Revise Beef Cattle Manual

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Republic of the Philippines

TARLAC AGRICULTURAL UIVERSITY
Camiling, Tarlac
LECTURE MANUAL IN
ANSCI 03
LARGE
RUMINANT
PRODUCTION
Compiled by:
Department of animal Science faculty, College of
Agriculture and forestry
LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION
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FOREWORD
The information presented in this instruction manual has been compiled to provide students/user
with a thorough understanding on Beef Cattle and Buffalo Production. It aimed to present the basic
theories and concepts of managing beef cattle and buffalo production in the Philippines.
This manual is divided into eight parts. The first part deals with the status of beef and buffalo in the
Philippines and other neighboring countries such as Japan, China, India, Russia, Canada Australia
and New Zealand. The second part is concerned with the Establishment/Breeds and Reproduction of
Beef Cattle and Buffalo. Part 3 is concerned with the General Herd Management Practices. It is then
hoped that the readers will be acquainted on the different management practices employed during
different growth stage of the animals.
Part four talks about Herd Improvement thru Selection and Mating Systems and part five deals with
Beef Cattle and Buffalo Nutrition and Management of Feed supplies. Part six and seven is
concerned with Beef cattle/Buffalo Building and Facilities and Herd Health Management,
respectively. Part eight deals Slaughter Carcass Evaluation and Marketing of Beef Cattle/Buffalo.
DAS FACULTY

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Abortion - premature birth

Ad libitum - feeding at pleasure, unlimited or liberal
Afterbirth - the placenta and other membrane expelled after delivery of the fetus or young
Anthelmintic - drugs administered as drench, bolus, or mixed in feed to get rid of internal
parasites
Antibiotics - a metabolic product of one microorganism that is of low concentrations which is
detrimental to life activities of other microorganisms
Antibiotic - chemical product produced by microorganism that destroy or kill infusion the other
organism
Barrel - the trunk or middle part of the animal body between the fore and the hind legs
Beef - meat from mature cattle
Beefy - a term used to designate the desirable physical conformation to a beef animal, as contrasted
with a dairy animal which is lean (not beefy) and more angular
Bloat - a disorder of ruminants usually characterized by the accumulation of gas in the rumen
Boner - an animal yielding low quality meat
Breeder - an animal used for breeding purposes
Bull - entire adult male ox
Bullock - usually a stag for draft purposes
Calf - young ox, male or female, under one year of age
Calving - act of giving birth in cattle
Cara - term connected to the sex, class and meat of carabao as introduced by the late Dr.
Valente Villegas which was approved for adoption by the Philippines Society of Animal Science
Carabao - Philippine water buffalo or swamp buffalo
Carabeef - the meat of carabao above 2 years of age
Carabull - breeding male of any age
Caracalf - young male or female under one year of age
Caraheifer - a female carabao under 2 years of age which is usually ready for market
Casein - the protein precipitated from milk by acid and/ or rennin
Cast down - throwing down of animal for proper restrain
Castration - a surgical operation during which the sex organ (testes) are removed
Cattle - general terms for any class of animals of bovine family, genus Bos of either sex
Cauterize - to burn with a hot iron
Chevron - two diagonal stripes on the brisket of the carabao
Colostrum - the milk secreted during the first day of lactation
Compensatory growth- the increased rate of growth which occurs when an animal is re-alimented
after a period of under nutrition
Concentrates - any feed that are low in crude fiber but having high digestible nutrient content
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Conception - pregnancy
Cow - adult female ox
Crude protein - include the true proteins and all other nitrogenous compounds in feeds
Culling - the process of eliminating the unproductive animals from the herd
Dam - female parent
Dairy beef - steers of dairy breeds grown and finish the same way as beef steers; also includes
all cows, heifers, culls and calves including real calves
Digestible - the total nitrogenous compound protein fed to livestock, digested and absorbed
Docile - easily handed or managed, obedient
Draft animal - animal used for work
Drench - to give liquid or medicine to animals by pouring down the throat through the mouth
Emasculator - an instrument used in castration
Estrus - the sexual of female during which they are receptive to males for mating
Excreta - waste matter such as urine, feces and sweat expelled by the body of an animal
Feeder - animal for fattening
Flaying - de-skinning or removal of the hide
Free-martin - the female twin in a mixed sexed twins; the male is usually normal but 9/10 of the
females are sterile
General herd - herd composed of all the animals in the farm
Grade - the offspring of a scrub and a purebred
Grazing pressure - the relationship between the amount pasture present and the number of
animapresent
Heifer - sexually mature female cattle but has not yet calved
Heifer calf - young female ox under one year of age
Herd - a group of animals kept, feeding and travelling together
Hindquarters - the back or posterior region of the animal, including the parts supported by the
hindlegs
Hooks - the joint in the hind legs of the animal which corresponds to the knee
Hoof - the entire part of the foot of the animal covered by the horny covering
I.M. - intramuscular injection
I.V. - intravenous injection
Lactation - the period during which the dam produces milk from the time of the delivery her
young until normal milk production ceases
Let-down - the voluntary release of milk from the udders of the lactating female, also referred
as milk ejection
Matador - a double-bladed knife used for stunning
Net energy - ultimate measure of energy in the feed
Nutrient - applied to any food constituent or group of food constituents of the same general
chemical compositions, that aids in the support of life
Optimum stocking rate – the carrying capacity of the pasture
Oxytocin - the hormone responsible for the release of milk
Parturition - act of giving birth

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Pasture - land with herbage or forage crops for grazing animals

Pasteurized - milk heated at 63°C for 30 minutes or 72°C for 15 seconds to destroy any harmful
organism in the milk, while causing few changes in its composition, flavor and nutritive value
Pendulous - hanging and freely swinging
Post-partum - mating after calving or when uterus and other parts of the reproductive breeding
system have returned to normal
Progeny - offspring
Proven sire - bull about whim there is a sufficient unselected information to indicate
histransmitting ability
Purebred - bred from pureblood and are qualified for registration
Ration - feed allowed for a given animal for a day or 24 hours whether it is fed
Rectal palpation – a method of pregnancy diagnosis
Roughage - any feed high in crude fiber and low in digestible nutrients, on an air-dry basis
Ruminant - one of the order of animals having a stomach of four complete cavities through
which food passes during digestion; these animals chew their cud
Rumen - the first compartment of the ruminant stomach
Silage - the feed resulting from the storage and fermentation of green or wet crops under
anaerobic conditions or conditions without oxygen
Silent heat - undesirable characteristics of some animals of not manifesting heat openly
Sire - male parent
Skim milk - that portion of the milk which remain after the removal of the cream in whole or in
part
Soilage - fresh forage crops to feed animals tethered or kept in sheds
Sporadic - incidental or scattered occurrence of a disease
Stag - old bull or bull castrated late in life
Steer - castrated male before the secondary sex characteristics have developed
Stock density - the number of animal per unit area in a field at a given time
Stocking rate - the over-all number of animals carried per unit of pasture
Stunning - to render the animal unconscious but not dead
Stocky - thick-set sturdy or firm built
Tether - to tie an animal with a rope or chain to allow grazing but prevent straying
Toggle - to fix the hide on board or bamboo frames to dry
Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) – the sum of its digestible protein, crude fiber, nitrogen free
extract (NFE), and fat multiplied by 2.25
Upgrading - mating of unimproved animal to one that is highly improved
Veal - meat from veal calves
Viscera - soft interior organs in the body cavities; it includes the intestines, heart, lungs, and
etc.
Wallow - to roll in mud or water
Whole milk - milk which has none of its constituent part removed

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UNIT I
STATUS OF THE PHLIPPINE BEEF CATTLE/BUFFALO INDUSTRY
The total inventory of cattle in the country as of July 1, 2016 was 2.56 million heads which
was 0.61 percent higher than last year’s stock of 2.54 million heads. Around 93.58 percent or about
2.39 million heads were raised in backyard farms while only 6.42 percent were found in commercial
farms. An increasing trend of inventory of cattle in backyard farms was observed on the periods
2014- 2016 while a continuous drop in cattle headcount was noted for commercial farms.
The total inventory of cattle in the country as of July 1, 2016 is composed of, 43.14 percent
were cows, 18.70 percent were yearlings, 17.79 percent were heifers, 11.52 percent were bulls, and
8.85 percent were cattle of other age classifications.
Table 1. Inventory by Farm Type as of July 2015-2016

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Figure 1. Distribution of Cattle by Age
The top five (5) regions with highest number of cattle heads in all farm types as of July 1,
2016 were the Ilocos Region, CALABARZON, Northern Mindanao, Central Visayas, and Western
Visayas. These regions contributed 48.04 percent of the total cattle population in the country.
Table
2 .
Inventory by Farm Type and by Region

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Status of Buffalo Production in the Philippines (January-June 2016)
Buffalo Production in the Philippines is dominated by the backyard industry which

comprises 99.61% of the total population. As of July 1, 2016, the total inventory of Carabao
recorded by the Philippine Statistics Authority was estimated at 2.89 million heads, 0.47% higher
than last year’s population.
Table 3. Inventory of Carabao by farm type and age group as of

July 2014-2016 (number of heads)

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Bicol Region had the highest share of 10.15 percent or 291,909 heads of the total carabao
population in backyard farms. Cagayan Valley, on the other hand, accounted for 26.15 percent or
2,932 heads of the total carabao inventory in commercial farms. The top five (5) regions with
highest inventory of carabao in all farm types as of July 1, 2016 were the Bicol Region, Cagayan
Valley, Eastern Visayas, Central Luzon and SOCCSKSARGEN. These regions contributed 41.40
percent of the country’s total carabao inventory.
It was observed that carabao stocks in

commercial farms decreased by 5.68 percent while
0.50% increase was noted in backyard farms. The total
population comprises of 37.96% caracow, 28.06%
carabull, 19.93% yearlings, 10.08% caraheifers and the
remaining 6.97% comprised those carabao’s in other age
group. The data revealed that the number of carabull,
caraheifer and carabao’s belonging to the other age group
increased by 3.34%, 8.68% and 9.30%, respectively.
Whereas, caracow and yearling stocks decreased by
3.21% and 3.29%, respectively.
FiFFigure 2. Distribution of Carabao of Inventory

by Age Group As of July 1, 2016
In January to June 2016, the total supply of carabao increased by 0.49% with 3.13 million
heads compared with the 2015 record of 3.12 million heads. The total number of carabao’s
slaughtered for meat in January to June 2016 increased by 2.15% that is about 224.91 thousand
heads compared to previous year’s count of 220.17 thousand heads. The average farm gate price of
carabao was at P74.10 per kilogram live weight which is 3.39 percent lower than the 2015 price of
P76.70.
Table 4. Monthly Average Farm-gate Price per kg

live weight of CarabaoJanuary-June, 2014-2016
Figure 3. Volume of Carabao Production,
UNIT II

