at room temperature is encountered only in
cast iron which is alloyed with nickel to make the austenite stable at room
temperature.

Inoculation of cast iron:-

An inoculation may be defined as an addition of the molten iron which makes
marked changes in the graphite type. Under cooling is prevented. Inoculant
provides a large number of nuclei for solidification & changes certain mechanical
properties. Commonly used inoculants are FeSi ferrosilicon about 0.05 to
0.25%.CaSi calcium silicide is also used as inoculant.
In grey cast iron inoculant is done to achieve type ‘A’ graphite.

Malleable iron:-
The first step in preparing malleable iron is to cast white iron. The composition of
white iron is carbon 2 – 3% & silicon 0.5 to 0.8 % with sulphur 0.1 to 0.3% max.
The carbon will be in the combined form that is Fe3C. This white iron is heat
treated to get malleable iron.
 1. white hearth process:-

The white iron castings are annealed between 900° & 1000° C by packing them
with FeO (silica sand). The carbon will diffuse from the casting to form carbon
monoxide the matrix is ferrite & little carbon in the free form. There will be very
less Fe3C. This material exhibits very good ductility coupled with strength. The
fracture shows white surface & hence called white hearth malleable iron.

2. Black hearth malleable iron:-

The white iron is subjected to annealing heat treatment by packing with cast iron
chips. The heat treatment process is made up of 3 stages.
1. Nucleation: - This occurs at 950 C. The graphite nuclei appear all around the
casting.
2. First stage graphitization (fsg):- During the austinitisation period of 950 C, the
unstable Fe3C atom starts growing into nodular shape. The temperature is now
reduced slowly to 700 C.
3. Second stage graphitization (ssg):- During this stage, the carbon remaining in
Fe3C diffuse into the graphite nodules & these nodules further grow into
maximum size. The complete diffusion occurs & the entire carbon will be in the
free form as graphite nodules in a Pearlite or ferrite matrix. These castings also
have good ductility & strength. On fracture the surface exhibits blackish colour
hence called black hearth malleable iron.

Composition of malleable iron:-

Carbon around 2.5 – 2.6%
Silicon between 1 – 1.5%
& manganese 0.4 – 0.8%
Sulphur, phosphorus < 0.1%
The properties of malleable iron:
UTS – 400mPa.
Yield strength – 40 mPa.
Elongation about 20%.

Advantages:-
1. Good strength & ductility.
2. Because of its ductility many of the mechanical working processes such as
coining, punching, drawing can be effectively carried out.
3. It has good toughness due to which chain links pipe fittings can be made out
of malleable iron.
4. Wear resistance malleable iron can be subjected flame or induction hardening
to achieve better wear resistant properties.

Applications:-
Gears, gear blanks, chain links, pipe fittings, etc.
Ductile iron/ spheroidal graphite iron/ nodular cast iron:-
In this type of cast iron graphite is present in the form of spheroids in a ferrite or
Pearlite matrix. The graphite in the form of spheroids are obtained directly during
the solidification of casting by adding nodulisers just before pouring. The
spheroidizers used are magnesium or serium in small quantities. The nodularity &
size of nodules will be good under the following conditions:-
1. carbon between 2.5 – 3.3%
2. silicon between 2 – 2.5%
3. sulphur <0.01%
production of S.G iron:-
1. Raw material.
2. De sulphurization.
3. Melting.
4. Magnesium treatment.
5. Inoculation.

1. Raw material:-
The raw material used for melting S.G must be very low sulphur & phosphorus
content. Pig iron with low sulphur content or sorel pig iron can be used.
Steel scrap can be used & the carbon silicon contents can be adjusted.
2. Furnace:-
Generally high frequency induction furnace is the best melting unit for S.G iron.
3. De sulphurization:-
Before treating with magnesium it is necessary to bring down the sulphur content
to as low as 0.02 to 0.3%. higher sulphur content will result in increased
consumption of magnesium hence the metal has to be de sulphurised. Various
methods of de sulphurization are:-
 1. Cast iron can be produced in an arc furnace & by employing a basic
reducing slag the metal can be de sulphurized.
2. Fusite method:-
Here fused sodium carbonate about 0.5 to 1% by height is added to the
molten metal & tapped to a laddle. Fusite dissociates to form a complex
compound. This forms a slag which can be removed by deslagging before
pouring.
3. Flour spar method:-
Flour spar is added to the molten metal in the laddle which reacts with
sulphur & forms a highly basic slag which settles on top of the molten metal.
4. Calcium carbide method:-
Calcium carbide can be injected in the powdered form along with a carrier
gas like nitrogen into the molten metal. It reacts with sulphur to form
calcium sulphide which goes as a slag.