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ESTABLISHMENT/BREEDS AND REPRODUCTIVE PHENOMENA OF BEEF

CATTLE/BUFFALO
Considerations in the Establishment
1. Farm location- The farm must be appropriately sited to ensure its economic viability,
environmental sustainability and management performance. Poor site selection can significantly
increase capital costs and operating costs through long distances for transporting commodities,
livestock or finished cattle. After a site has been selected, the feedlot layout must be planned. In
selecting farm location, the following factors should be considered.
2. Availability of market- Availability of Auction market in the area helps earlier disposal of
products. Auction market is places where cattle prices are determined and known to all. They are
regulated, with uniform weighing and selling conditions, bringing a level of fairness to the
marketing process. Private treaty with reputable buyers is also an option to producers. In this
method, producers manage animals to buyer specifications or provide additional requested services.
3. Transportation- Availability of roads to the production area eases daily transactions especially
during purchase of farm inputs and marketing of products. Thus, the farm should be accessible to
vehicles for the convenience of the raiser and/or buyers.
4. Technical and support system- Human labor is inevitable part of farm production though there
is enormous development and used of machineries, it is still needed to perform specific task thus
skilled labor must be available at reasonable cost.
5. Accessibility of production input- Farm inputs such as feed ingredients and veterinary supplies
must be accessible in the area
6. Land- It is an important consideration in raising ruminants since they need enough for housing
and pasture/grazing. The land should be solid to hold housing and other equipment/facilities while
the pasture must be suitable for growing of forages. Furthermore, water is required by large
ruminant daily. Hence, this should be available all-year round for drinking and irrigation of pasture
area.
7. Peace and order- The farm location should be secure from thieves and astray animals.
Furthermore, the residents are compliant to the rule of law and there is stable existence of peace and
order.

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8. Choice of breed- All breeds of cattle have strong and weak points thus, no one breed is superior
to another. Hence, a producer must look at his or her needs especially on the goals of the operation,
available feed and labor resources, market trends for a particular breed, and the traits of the breeds.
Producers need to evaluate how to improve the profitability of their operations by increasing the
value of their products. They need to follow current and future market trends and select breeds that
best fit the markets. In selecting breed to raise, the following consideration should be considered.
9. Beef merit- Meat quality of the desired breed must be evaluated to identify its characteristics
usually demanded by consumers such as marbling, tenderness and palatability.
10. Adaptability to the area- Desired breed of cattle should be adaptable to varying temperature
and climate all throughout the year. Thus, crossbreed is preferred that purebred animals for they can
adopt both to tropical and sub-zero temperatures.
11 Market considerations- The desired breed must provide what is preferred by the consumers
such as the size, weight and the meat quality.
12. Size and vigor of the animal- Breeds of animals to raise should be sturdy to withstand
environmental challenges and have strong stamina to survive during occurrence of disease and
parasite infestation.
Beef Cattle/Buffalo Breeds and Breeding
Table 1. Breeds of beef cattle, their origin and physical characteristics

BREEDS ORIGIN PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Tropical Breeds
Brahman India Characterized by a large hump over the shoulders, loose
skin in the area of the dewlap, drooping ears and would

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grunt instead of mooing. They are more upstanding in

form, less compact and lacks smoothness. They are
resistant to heat and external parasites and able to subsist
on poor quality forage.
Africander South Africa They are generally red in color and shows heat resistance,
temperament, and good fertility under harsh conditions.
They are medium-sized and late maturing.
Sta. Gertrudis Texas, USA 3/8 Brahman and 5/8 Shorthorn, they are large beef animal
that are cherry-red in color and is horned. Their ears are
pendulant, body is smoother and more compact than the
Brahman. Adapted to subtropical and semi-arid areas.
They make large gains on grass because of their good
foraging ability and can well tolerate ectoparasites.
Belmont Red Australia They are red in color and a fertile breed. They are also
heat and tick tolerant.
European Breeds
Charolais France They are light or cream-colored and is one of the largest
among beef breeds. They are long-bodied, heavily-
muscled but lacks the smoothness present on other breeds.
Chianina France They are the largest among the cattle breeds. They are
white with black in color and are late maturing.
Simmental France They are light red to cream in color with white faces, like
those of the Herefords. They have white spots or white
band over the shoulders. They are large in size and is
considered a dairy breed well-suited for milk production.
They are also docile and are noted for muscling ability.
British Breeds
Angus Scotland Black with moderate white color and are resistant to
certain eye diseases. Their calves at birth are smaller than
other breeds but resulting weaning weight are equal or
higher. Their body form is medium-sized smooth,
trimmed with adequate side length and well-muscled.
They are excellent as show animals.
Hereford England Generally red colored with white face, flank, underline,
breast, crest, tail switch and below knees. They are large
in size, muscular, moderate to long length of side,
adequately long-legged, trim and smooth. They are
developed in the regions of valuable cuts such as the back,
loin and hind quarters or round. They are known for vigor
and good foraging ability.
Galloway Scotland They are good rustlers and extremely hardy making them
withstand cold weather conditions. Black-colored with
black curly hairs and are polled. They are blocky and
compact, have short legs and are the smallest of the beef
breeds.
Devon England Ruby red in color, horned, with average size and early
maturing.
Shorthorn England Roan, red white or combination in color.
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US Breeds
Brangus US Tolerant to heat as well as to ecto-parasites. They are
black polled and are found to perform well in feed lots.
The breed is also known for winter hardiness
Beef Master US No specific color (maybe brown, red, reddish brown and
with white spots or band), a large breed, horned and noted
for rapid growth rates. Can withstand variety of climatic
conditions and produces good quality carcass.
Charbray US The calves born in this breed are light tan that change to
cream-white after a few weeks. They horned and large in
size, vigorous and fast grazers. They produce excellent
carcass with tender and high-flavored meat.
Braford US They are red in color or red with white or dark brown
face. They are good growers and are disease resistant.
Swamp-type Buffaloes
Philippine Carabao Philippines Light-gray in color with two stripes or chevron distinct on
the ventral side of the neck, on one ear and on the jaw.
Their color is lighter on the legs, underside of the body
and the ears. Horn is curved outward and inward to form a
semi-circle from the base of the head and the upper
surface of the horns have grooves. The body is low, wide
and has a heavy built well enough for draft purposes and
meat production.
Thai buffalo Thailand Black in color and the hair is longer compared to other
breeds. They are strong and broad-bodied with prominent
muscles in the neck chest and back. The horns are strong
with a moon-like crescent and ends upward.
River-type Buffaloes
Murrah India Jet black in color with white parking on the tail, face and
legs. The skin texture is soft and fine. Horns are short and
tightly curled similar to rain horns. They have a massive
and stocky built with light neck and head, short limbs,
broad hips and drooping quarters. The udder and teats are
also well-developed and are black and stout.
Surti India The skin is black or reddish in color with their hair from
gray to rusty brown. Horns are of medium length that coils
downward and upward to form a neck. They have wedged
shape conformations that are more developed in bulls.
Two streaks of white markings are evident around the jaw
from the ear and the other down the lower brisket.
Nili/Ravi Pakistan The color is usually black with white markings on the
forehead, muzzle, face and legs. They have a white switch
and small eyes. Horns are small, elongated and are lightly
polled. Coarse and heavy head is bulging at the top,
depressed between the eyes and ending in a fine muzzle.
Japarabadi India Black-colored with occasional white markings on the face
and legs. The body is long and heavy with large and broad
flat horns that tend to droop on each side of the neck and
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turn up at the tips but not coiled. The teats and udder are
well-developed.
Figure 4. Beef Master Bull and a Cow
Figure 5.Belmont Red bull Figure 6. Braford Cattle

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Figure 7. Philippine Native Carabao Figure 8. Thai Buffalo
Figure 9. Indian Murrah Buffalo Figure 10. Indian Surti Buffalo
Figure 11. Pakistan Nili/Ravi Buffalo

Characteristics of Beef Cattle Breeds in the Philippines
Philippine cattle
The Philippine cattle (Fig. 1) is a dual purpose type. Unlike the Brown Swiss which is
intended for beef and dairy purpose, the native ox is used by farmers as work bullock and for beef
purpose. The most popular of our indigenous cattle is the Batangas strain.
The Batangas cattle are red and sometimes yellow or black. The body is of medium length,
wide and low-set. The legs are short with fine bones. The hoofs are of size and form ideal for work

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animals. Although they are noted for their hardiness, prolificacy and resistance to disease, they are
somewhat lacking in sufficient muscling. In most cases, the abdomen is paunchy and the
hindquarters are wanting in thickness. The rump is short and drooping.
Figure 12. Batangas cattle
Brahman
Brahman cattle are grayish white in color with a large hump over the shoulders. They have
loose and pendulous skin along the dewlap and under the throat extending between the forelegs and
below the belly. Brahman are somewhat narrow and upstanding, well-trimmed at the middle, free
from paunchiness and they have large pendulous ears. The back is straight with a slightly rounding
rump; the hindquarters are thick and bulging and carried well down to the hock. They are good
grazers, regular breeder, and can travel long distances for the water supply. In addition, they can
withstand heat exceptionally well but are of slight nervous temperament. Brahmans can become the
most docile among other breeds when handled properly and they quickly respond to the kind
handling they receive, either good or bad. They are known to be resistant to Texas fever. A breed of
beef cattle that is similar in appearance and blood composition of that of the American Brahman is
the Indu-Brazil. It was developed in Brazil from the same strains of Zebu cattle.

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Figure 13. Brahman Bull
Figure 14. Santa Gertrudis bull
Santa Gertrudis
This breed of cattle is dark red or cherry red in color. Its hump is hardly visible and the
topline is practically straight. The animals under this breed are deep-bodied, thick and wide.
Generally, they are active but not nervous. Being tolerant to heat, they have the ability to adapt
themselves to the tropical condition of the Philippines. When given good care and management, the
Santa Gertrudis can equal to the calving efficiency of the indigenous Philippine cattle.

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Figure 15. A Nellore cow of ideal size and form. Nellore are
popular as work animals among Filipino farmers because of
their active and rapid strides.
Nellore
Animals belonging to the Nellore breed vary in color – from steel gray to pure white with
black switch. The head is well held by the short neck, and the hump rises above the withers, nut not
as prominently as the Brahman. The body is cylindrical and of medium length. Nellore cattle has
pendulous dewlap. They are active and nervous in temperament, and sometimes can become vicious
and more difficult to handle that the Philippine cattle. Their legs are fine but strong; in action, they
are active with rapid strides, a distinct characteristic which largely accounts for their popularity as
work animals among Filipino farmers.
Hereford
This breed has distinctive color. Their color varies from medium to very dark red with
white markings. The white markings extend over the face, throat, breast, belly, crest, switch and
lower part of the legs to the knees and hocks. They are deep-bodied, thick-fleshed and possess
excellent constitution and much vigor with moderate quality. They have mild temperament and with
good disposition. The Hereford breed has been tested under local conditions and beef cattle men
believe the Hereford can be raised successfully in the Philippines, provided that they are given the
right feed and proper management.

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Figure 16. Hereford bull

Charollais
The Charollais is a native breed of France. It is white cream with a rosy color under tinge.
The animals in this breed are large and are favorable comparable to Santa Gertrudis in body
thickness and in beef characteristics. Although they raised primarily for beef, they are also used as
draft animals in France.
Figure 17. Charolais Bull

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Charbray
The breed is the result of the infusion of at least 1/8 Charollais blood and not more than ¼
Brahman. The very prominent hump of the Brahman has been reduced greatly to a small size in the
Charbray. The color is creamy white although the calves at birth to a few weeks are light tan.
There are other Zebu breeds that have been introduced to improve the indigenous Philippine cattle.
Among them are the Red Sindhi, Tharparkar, Hariana and Bhagnari.
Figure 18. Charbray bull
Figure 19. Indu-Brazil

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Reproductive Phenomena
Estrus cycle - 10-26 hours

Estrus period - 18-23 days
Ovulation - 10 hours from onset of heat period
Time of breeding - 6-8 hours after sign of estrus
Age at breeding - 18 months (heifer/bull)
Weight at breeding - 250 kilograms (heifer)
325 kilograms (bull)
Gestation period - 270-290 days
Post-partum heat - 26 days
Technical Coefficient Data of a Well-Managed Cattle Farm
Conception rate at 1st service 75%

Net calf 90%
Weaning weight (BX crosses) 150 kilograms
Birth weight 25 kilograms
Pre-weaning mortality 3%
Post-weaning mortality 1%
Post-partum breeding 45-60 days
Calving interval 12-15 months
Optimum time of palpation 60-90 days
Bull culling (continuous breeding) every two years
Bull to cow ratio (normal) 1:20
Bull to cow ratio (ext. ranching) 1:12-15
Average Daily (feedlot) 0.70 kilograms
Dressing percentage (ranch cattle) 40-45%
Dressing percentage (feedlot cattle) 55-60%
Rebreeding before a cow must be culled 3 times
Reproductive Physiology of Buffalo
A. Breeding season August to January

B. Sexual maturity 8 months
C. Estrous cycle 21 ± 2 days
D. Estrus period 5 to 36 hours
E. Gestation period 320-325 days
F. First fertile mating 2.4 – 2.6 years
G. Weaning age 3-5 days after birth or up to 8 months in ranch operation
H. Calving interval 35 days after calving

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Table 2. Milk Production among Different Water Buffalo

BREED MILK PRODUCTION (kg/day)
Philippine Carabao 1.45 – 2.64
Thai Buffalo 0.90 – 1.0
Murrah 5.0 – 7.0
Surti 5.0 – 6.0
Nili/Ravi 6.0 – 7.5
Jaffarabadi 1.3 – 1.8
Problems in Milking
a. Hard milker caracows

b. Leaking teats
c. Kicking caracows
UNIT III
GENERAL HERD MANAGEMENT
The primary goal of herd management is to produce a crop of high quality, heavy-weight
calves. Various factors which contribute to the accomplishment of this goal are early sexual
maturity of females, high conception rates, high calf crop, early rebreeding after calving, excellent
milk production, availability of feed and some others. Quality of management, plan of nutrition, and
farm infrastructures are also important determinants of profit or loss.
Herd Division
Herd division ensures appropriate nutrition among various age groups within the herd.
Nutritional requirement of beef cattle are directly related to age that if the herd is composed of
animals of varying ages, feeding will always be to the disadvantage of young animals. Applying the
one-herd management system, adult animals, having bigger body size, have higher feeding capacity
that often result to the deprivation of the calves of proper nutrition. Adult animals will certainly be
consuming the more digestible and palatable feed leaving the calves with less desirable part of the
ration.

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Management problems such as premature breeding, which seriously affects the growth of
young bulls and heifers, are very hard to check and monitor if the herd is of mixed ages. Moreover,
a higher rate of abortion may occur as a result of butting and fighting between animals.
Animals may be divided into the following herds:

 Pregnant herd – composed of pregnant females. Cows are grouped with the breeding herd
during breeding season.
 Breeding herd – consists of dry cows and heifers ready for breeding. After the breeding
season, pregnant animals are transferred to the pregnant herd.
 Heifer herd – composed of heifers not yet ready for breeding. Heifer calves are also
included in this herd after weaning.
 Steer, feeder, or fattener herd – consists of growing cattle and those to be fattened for
market.
 Bull herd – consists of mature males kept mainly for servicing the breeding cows.
Care and Management of Breeding Females (Lactating and pregnant cows)
Once the cows are determined pregnant, they will be separated from the herd. This will
prevent injury and possible abortion that results from riding, butting and fighting with other
animals. A small grass paddock is necessary for keeping pregnant cows that is expected to give
birth within two weeks’ time. The paddock should be accessible to the workers’ quarters to help the
cows during parturition.
Gestation period of a cow is approximately 283 days although it may vary between
different breeds (usually 275 – 298 days). Some breeds have gestation period shorter by a week and
others such as the Brahman gestates for about a week longer. Appendix C presents the gestation
table for cattle.
Some signs of a pregnant cow are as follows:

 Cessation of estrus or heat. After a bull served a cow, it will be recorded and the supposed
recurrence of the next estrus will be determined. If the cow does not come into heat after 24
days then it is likely that the cow is pregnant.
 Enlargement of the abdomen and udder. They are usually good signs of pregnancy.
However, these signs are not necessarily foolproof. As calving time approaches, a pregnant
cow’s udder will fill with milk that will result to the firming of the teats.
The cessation of estrus and the enlargement of the abdomen and udder are signs of
pregnancy but are not very accurate. A more reliable pregnancy diagnosis can be done through the
process of rectal palpation. Palpation is the manual examination of the reproductive tract through

P a g e | 24
the rectum and the colon. This is done 60-90 days after breeding. A hand-in rubber glove is inserted
into the rectum towards the colon. The presence of a fetus can be felt beneath the floor of the colon.
When gently pressed by the hand, the developing fetus inside the uterine horn slips away but will
return immediately to its original position when pressure is removed.
During the later stage of pregnancy (5-6 months), the uterus is pulled down into the
abdominal cavity due to the weight of the fetus and its accompanying fluids. At this stage, it will be
difficult to detect the fetus and performing rectal palpation may cause abortion. Pregnancy
diagnosis through rectal palpation should be done during the second or third month of pregnancy.
Cows that fail to get pregnant during the regular breeding season will be exposed to a bull for
another three months within the breeding herd. This is called the clean-up breeding.
Care and Management of Open Cows and Replacement Heifers
Open or non-pregnant cows and replacement heifers are given proper care in such a way
that they will get the right amount of feeds daily. They should be kept in good body condition to
ensure that they are in the right physiological status. Animals with reproductive problems and those
which fail to settle after clean-up breeding will be culled.
Care and Management of Calves
The care and management of calves starts before the calf is born. The calving area will be
prepared and proper disinfection will be performed. The area will be provided with bedding
materials such as rice straws.
Here are some tips for the care of newborn calves:
a. Drain the mucus from the nose and mouth of the calf. The dam should be allowed to cleanse
its calf.
b. To ease difficulty in breathing, raise the calf by its hind legs to drain out the mucus from the
nose and throat. The calf can also be laid on its side to be able to apply compression on the
rib cage.
c. Cut off the navel 5 cm away from the body and soak the cut navel to iodine or wound
powder.
d. Assist the calf to suckle the first milk from its dam to acquire the benefits of colostrum.
e. Weigh the calf and apply appropriate identification procedures such as ear notch, ear tag or
neck chain.
Care and Management of Weanling and Yearlings
Weanlings are young animals that are separated from their dams. They usually start from
the intake of a liquid diet then allowed to consume feeds of dry form as the liquid diet is gradually
reduced. Yearlings, on the other hand, are animals that are at least one-year-old. It is expected that
by this age the animal is already weaned.
P a g e | 25
Care and Management of Dry Animals
Drying off a cow provides her rest before the next lactation. It also enables the repair and
regeneration of the secretory cells of the udder. They should be fed to maintain themselves during
the dry period. Excessive intake of energy, protein and minerals should be avoided. Good quality
hay and pasture is adequate if the cow is in good condition. Giving of concentrate feeds in
increasing amounts during the last two weeks of pregnancy will stimulate high milk production.
Care and Management of Lactating Cows
Proper nutrition and feeding is a must for milk production. In addition, it is important that
the cows should be kept clean by brushing or clipping long hairs from the udder near the hind legs
and rear flanks. Hooves should be trimmed if it is too long or are uneven. During hot hours of the
day, it will be beneficial to cool the animals by sprinkling or splashing them with water. Provide a
clean well-bedded and cool resting place. During the milking process, it is important to observe
silence to avoid frightening the animals. Milk the cows in equal daily milking intervals depending
on milk production and market availability.
Care and Management of Breeding Bulls
A breeding bull should be a selected from a pure breed since it contributes 50% of the
genetic make-up of the offspring. The bulls should be in good condition at the start of the breeding
season, thus, regular exercise should be given to the bulls to maintain their aggressiveness. Selected
bulls should be allowed to breed when they are at least two years of age.
Bulls should be given supplemental feeding of grains or concentrates 60-90 days before
and after the breeding period depending on their condition. A breeding bull should be kept in the
herd as long as he is aggressive enough to mate. However, to avoid inbreeding, a bull should be
kept out of the herd after two and a half years to three years when its offspring reached the breeding
age.
A recent finding showed that one criterion in selecting a good breeder is measuring the
testicular circumference of young bulls. A minimum measurement of 30 cm for a yearling bull
would greatly contribute to a bull’s fertility index as well as that of its female progeny.
Sound Stocking Management
In tropical countries like the Philippines, productivity is highly determined by rainfall

pattern. This is characterized by herbage surplus during rainy months and deficit supply during dry