Magnesium treatment:-
1. Sandwich method.
2. Plunging method.
3. Mechanical feeder.
4. Open ladle method.

Sandwich method:-

@@@@@@@

in this method the treatment ladle is provided with a recess at the bottom as
shown. Calculated quantity of Mg alloy is placed in the recess & sandwich
between ladle away from the recess so that the start of magnesium reaction is
delayed till the ladle is partially full.
Once the reaction completely dies down the metal is inoculated using ferrosilicon
& poured quickly to the mould. The recovery rate will be about 50%.

Plunging method:-

@@@@@@@

In this method nickel – Mg or Si – Mg alloy is kept inside a container made of

steel sheet with holes made around it. This container is welded to a long rod
about 10 to 12 feet & plunged in a ladle by hand.
The more sophisticated version is having ferro silicon kept inside a refractory bell
made of graphite having holes of about 3/4th inch size.
The plunger fitted with ladle cover is submerged into the molten metal the
recovery of Mg is about maximum 60%.
T-knock method:-

@@@@@

This method used for the production of heavy castings. Here FeSiMg(ferrosilicon
Mg)alloy in granular form is added through a refractory tube passing through a
tundish.
The reaction takes place when the alloy is introduced into the middle of molten
metal stream coming from the tundish. The reaction is completed before the
stream of molten metal hits the ladle bottom.
Mg recovery is of the order 70 – 75%.

Process using pure Mg:-

Injection process:-

@@@@@@

In this process a graphite tube is immersed in molten metal in a ladle. The tube is
fixed to a cover the particles of Mg are carried in a stream of inert gas (nitrogen).
Injection continues until all Mg is injected then the cover is raised & supply of
nitrogen is cut off. The recovery of Mg is between 50 – 75%.

Inoculation of S.G iron (post inoculation):-

Inoculant – Fe-Si
Inoculation suppresses formation of carbides (Fe3C), it also results in higher
nodule count.

Heat treatment of S.G iron:-

I. Annealing:-
When maximum ductility & good machinability are required & where high
strength is not a major criteria, ductile iron castings are generally given a full
ferritize anneal. The microstructure is thus converted to ferrite & spheroidal
graphite. Two different annealing cycles may be used.
1. Hold at 900°– 950° C for 1hour + 1hour or more per inch of section
thickness. Cool to 600° to 690°C in an uniform manner. Hold at 690°C for
5hours + 1hour per inch of casting section thickness.
2. Hold at 900° to 955°C but furnace cool at 650°C so that cooling rate
between 790° & 650°C does not exceed 20°C/hour.
II. Normalising:-
Normalising can result in a considerable improvement in tensile properties. It
generally produces a homogeneous structure of fine particle.
 The heat treatment cycle is as follows.
1. Hold at 900°C for 1hour.
2. Remove from the furnace.
3. And air cool at room temperature.
This @@@@@@ followed by stress relief for which tempering is carried
out.
III. Stress relief:-
1. Heat to about 580C & hold for 2hours.
2. Furnace cool to 350C.
3. Remove casting from furnace & air cool.
Properties of ductile iron:-
1. UTS – 400 – 800 mPa.
Ferrite pearlite
2. Compressive strength:-
Compressive yield strength is higher than yield strength in tension.
3. Hardness – 180 BHN – 350 BHN
Ferrite pearlite
4. Ductility: - Elongation between 2 to 17%.

Applications:-
Crank shaft, rockers arms, clutch components, values pipe fittings pinions gears
rollers earth moving equipments rope drums etc.

Austempered ductile iron ADI:-

Ductile iron has as – cast micro structure of graphite in a Pearlite matrix. Though
ductile iron has good strength & ductility there is always a requirement of
enhancing the properties of ductile iron to meet the increasing demand from
industries. Thus to achieve this, the ductile iron castings are subjected to an
austempering heat treatment in order to get a benetic matrix in ductile iron. The
resulting iron is called Austempered ductile iron (ADI). The presence of benite in
the matrix gives increasing toughness good wear resistance, fatigue & impact
strength to the material.