P a g e | 26
months, although herbage productivity is high on an annual basis. To even up the seasonality in
herbage distribution, two major approaches have been introduced:
1. Pasture management. This approach consists mainly of the establishment and maintenance
of desirable pasture crops supplement by fertilizer application, if necessary.
2. Stock management. Stock or grazing management simply implies varying or manipulating
the grazing pressure to suit the available herbage at any given time. Grazing intensity or
grazing pressure is expressed as either stocking rate (animal unit/ hectare per year) or as
stocking density (animal unit/ unit area per unit time). Stocking rate is usually applied in a
relatively homogenous and stable pasture where pasture productivity is predetermined.
Stocking density is used in pastures with unstable and variable composition which could be
the result of differences in soil fertility.
The combination of the two approaches proves more desirable for both the pasture and the
animal. In both approaches, the grazing tips are as follows:
 Application of grazing pressure or intensity should be based on the herbage availability and
not on the nutritional dry matter intake of the animal.
 Animal performance such as beef yield, is determined not by one grazing alone but by a
series of grazing over long period of time.
 Pasture reserves (residual) and the frequency and intensity of the succeeding grazing
determine the rate of pasture regrowth.
 Pasture yield persistence is the difference between the capability of the soil to sustain
growth and the animals dry matter intake.
Stocking Rate
Production per unit of land is an important measure of the efficient use of the pastures
particularly in more intensive beef-producing areas where land values are high. The rate where
grazing animals are stocked is a major factor affecting production per unit area of pasture. It is
usually measured in terms of animal unit (a.u.) per hectare.
Table 3. Animal unit (a.u.) equivalent for each class of animal

No. of Class of Animal Animal Total Animal Approximate
Head Unit/Head Unit Age
20 Cows 1.00 20.00 Above 3 years
1 Bull 1.25 1.25 Above 3 years
2 Heifers/Steers 0.75 1.50 2-3 years
4 Yearling Steers 0.50 2.00 1-2 years
4 Yearling Heifers 0.50 2.00 1-2 years
2 Yearling Bulls 0.50 1.00 1-2 years
15 Calves 0.25 3.75 1 year
48 31.50

P a g e | 27
Therefore, if the possible stocking rate of the pasture is ½ a.u./ha, a total of 63 ha pasture
land is needed to be able to maintain 48 heads of cattle with the herd composition as stated above.
A frequently quoted rule of thumb in the management of native imperata (cogon) pasture
in the Philippines is that a 3-4 ha can support one mature animal throughout the year. On a flat
agricultural land with high and well-distributed rainfall as in the Bukidnon plateau, the 1:1 stocking
rate maybe close to the actual carrying capacity of the pasture. However, majority of the grassland
in the country have an undulating to steep slopes. They are usually in areas with rainfall patterns of
3-6 months of dry season with an average monthly rainfall of 60 mm or below. In these areas, a
stocking rate of 0.25-0.50 a.u./ha would be more realistic.
A study proved that under Bukidnon conditions in Mindanao, stocking rate can be
increased to 2.0 a.u./ha on improved pasture of grass-legume (para-centro) with fertilizer. At the
stocking rate of 2.0 a.u./ha, an improved grass-legume pasture can produce 340% more beef than
native (cogon) pasture even under drought condition. The study further implied that a tremendous
increase in beef production can be attained by improving pasture through proper use of fertilizer.
General Management Practices
Cattle Identification
The practice is necessary for management purposes and to denote ownership. Branding
with a hot iron is the most common method of identifying cattle. The animals should be legally
branded that must be properly registered by the owner with the livestock identification office of the
locality concerned. The owner’s brand is placed on the animal’s left foreleg. The locality’s and the
owner’s brand must be 6.4 cm long and 5.0 cm wide. The desirable size of branding iron is 1 cm
wide. For easy handling, the branding iron’s handle should be at least 65 cm long. Putting ear tags
or ear notches are other effective methods of identifying cattle.
Dehorning
Dehorning of animals has the following advantages:
 Dehorned cattle require less space in feedlots
 They occupy less space during transport or shipment
 They will have a uniform appearance
Dehorning is a sophisticated practice in beef cattle raising. It is recommended only in

large-scale operations to facilitate the handling and management of the animals. It also lessens the
danger of injury to herdsmen. The instruments or chemicals used in dehorning are seldom available
in the market for they are usually imported and expensive. However, considering the number of
cattle involved and the ease of managing hornless animals, the investment is worthwhile in large-
scale beef cattle operation.

P a g e | 28
Cattle should be dehorned while still young since they are easier to handle. The process
has a slight after-effect to the animal, however, if done properly, dehorning does not have to be
repeated. Very young calves whose horn buttons are small can be dehorned by applying caustic
soda or a commercial dehorning paste on the horn button. During its application, the hair around the
base of the horn should be clipped first. Vaseline should be applied around the horn button to
prevent the caustic soda to flow into the eyes of the animal. Calves with horn buttons or horns not
over 1.5-2.0 cm long can easily be dehorned using dehorning iron.
On the other hand, older animals are dehorned using either a metal spoon, Barnes
dehorner, a dehorning clipper or hand/electric saw. Pine tar should be applied on the horn sores to
prevent maggot infestation. Though presently, polled or hornless cattle can be produced through
breeding.
Castration
Bull calves can be castrated any time but should be preferably done when they are a few
weeks to seven months of age. As in dehorning, there is less hemorrhage and set back with younger
animals than with older ones. The slit and cap methods are both effective ways of surgically
removing testicles. Bloodless castration can also be done with Burdizzo pinches or by emasculators.
However, since castration tends to decrease the rate of live weight gain by 15 – 20% it should be
done only when there is difficulty in separating males from females as in problems in circumstances
like inadequate fencing or limited availability of pasture paddocks.
Record Keeping
Most farmers who raise cattle do not keep records of their animals and very few of those
who do keep records can use them efficiently. Herd records have little value unless they are
intelligently used in selection and culling operations as well as in farm management decisions.
Records can list genetically superior cattle that may be used for breeding. These will also increase
the knowledge of the breeder about animal differences and thus will increase the accuracy of
selection. Though keeping records does not increase the animals’ ability to transmit economical
traits, it helps improve the herd through the selection of superior animals.
The following are some of the importance of record keeping in selecting the breeding
stock in a practical breeding operation: Suppose you have 3 cows in the herd; cow A, cow B and
cow C with the following production records:
Cow A gives birth regularly every year and her calves have an average weaning weight of 120
kilograms;
Cow B gives birth regularly to two calves in three years and her calves have an average weaning
weight of 125 kilograms;
Cow C gives birth every two years and her calves have an average weaning weight of 123
kilograms.

P a g e | 29
Based on the aforementioned production records, cow A is the best breeding animal followed by
cow B. Cow C must be culled because of her relatively poor performance.
This example is only one of many ways by which herd records can be of help in selecting
breeding animals. Moreover, slow gaining heifer or bulls that produce undesirable hereditary traits
and unsatisfactory performance despite good feeding and management conditions can be easily
identified. These animals are culled or removed to improve the herd quality and to increase profit in
beef production.

P a g e | 30
UNIT IV
HERD IMPROVEMENT THRU SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Selection and Culling

The selection of a group of breeding stock is basic practice to the success of a beef cattle
enterprise considering the fact that the ultimate goal of all beef production is the slaughter house.
For a beef cattle enterprise to be profitable, the foundation stock must have the capacity to produce
a high percentage of calf crop of thrifty, healthy and early maturing beef animals. The calves must
have the ability to use feed efficiently to give the maximum amount of beef with quality that will
bring the highest market price at a minimum production cost. For this reason, a beef cattle producer
should give emphasis to the selection of his foundation stock and should consider proper selection
of a fundamental tool of building a profitable herd of beef cattle. Once a herd has been established,
he should practice regular and wise culling.
Selecting the Breed of Cattle

Experienced beef cattle producer believed that, generally, the choice of a breed is of little
importance in beef production. It has been demonstrated that the variation among individual
animals within the breed is greater than the variation between breeds. However, farmers would
often ask, “what is the best breed of beef cattle?” To answer the question intelligently is not a
simple matter for one must be familiar with the facts regarding the environmental condition, market
demand, management, and the factors that should be considered in selecting a breed.
The following factors must be considered when selecting and buying a foundation stock:
Adaptability. Like the dairy breeds, various breeds of beef cattle differ in their sensitivity
to the change in climate and environment. Each breed may best grow and reproduce normally under
a particular set of climatic and environmental conditions. Some breeds are more resistant to high
temperature than others. For instance, it has been demonstrated that the Brahman breed and their
crosses are less affected by the time, intensity and amount of grazing when the temperature is above
80°F than the European breeds.
Disease resistance. Some breeds are larger and more vigorous than others. The calves are
stronger and have greater resistance to diseases than calves of smaller breeds. Also, some breeds are
able to develop under substandard condition of sanitation and management which are unfavorable
for other breeds. If you entrust the management of the herd to persons with indifferent attitude to

P a g e | 31
the success of the beef cattle farm, get breeds that can withstand relatively poor care and
management.
Community preference. As a beginner in beef cattle farming, you should determine the
breed of beef cattle that predominate your community. It will be helpful to know the breed kept by
the progressive cattle men and to inquire whether or not they are satisfied with the performance of
the breed they have chosen. There is a distinct advantage in choosing a breed that is most popular in
a community. You will have the opportunity to observe the management practices used by
progressive farmers and to apply them to improve your own herd. You will have less chances of
acquiring undesirable animals when you buy from herds which you have observed or with which
you are familiar. It will easier and cheaper for you to buy breeding stock replacement because
transportation expenses will then be reduced. Moreover, the sale of animals will also be easier and
more profitable because the loss in weight while in transit is avoided and the cost of handling is
reduced to a minimum.
Grazing and topography of the land. Considerable differences in the grazing abilities
of beef and dairy cattle breeds have been reported. In general, the larger breeds need more feed,
therefore, must travel more ground to satisfy their daily nutritional requirement. As a prospective
producer, you must consider the topography of the land where you intend to pasture your stock. In
localities where the pasture area is hilly or with a rolling terrain and the water supply is limited to a
few nooks in wide undivided area, the animals for these given conditions must come from breeds
that are noted for their ability to graze in hilly pastures. However, giving serious considerations to
grazing ability and topography of the land in selecting a suitable breed is done only when the forage
growth is scanty.
Purchase price. The purchase of an animal is determined by its selling price and its
appraised to give reasonable profit. Some breeds of beef cattle costs more than those of other
breeds. Maybe because of their limited supply, newly introduced breeds cost more than the older
breeds.
Market demand. Beef cattle are raised primarily for meat. However, many farmers
raise them as beast of burden. After this they are slaughtered for beef. When selecting a breed, you
should then consider that cattle are purchased either for beef or for their usefulness as work animals.
Selecting Cows and Heifers for Breeding

It has been mentioned that in establishing a beef cattle herd, emphasis should be placed on
the selection of the foundation stock. Successful beef cattle producers suggest that cows should be
selected first and then the bull later. In this way, there is a greater opportunity to select a bull that
has the economic traits in which the cow is lacking. Progressive livestock raisers almost always
select beef animals on the basis of physical appearance substantiated by the record of production.
However, when performance records are not available, selection would solely rely on the animal’s
outward look, which in most cases, does not reveal its true value as a breeder. In order that you may

P a g e | 32
be guided properly in selecting the animals that can deliver a reasonable profit, it is important to
know the parts of a beef animal.
Figure 20. Parts of a cow
The following points should be given particular attention in selecting a breeding cow:
1. Feminity and milking ability. A good beef cow would possess a mild maternal face with bright
and alert eyes. She should have a good disposition and a quiet temperament. However, she must
show an instinct to protect her calf against predators. A beef cow’s ability to produce milk should
also be given importance because unlike dairy cows, they are expected to raise the calves up to
weaning. As such, a beef cow should be able to produce enough milk to start her calf in a vigorous
and healthy condition.
The udder is the most important part in the assessment of her milk-producing ability. It
should be of good size and shape and is carried well forward and up behind. It should also be of
good texture that is soft, flexible, and spongy to the touch that is expected to secrete more milk than
one that is flesh-like and hard. A fleshy udder contains a small number of secreting tissues and in
most cases, does not produce enough milk to support normal growth and development of the calf.

P a g e | 33
Figure 21. A cow showing her motherly instinct to her calf.
The teats should be uniform, well spread, and of size and length that will allow the calf to
grasp it readily. A pendulous and loosely connected udder with one or more blind teats is
undesirable. A pendulous udder is more likely to get injured and, consequently, lowers the beef
value of the cow.
Figure 22. A moderately developed udder of a beef cow with well-placed teats.
2. Age. Beef cows, just like any other livestock of the same class, can be productive only for some
time. In general, beef cows will remain productive only for thirteen years if they are allowed to start
calving for the first time at the age of three and they will be most productive at the age of 4 – 8
years old. It is also at this range when the calves are expected to reach their maximum weaning
weight.
When you decide to buy heifers instead of cows for your foundation stock, get those that
are from families that have regularly produced outstanding calves. In starting a herd of foundation
cows, it is suggested that 30 grade or Philippine heifers should be selected for type and quality.
Select the top 10 or 15 heifers in terms of type and rate of gain. The other 15 heifers you could
fatten as butcher’s stock.

P a g e | 34
Heifers have definite advantage over cows. In general, young animals have much longer
period of usefulness is the breeding herd. They cost less and, if an animal die, the loss in term of the
purchase price will not be as much as when a cow dies. However, the possibility of acquiring a shy
breeder, or a non-productive individual is greater with young and untried heifers than with proven
cows.
3. Breeding Ability and ancestry. Cows differ in the regularity with which they produce their
calves. Since beef cows are valued for the progeny they produce, select cows that calve regularly.
Unfortunately, there is no way of determining this trait ahead of time except by allowing the cow to
reproduce. A heifer from cow that has consistently produced a calf a year will be like her mother.
However, studies indicate that the heritability of this traits is very low (table 1). And although, it is
not desirable to maintain breeding animals in high condition, the cows for the foundation herd must
possess the ability to fatten readily. “Like begets like”; therefore, calves from cows that do not take
on flesh readily cannot be expected to give much profit to the producer in the feedlot. Beef cattle
breeders believe that cows which milk most and lose flesh most rapidly when suckling their calves
are generally the quickest fleshing cows.
4. Type and conformation. Body conformation is one of the major factors that determine the
monetary value of beef cattle. While the ideal dairy cow is triangular in form, a beef cow should be
rectangular. She should carry medium width between the thurls and pins in order to have the
necessary frame on which to hang profitable beef. The rump must be long and smooth.
Figure 23. A Santa Gertrudis heifer that came from outstanding parents.
Heritability Estimates for Beef Cattle Traits

P a g e | 35
CHARACTER AVERAGE
HERITABILITY
Parameter
Performance
Calving Interval 8
Birth Weight 41
Weaning Weight 30
Cow maternal Ability 40
Post Weaning Feedlot Gain 45
Post Weaning Pasture Gain 30
Efficiency of Feedlot Gain 30
Carcass Traits
Dressing Percentage 71
Carcass Grade 34
Rib Eye Area 69
Tenderness 61
Figure 24. A Philippine cow with a capacious middle without being paunchy .
Figure 25. This cow lacks vigor, depth of the middle and spring of ribs.
Selecting A Bull
The herd bull is just as important as the cow. It is often said that s sire and a dam contribute
equality to the inheritance of the offspring. However, it is a fact that a bull of good breeding ability

P a g e | 36
produces a greater number of offspring than a cow. As such, the bull, more that the cow, transmits
his characteristics to a greater number of individuals. As a breeder, therefore, you should be more
cautions and intelligent in selecting your bull. Consider the following points in buying a bull for
your herd:
1. Physical appearance
Efficient utilization of feed by the animal makes for economical production of meat. This
efficiency can be predicted with a fair degree of accuracy in the quality of the middle of an animal.
A fairly good middle or barrel indicates a well-developed digestive system and healthy vital organs
such as the heart, liver, and lung. Likewise, a full heart girth, broad muzzle, large nostril, and
muscular cheeks and jaws reflect good constitution and vigor.
Moreover, a bull should possess thick and well-rounded thighs and a full loin of good
height. It is the experience of beef cattle producer that a bull that has these qualities produces its
kind consistently. Avoid a bull with cut-up flanks, narrow rump and thighs, and a shallow body as
shown by the lack of width and spring of ribs.
Defects in the legs and feet that will seriously affect the action of the bull of hamper its
utility value should not escape your eyes when you are selecting the animal. Although the bull, does
not stay long on top of the female during mating. It is essential that legs should be strong enough to
carry its own weight and to carry him around to look for the cows that are in heat and to search for
food when necessary. Successful mating of more cows is insured when a bull is strong on the legs.
Figure 26. A Brahman bull of excellent type and conformation.

P a g e | 37
Figure 27. A Santa Gertrudis bull with good body length but little depth of middle and spring of ribs.
3. Sex character
Proper development of the primary sex organs and the prominence of the secondary sex
character are essentially important consideration in selecting a bull. The testicle should be well
developed and full descend. Moreover, a bull which is approaching maturity should show fullness
of the front quarter which is indicated by heavy muscling throughout, a deep wide chest, and broad
head. These qualities do not only sow masculinity; they also indicate virility or power for
procreation.
Figure 28.A Santa Gertrudis bull with well-developed testes.
In addition to being masculine, a bull should also be aggressive enough to detect and serve a
cow in heat when given the opportunity a lazy bull, although found to be fertile, settles only a few
cows out of so many that will be herded to him. Furthermore, a bull of low breeding ability or
lacking in sex drive will contribute little or nothing to the calf drop.

P a g e | 38
Figure 29. A mature Santa Gertrudis bull busy looking for a cow in heat.
3. Purchase price. The price of bulls varies from one farm to another, but, generally, young
bulls are cheaper than heavier and older bulls. However, cattle breeders are of common opinion that
a good and outstanding bull is cheap at almost any price, and a poor bull is expensive even at beef
value. Therefore, in buying a bull, quality should come before quantity. Never sacrifice quality. It is
always a wise and sound decision to have a few expensive bulls in the breeding herd rather than so
many cheap but poor bulls.
A good or proven bull may cost many times more than an ordinary bull, but the favorable
influence the bull will have on the succeeding generations is something to remember. The risk in
buying a young and untried bull is greater than in buying a proven bull.
4. Traits to mask the weak points of cows. The herd bull should be strong be strong in the
economic traits where the females in the breeding herd are weak. For instance, if the females are
slow and costly gainers, select a bull with the high and most efficient gains since these traits are
highly heritable. If the females are too light at birth and have low dressing percentage, select a bull
that is heavy at birth and that shows some promise or potential of yielding a good amount of dressed
carcass because these two traits are even more highly inherited.
On the other hand, selecting a bull for the purpose of calving interval is a slow process
because this trait is influenced mostly by environment and management. It is, therefore, important
that the project manager must determine the weaknesses of the females before he can proceed to
select the bull to improve the herd. If the herd is to be improved, the bull should have outstanding
traits which are distinctly superior to that of the cows.
You can predict with a reasonable degree of accuracy whether or not the herd will improve
with the introduction of a new bull. For instance, if you want to determine the average birth weight
of calves that will be sired by a newly acquired bull, multiply the “reach” (difference in birth weight
between the animals selected to be parents and the average birth weight of all calves in the herd) by

P a g e | 39
the heritability of the trait (birth weight). A comparative performance of two bulls assumed to have
been given identical care and management is shown in the hypothetical example:
Bull A
Birth weight of Bull A 30.0kg
Average birth weight of all From the two examples
calves in the herd 25.0kg above it is apparent that herd
Heritability of the trait improvement can be achieved
(birth weight) 41.0% if the bull selected to sire the
Reach 30 - 25= 5.0kg herd possesses a trait that is
Predicted improvement = Reach x heritability for superior to that of the
Birth weight females. On the other hand,
= 5 x 0.41 the herd will likely
=2.05kg degenerate if a herd bull in
Predicted average birth wt. inferior to the breeding cows
in certain trait or traits that
of calve of Bull A = Birth weight of Bull A + are being improved.
predicted improvement Selecting of Fattening Steers
= 30 + 2.05 The selection of

= 32.05 steers to be fattened either in
Bull B pasture or in the feedlot is just
Birth weight of Bull B 22.0kg as important as the selection of
Average birth weight of cows or bulls for the breeding
calves in the herd 25.0kg herd. Your failure to select a
Heritability of the trait steer that can be fed
(birth weight) 41.0% economically and later sold
Reach 22.0 – 25.0 = 3.0kg with reasonable profit is
Predicted improvement = Reach x heritability of enough to cause your business
birth weight to fail. Therefore, to analyze
= 3.0 x 0.41
critically the factors affecting
= 1.23 kg
the choice of fattening steers
of calve of Bull B = 22 + 1.23
of heifer if he is to succeed in
= 23.23 kg
his business. Some of these
factors are the following.
1. Age
Age in relation to weight, is one of the most important factors in buying cattle for the
feedlot. They need less feed for every unit gain in weight because they are capable of a more
thorough mastication and rumination and larger feed consumption in proportion to their body
weight. Furthermore, their increases in weight are due partly to the growth of muscle and vital
organs, while those of older cattle consist largely of deposits of fat. Since fat contains less water and

P a g e | 40
more energy than an equal weight of any other kind of animal tissue, it needs more feed to form it.
Moreover, the buying price of young animals is generally lower, and the investment required to fill
the feed lot is smaller than that required by older cattle.
On the other hand, older animals have their own advantages. They need less time to finish
them. Generally, a two-year-old steer will require a shorter feeding period than either a calf or
yearling. This is explained by the fact that calve or yearling grow while they fatten. Also, calve are
choosy about their feed. When offered coarse and steamy roughage, they will refuse a considerable
portion of it. On the other hand, two-year old steer can utilize large quantities of the roughage to
produce fat primarily because they have a better capacity to digest it than younger animals. In most
cases, they readily relish the feeds that are ordinarily rejected by calves. A plan suggested by
experienced cattle feeders is to buy cattle at the age during which they are efficient in utilizing
whatever feed is available in the locality and which will later sell at a reasonable profit when the
feed supply is used up.
2. Form
A large feeding capacity is a very important point to consider in selecting steer or heifer for
the feedlot. This is indicated by the depth, width, length and fullness of the middle. Some degree of
paunchiness may be accepted as evidence of good feeding capacity. However, an excessive paunch
is undesirable and should be considered a serious fault in conformation. Furthermore, the head
should be wide between the eyes, short, and clean cut from eyes to muzzle. The eyes should be
large, prominent, bright and clear; these indicate good health and vigor. A broad muzzle, strongly
muscled and well developed cheeks and jaws, and straight top line and underline are other
indications of a good feeder.
3. Disposition
A good disposition in a steer is an asset. A that is active yet mild, quiet, and can be easily
handled usually grows fast and fatten easily. Restless, nervous and erratic cattle usually waste too
much energy when they rush off in panic even at the slightest provocation. The carriage of the head,
ears, and tail ad quality of the eye will reveal the disposition of an animal. When the head is held
too higher over the line of the back and the eyes have a wild expression, the animal is said to be of
nervous temperament. For fattening purpose, choose docile animals; they generally move less and
so fatten more readily.
4. Constitution and vigor
Constitution and vigor of an animal is determined by the size and quality of the vital organs.
A large feeding capacity, a strong appetite, a large heart girth, well-sprung ribs and a wide, deep and
full cheat show good constitution and vigor ruggedness without being coarse, bright and placid eye,
fine and glossy hair coat adhering close to the body may also indicate good constitution thrift and
vigor.
5. Breeding qualities

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In selecting steers or heifers for fattening purpose, look for evidences of beef breeding. This
can be done by properly evaluating the form, quality, fleshing, and color of the animals. Cattle of
good beef breeding are generally low-set, compact and blocky, of a rectangular form with plump
and thick muscle. Other signs of good breeding qualities in beef cattle are broad muzzle, bright and
prominent eyes and a wide, short, clean-cut head.
Figure 30. Santa Gertrudis heifer of good constitution and vigor.
6. Condition and natural fleshing
The selling price of a fattened steer or heifer depends much on the quality of the carcass
produced. Therefore, your job as a cattle feeder is to select the steers that show the potentials of
producing lean meat with the least amount of fat. In this connection, steers with muscular neck,
back, loins, and rounds should be preferred because they will likely give a wider margin for profit
when properly fattened. However, this does not mean that you should never choose animals in thin
flesh because some animals in thin flesh may be more profitable to fatten than slightly fleshy
feeders.
Other factors
You should also pay attention to unsoundness and defects in conformation when selecting
feeders. Avoid animals that are blind or lame and those with crooked legs. Cattle with any of these
defects are prone to accidents, and their growth is likely to be affected because they have difficulty
looking for feed. Likewise, do not buy cattle that have cuts, sores or lump on any part of the body.
They will need extra or difficult management if you have them in your herd.

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Method of Selecting Replacements within the Herd
You will face several difficulties when you select replacements for your herd. One difficulty
may arise from a need of the ability to distinguish those animals which are most suitable for the
production of future generation from those which are not. It is not the animals that you will see
before you which are very important; it is their progeny. Then you must be able to distinguish
between the animal which appears suitable because of its genetic constitution and the animal which
appears suitable because of a good environment.
The final difficulty that you may face is during the selection of several characters at a time.
No animal should be selected for one character alone. It must be chosen on the basis of all its
characteristics which tend to make it a good animal for breeding. When you are improving your
stud for several characteristics, you have various method of selection to choose from:
You can select animals which attain more than a certain level in each character; you can
select for one character at a time; or you can select animals on their merit or total score, using index
in which all the important traits of each animal are properly evaluated and combined into one figure
with which all the animals are compared.
Independent Culling-Level Method
This method establishes the standard at which animals will be culled or retained for each
trait. The performance in one trait is considered entirely independent from the other traits, or the
performance in one trait does not affect the performance in another. The culling level to be
established for each trait is determined on the basis of heritability of that trait, its economic
importance, and the percentage of the animals which to be culled.
This system is most effective when you are considering only a few traits and when you find
it necessary to cull or remove many animals and keep only a few good ones. Its effectiveness goes
down as the number of traits increases and when the culling pressure decreases.
From the practical standpoint, it has one merit: animals can be selected at different stage of
development and at different times of the year. For example, during the suckling period, you could
set a level of gains of 1.0 kg per day for the bull calves and 0.9 kg per day for the heifer calves. Any
bull that gains less than 1.0 kg per day during the period will be castrated. Any heifer that gains less
than 0.9 kg per day will be placed in the fattening yard at weaning. Of those that still remain as
potential breeding animals, bull that gained lees than, say, 1.5 kg per day, or heifer that gained less
than 1.0 kg per day during feeding periods, will be marketed. Those remaining should be culled on
the basis of the feed required to have one unit gain; the final remaining animals should be culled on
the basis of score for conformation. You need not wait until all the calves are weaned in order to
castrate the slow gainers. Likewise, all calves do not need to finish the feed test before you market
the slow gainers.
The breeder will find this system very practical, but he may make mistakes in its use. When

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several traits are considered at one time, progress by this selection method will not be so great as by
using the index method.
Tandem Method
When a breeder wishes to improve several important characteristics, he may use any one of
three general methods. He may use the tandem method, where he select and improve on a trait until
it is at a satisfactory level; then he chooses and improves a second trait, and so on. This method is
best used when the different traits are entirely independent of each other or when the desirability of
one trait is associated with the desirability of another. Where the desirability of one trait is closely
associated with the undesirability of another, a breeder would merely seesaw in his improvement of
among the two traits. This is illustrated below. For example, Trait A is undesirable:
And you want to increase the level or improve the performance of the herd in this line. For
example, also that trait A is closely associated with trait B, which is a desirable trait. If you improve
Trait A, Trait B will go down or the performance of the herd in this line will decrease. On the other
hand, it you try to improve Trait B again, Trait A will also go down
When trait under selection are entirely independent of each other, i.e., the performance in
one trait is entirely independent of the performance in other traits, the tandem method can be as
effective as the other methods if the breeder is dealing with more traits. Tandem method is the least
desirable of the method which will be considered. Even when the traits are independent of each
other, it is the least effective. It has the danger that one might seek to improve less important traits
over too many generations; it is completely ineffective for traits in which the desirability of one trait
is associated with the undesirability of the other.
Total Score Method or Selection Index Method
The practical animal breeder must consider many different characteristics or trait in his
section. Some of these are independent of each other or nearly so; others are positively correlated
with each other so that improving one of them brings a little improvement in the other. However,
even if trait A and trait B are correlated rather closely, selection for A indirectly, i.e. improving A
by selecting or improving for B is less effective than if you tried to improve A directly ( if this is
possible). Other traits are negatively correlated with each other. This makes it a little harder to
select from them and it would be if they were independent.
Some characteristics are much more important than others. This fact must be considered
when deciding between the excellence of one trait and TRAIT B GOES
the deficiency in another as well as when
deciding whether to keep or cull
SELECTION FOR the animal. The fact is that several things must be considered first
DOWN IN
in order to lower theAintensity of selection. But there is no escape from that so long as all these
TRAIT
PERFORMANCE
things have something to do with the net desirability of the animal to the breeder or to his
consumers.
The total score on the selection index method establishes some kind of a single figure to be

P a g e | 44
used to measure net merit. This would be adding the animal’s score for its merit in A trait to its
scores for merit in B trait, Z trait, etc. Then those with the poorest score would be culled.
For example: assuming that the main characteristics on which the breeder bases his selection
of beef cattle are:
Reproductive efficiency (RE)

Early maturity (EM)
Type classification (TC)
Carcass quality (CQ)
If the breeder classifies each character into ten grades, recording each animal to be selected
into one of the grades for each character, the maximum possible score for any character being 10,
then of six animals so recorded, the scores might be as follows.
Animal RE EM TC CQ Total
A 9 9 10 8 36
B 5 10 10 9 34
C 10 5 7 10 32
D 6 10 7 7 30
E 7 7 7 7 28
F 5 3 8 9 25
If the breeder desires to keep three animals and he were using the total score method, he
would select A,B,C that is, those with the highest score. If, however, he were using the system of
rejecting those with less than, for example, 6 marks in any particular characteristics, he would keep
A, D, E and reject B,C,F. and if he selects on the basis of the best animal in any one characteristic,
he would select the following:
For reproductive efficiency- A, C.
For early maturity – A, B, D.
For type classification – A, B, F.
For carcass quality – B, C, F.
The results of these three systems of choosing and rejecting are combined, the breeder will
most likely select: A --- five times; B --- four times; C --- three times; D --- twice; E --- twice; and F
--- twice. That is to say, by combining the various system we find that the three best animals, on the
average age are A, B, and C. these are determined only by the method of the total score selection
index.
The great advantage of this system is that it balances one characteristic against another, and

P a g e | 45
selects the best animal on average. The system, of course, can be modified by giving more marks to
one particularly important characteristic, which would thus give more emphasis to this characteristic
in the selection.
There is no doubt that improvement should be balanced. But if the breeder is endeavoring to
improve several characteristics at the same time, then improvement in each characteristic in each
generation will not mean improving only one characteristic. Although much of the selection now is
based on the appearance of the animals, the most reliable guide is the animal’s performance, that is,
its production of good stock. In improving or expanding a herd, only the outstanding heifers or bull
calves from cows that stand out in the herd should be retained. Avoid replacing the herd with
animals from families which have shown physiological abnormalities.
Table 5. Common Abnormalities in Large Ruminants
TYPE OF DISCRIPTION
ABNORMALITIES
Failure of Mullerian ducts to develop into uterine horns.
White heifer sterility Imperfectly developed genital tract results in sterility or
complicated pregnancy.
Initially there is incomplete development of the left testicle
while the right testicle is normal. Affected animals show normal
fertility. Later the malformation of the left testicle gradually
Bull sterility develops and affects both testicles, thus making animal sterile. In
females, there is incomplete development of entire genital tract
and udder. Heifer assumes a castrated type and do not come
heat.
Double cervix Presence of one additional opening to uterus. Affected animals
become pregnant and calve normally but may become sterile.
Prolonged prepuce Long protruding prepuce remains outside the sheath after
retraction of penis following breeding or urination. This may
cause infection of the prepuce and thus shorten the usefulness of
a bull.
Hernia Loop enters the improperly closed umbilicus in either sex or
through the inguinal ring into scrotum of bulls.
Cryptorchidism One or both testicle remain in the abdominal cavity instead of
moving down into scrotum during fetal development.
Vaginal prolapsed Lips of the vagina are everted or turned outward of inside out
due to increased intra-abdominal pressure during pregnancy.
Everted mucous membrane dry. Scab formation is more
common in some breeds than in others.
Epithelial defects Normal skin covering below the knees is lacking; ears are
deformed and have rolled edges; muzzle, mucous membrane of
the nostrils, tongue, hard palate and cheek are also affected.
Affected calve are normally delivered and are strong at birth, but
then usually die due to infection of the raw surfaces of the
lesions.
Double muscling This is duplication in the muscles of the high resulting in a

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peculiar shape of the hindquarters.

Dwarfism Brachycephalic dwarf are thick, potbellied, short legged with
bulging foreheads and undershot jaws with protruding tongues.
Defective feet Inner wall of one hoof or the other curved at the toe leaving too
much space between the digits and causing uneven distribution
of the body weight on the two hooves. Affected animals become
tender on the feet.
Culling the Herd
The severity of culling, that is, the elimination of unwanted animals from the breeding stud,
to a certain extent, influences the rate of improvement. The more drastic the culling, the sooner the
undesirable animals and genes get eliminated. However, the need to maintain the breeding stock at a
more or less constant level is a factor to the number of animals that can be culled. Obviously,
culling can be more severe in females. In large studs, the proportion of females which must be kept
as replacements will vary between about 5 to 10 percent, while the proportion of males which must
be retained would probably be about 2 percent or even less.
Despite the great care taken to select only outstanding individuals from outstanding parents
raised in a system of excellent sanitation and management, some of the selected animals will be
poor producer. If they are not weeded out of the herd regularly or as soon as they are found to be
uneconomical to keep, your income and improvement will soon be affected. Therefore, every beef
cattle producer should cull his herd judiciously and regularly if he wants to succeed in his business.
The following should be culled or removed in order to improve the quality of the herd.
1. A cow that fails to produce good offspring should be sent to the butcher no matter how attractive
she may be. Only cows which have produced good calves should be retained in the herd for as
long as they are productive.
2. A cow that gives no milk or does not produce enough and raises a small calf despite good feed is
not worthy of space in a breeding herd. Such unprofitable cows should be replaced with the best
heifer drops.
3. Heifers that fail to meet the standard set for the breeding herd should be fattened and disposed for
beef when they have the necessary finish.
4. A cow that does not reproduce regularly is not profitable. A cow is most profitable as a breeder
when she produces a calf every year.
5. Steers and heifers that are unthrifty should be culled as soon as possible. Remember that the cost
of caring for unthrifty cattle in terms of labor and feed is higher than the cost of taking care of
cattle in unthrifty condition. Moreover, unthrifty cattle lack vigor, size, and strength to disease;
they may become the source of infection of the whole herd if not removed in due time.
6. Heifers for the breeding herd that do not settle despite 3 to 4 repeated mating with a proven bull
P a g e | 47
should also be sent to the butcher.
7. Heifers that do not come in heat in spite of age, size, condition, vigor and strength in constitution
should be culled.
8. Bulls and cows which have undesirable hereditary traits should not be given any chance to
perpetuate their kind.
UNIT V
BEEF CATTLE/BUFFALO NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT
OF FEED SUPPLIES
NUTRITION
It is the science that deals with the kind and amount of feeds, their composition of nutrients,
the animal performance desired, digestion and metabolism of nutrients.
Animals must receive sufficient amount of all essential nutrients like water, energy, amino acids,
vitamins and minerals to remain healthy, to grow and for reproduction. The ration and formulation
involves combining the various ingredients so that an animal’s nutritional requirement are met.
In Cattle nutrition is often understood as simply introducing proper roughage and

concentrates. Nutrition comprises all processes in the collection and utilization of feed to maintain
life or produce product. Nutrition involves eating behaviour or prehension, digestion, absorption,
circulation, respiration, metabolism and excretion. Nutrition is very important it affects the animal’s
performance. The effectiveness of raising cattle farming depends on the proper nutrition
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Nutritive allowance Should not be more than 3% below the minimum

requirement
Energy allowance Should not exceed by more than 5%
Protein allowance 5 – 10% excess in requirements is still good if protein feeds
are not too expensive
Ca: P ration Should be 1:1 or 2:1
Carotene Large excess is not detrimental to animals
Vitamin Should be evaluated

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DM requirement Should not exceed 3% in full fed animals

Table 6. Nutrient Requirement of Beef Cattle
BEEF CATTLE MINERAL REQUIREMENT
Mineral Diet
Salt 0.25 - .50 %
.0005- .01% of the animals body
weight
Mg. 12- 13 mg/kg. body weight/day
K 0.6- 0.8 %
S 0.1 of the diet
Fe 80 mg./ kg. of the diet

I 0.2mg/kg. air dry diet
Co 0.05 – 0.10 mg/kg.feed
Cu 4-5mg./kg diet
Stage Ca
Growing 0.24 – 0.54%
Pregnant 0.15%
Lactating 0.26%
Table 7. Beef Mineral Requirement
SUGESTED NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF BUFFALO
Class Age Weight (kg) Dry matter ( kg) DCP (Kg) TDN (Kg.)
Calves 6 - 12 mos. 150 3.7 0.35 2.6
Young stocks 1 - 2yrs. 300 7.5 0.47 4
Young stocks 2 yrs. Above 400 10 0.45 4.3
Dry animals 450 11.2 0.45 3.4
Bull 450 13.7 0.5 4
Table 8. Suggested Nutrient Requirement of Buffalo
SUGESTED FEEDING GUIDE FOR CALVES

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Days Milk Intake (%bW) Feeds (kg) Soilage

1-30 10 Small Amt. Small Amt.
31-60 8 .2kg Ad lib
61- 90 6 .4kg. Ad lib
91- 120 4 .6kg Ad lib
121 - 150 2 .8kg Ad lib
150 0 1kg Ad lib
Table 9. Suggested Feeding Guide for Calves
SUGESTED FEEDING GUIDE FOR CATTLE
Age Feed Amount /day
6 mos - 1 year Growex mix 1-2 kg
Soilage ad lib
Salt, water 1 -3 kg
pregnant heifers herd mix soilage Adlib
Salt, water
Dry cows herd mix soilage 1 -3 kg
Salt, water Adlib
Lactating herd mix soilage (with 16 -18%cp 1-2 kg
Ad lib
Bull Herd mix soilage 2 -4 kg adlib

14 - 16 % Cp
Salt , water
Table 10. Suggested Feeding Guide for Cattle
BEEF CATTLE FEEDING GUIDE
Birth – 5 days Colostrum Ad lib
6 days – 5 weeks Whole milk Ad lib (1- 1.5kg.)

Quality soilage Limited Ad lib
Salt and water
6-8 weeks Whole milk Ad lib (1-1.5kg.)
Calf starter 0.5kg
16-18% CP Ad lib
Soilage Ad lib
Salt and water
9weeks – 3months Whole milk 1 – 1.5 kg.

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Calf starter Ad lib

16-18%CP Ad lib
Soilage
Salt and Water
4-6 months Grower mix 2 kg
14-16% CP
Table 11. Beef Cattle Feeding Guide
NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF COMMON CONCENTRATES FEEDSTUFFS
Item Dry Matter (%) Crude Protien TDN Ca P

% DM
Brwers spent grain 21 23.2 66 0.33 0.55
Cassava meal 88 3.18 91 0.34 0.06
Copra meal 88 20.45 80 0.19 0.63
Corn yellow 87 9.77 97 0.02 0.33
Corn bran 88 10.68 82 0.05 1.17
Corn gluten feed 88 19.32 85 0.52 0.91
Corn gluten meal 88 47.73 - 0.18 0.45
Fiesh meal (50%) 89 56.18 70 8.54 3.82
Fish meal (55%) 88 63.18 70 8.75 4.43
Fish meal (60%) 89 67.42 70 4.91 2.84
Ipil - ipil leaf meal 90 24.44 67 2.2 0.3
Meat and bone meal (45%) 88 51.14 - 12.5 6.59
Meat and bone meal (50%) 89 56.18 - 12.47 5.84
Mollasess cane 75 4 72 1 0.11
Rice bran D1 88 15.34 80 0.07 1.62
Rice bran D2 88 12.5 69 0.09 1.93
Sorghum 88 10.23 85 0.03 0.32
Soybean meal 88 48.86 86 0.6 0.73
Limestone 98 - - 38.78 0
Oyster Shell 98 - - 35.71 0
Dicalcium Phosphate 98 - - 22.45 13.37
Tricalcium Phosphate 98 - - 28.57 13.27
Table 12. Nutrient Composition of Common Feedstuffs

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DAILY NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF BEEF CATTLE

Body weight ( Kg.) Gain ( Kg.) Dry matter intake (kg.) TDN (kg) Total protein (g) Ca (g) P (g)
Steer (maintenance and growth )
100 0 2.2 1 167 5 5
0.25 2.6 1.3 306 10 7
0.5 3 1.6 379 15 9
0.75 3.2 1.9 448 20 11
1 3.3 2.2 541 25 15
150 0 3 1.4 231 6 6

0.25 3.8 1.8 400 11 9
0.5 4.2 2.2 474 16 10
0.75 4.4 2.6 589 21 13
1 4.5 3 607 27 16
200 0 3.7 1.8 285 6 6

0.25 4.5 2.2 470 11 9
0.5 5.2 2.8 554 16 12
0.75 5.4 3.2 622 21 15
1 5.6 3.7 690 27 17
1.1 5.6 3.9 714 30 18
250 0 4.4 2 337 9 9

0.25 5.3 2.6 534 12 10
0.5 6.2 3.2 623 16 14
0.75 6.4 3.8 693 21 17
1 6.6 4.3 760 28 19
1.1 6.6 4.6 784 30 29
300 0 5 2.4 385 10 10

0.25 6 3 588 15 11
0.5 7 3.7 679 19 14
0.75 7.4 4.3 753 23 18
1 7.5 5 819 28 21
1.1 7.6 5.3 847 30 22
350 0 5.7 2.6 432 12 12

0.25 6.8 3.3 635 16 14
0.5 7.9 4.1 731 20 16
0.75 8.3 4.8 806 25 18
1 8.5 5.6 874 30 21
Table 13. Daily Nutrient Requirement of Beef Cattle
Feed Management of Draft buffaloes
The carabaos are typically raised in semi–confinement, which involves tethering the animals
for 8 to 10 hours per day on native pasture and it is a low cost feeds. For light to medium work 4 to
6 hours per day. Before and after work carabaos should receive ample of clean water. When in a
heated condition, however they should be allowed to cool off before watering. Draft carabaos may
lick salt in a box or may receive in their feeds. The supplementation of urea – molasses – mineral
block to diet of rice straw or summer grazing is sufficient to maintain live weight, clean feed, water
and source of salt should be constantly provided to animals in the pen.
Feeds for light to medium work animals
Ration (Kg)
Feed stuff 1 2 3 4 5
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Rice bran 3 3 4 2 3
Copra meal 2 2 - - -
Napier 25 35 25 - -
grass
Peanut hay 5 - - - -
Ground - 2 - - -
corn
Soybeans - - 15 20 -
(soilage )
Sugar cane - - - 25 20
tops
Total 35 42 44 34 43
Table 14. Feeding ration recommended for average – sized carabao.
Feed Ration (Kg)

stuff
Rice 6 4 7 5 5
bran
Copra 3 3 - 4 2
meal
Napier 32 25 20 - -
grass
Peanut - 5 - - -
hay
Soybean - - 20 - 25
(soilage)
Sugar - - - 35 20
cane
tops
Total 44 37 47 44 42
Table 15. Feeding ration for hard work carabao for average size.
Feeding management in dairy buffalo production
In lactating dairy buffalo’s demands the best feeds to produce maximum milk yield. By giving less
than the energy required affects the yield performance and lactating dairy buffalos significantly
losses weight.
The critical nutrients in feeding buffaloes are energy, protein, calcium, phosphorus and
vitamin A, in order to achieve the desired milk yield and it also depending on the feed resources. In

P a g e | 53
order to know the required amount of feeds needed by the dairy buffalo there are steps to follow.
The first step is to determine the body weight and identifying the nutrient requirement in the
national standard on nutrient requirements of buffaloes. By giving more energy it would increase
production. When the microorganism in the rumen have enough energy, they can apprehend more
rumen degradable protein turn into amino acids, peptides and volatile fatty acids and metabolize by
the digestive system into energy use by the ruminant’s animals. The better bacteria in the rumen the
more microbial protein is available for digestion in the small intestines and it is absorbed by the
small intestine and convert it into milk. Step two is to determine the current stage milking
production of the dairy cow buffalo. In lactation, it contains four stages based on the duration of
milk production after calving, like early lactation, mid lactation, late lactation and dry lactation.
Each stages have different volume of milk production and requires a specific feeding ration. In step
three, is to get the milk yield and its fat contents while step four is to get the nutrient composition of
available feed resource for the herd. We must list down all available feed resources and know the
corresponding nutrient composition of the available grasses and legumes base on the reference.
Table 11 shows the data requirements for the formulation of feed ration: the volume of milk yield
per day and for the whole lactating period and the nutrient requirements.
Item Level of production , litters

Daily milk production, kg. 4 6 8 10 12
Total milk production, kg. 1220 1830 2440 3050 3660
Requirements
Dry matter (DM)% BW 2.5 2.7 3.0 3- 3.5 3.5
TDN Kg. 5.9 6.9 8.3 8.8 9.7
Protein, g 1028 1264 1618 1736 1972
Calcium, g 34 41 50 54 47
Phosphorus, g 26 31 39 42 47
Vitamin A, IU 27 27 27 27 27
Table 16. Data requirements for the formulation of feed ration
Table 12 shows the enumerated the common and available feed resources for the dairy buffalo herd.
Roughage Energy Protein source
Source concentrates
Legume hay Corn Concentrates
Grass Rice brand Soybean
Silages Wheat pollard Copra meal
Corn Corn bran Brewers spent grain
Sorghum Molasses Urea
Grass Legumes
Crop residues Desmodium rensonii
Rice straw Arachis pintoi
Corn stovers Stylosanthes spp.
P a g e | 54
Table 17. Common and available feed resources for the dairy buffalo herd
After understanding the needs of lactating cow and the nutrient content of the available feed
resources for the herd the backyard farmer should now consider the feed ration according to the
stages of lactation, body conformation score and mineral requirements.
Feeding lactation buffaloes
Feeding early lactation
During early lactation first 100 days of lactation is crucial. It is the stage where the cow
buffalo milk production increases and reaches the peak point.in this stage the main objective is to
give sufficient nutrients to attain maximum milk yield. Because high milk yield in the early stages
significantly influence the the milk yield in the entire lactation period. Peak dry matter intake of 2.7
– 3.0% of BW is also achieved with no addition weight loss. In this stage about 25% of the require
nutrients must be higher than each maintenance ration to sustain milk production.
Feed resources Ration 1 Ration 2

Amount, kg Amount, kg
As fed As fed
Napier grass 55.00 40.0
Rice straw 2.3
Concentrate 3.3 4.4
Mineral lick Free choice Free choice
Total 58.3 46.7
Table 18. For a lactating buffalo weighing 550 kg body weight producing 8 kg milk/day
with 7.0% milk fat.
The following requirements are TDN – 7.82 kg, CP – 1500g, Calcium 47g, Phosphorus –
36g a good quality forage like Napier cut at 45 – 52 days regrowth is recommended to chopped and
feed 3- 4 times a day to maximize intake. Rice straw ca be used in minimum quantity in the ration
for lactating cows. However, this is more expensive because it requires an increase in concentrates
supplements to meet the nutrients requirements for milk production.
Feeding a cow buffalo during mid-lactation

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Feeding a cow buffalo during mid-lactation period between 101 to 200 days after calving. At
the beginning of this phase, the cow just passed the peak in milk production. In this stage the dairy
buffalos is already bred or in the in the early stage of pregnancy so it is very important to satisfy to
energy requirement during this stage. Protein requirements are less serious than early lactation
stage. The dry matter requirement decrease to about 2.5 to 2.7% of the body weight.
Ration 1 Ration 2
Amount, kg Amount, kg
Feed source As fed As fed
Rice straw 2.3
Concentrate 1.1 2.2
Total 56.1 44.5
Table 19. For lactating buffaloes 550kg body weight producing
6 kg milk/day with 7.0% milk fat.
The following requirements are TDN – 6.68 kg, CP – 1264g, Calcium – 41g, Phosphorus – 31g.
Feeding cow buffalo during late – lactation
Feeding cow buffalo during late – lactation stage covers the 201 days after calving to the
end of the lactation at about 305 days. This when the milk is slowly declines and dries off. In this
period the milk yield and the field intake decline from 6 to 4 kg of milk per day and from 3.0 to
2.5% of the body weight respectively. However the cow buffalo needs to replenish the adipose
tissue lost during the early lactation phase. During the late lactation stage increased in the body
weight due the growing of the fetus. The source of protein and energy are less important during this
late lactation stage compared to the requirements during early and mid – lactation. The body
condition of is at least to prevent abrupt drop in milk production and continue until 305 days
lactation.
Feed resource Ration 1 Ration 2

Amount kg, Amount kg,
As fed As fed
Rice straw 2.3
Concentrates .6 1.1
Total 55.6 43.4
Table 20. For lactating cow buffaloes with 550kg body weight during late lactation and producing
4kg milk/day with 7.0% milk fat.
The following requirements are TDN- 5.9 Kg. CP – 1028g, Calcium – 34g, Phosphorus – 26g.

P a g e | 56
Feeding lactating cow buffalo in managing the body conformation score is simple numerical
scale that shows the relationship between the body muscle mass or fat cover and nutritional status of
the animals. It demonstrates the importance and implication of health status of the animal on the
efficiency of production. BCS is good basis to improve milk production.
Minerals and supplements of lactating buffalos. These minerals are essential for many body
functions. They direct influence on growth, reproduction and milk production of buffalo’s minerals
should be available in satisfactory amount in the feed ration. Usually roughages and concentrates
contain most mineral required by buffaloes. Minerals are supplement when the mineral contents of
the feeds fall short of the animal requirements, macro and micro minerals are good source that is
suite to the requirements of the buffaloes in a lactating buffalo producing 4kg milk daily should be
supplemented with additional concentrates. There are some deficiency sign of minerals like milk
fever, anaemia, osteomalacia, incidence prolapse and grass tetany.
Feed source % Calcium %Phosphorus

Average Range Average Range
Grasses 0.39 .06-0.74 0.35 0.06-0.90
Legume 1.37 1.10-1.98 0.33 0.15-0.69
Concentrate mix 1.4 1.17-1.90 0.70 0.44-87
Requirements
Calf, 100kg 0.5 0.39
Growing 200kg 0.27 0.25
Heifer 300kg 0.21 0.19
Pregnant 400kg 0.29 0.22
Lactating
4 litters/day 0.32 0.24
6 litters /day 0.38 0.31
8 litters /day 0.44 0.38
Table 21. Mineral source and requirements of buffaloes
Feeding the calf from birth to weaning

The colostrum is the first milk from mother that is very essential nutrients that is needed in
the early growth of caracalf. Colostrum contains high antibodies, which serve as defence against
foreign bodies and providing immunity for the calf. It also contains higher protein, carbohydrates,
fat content compared to normal row milk and it has best of the vitamins and minerals as compared
to normal cow’s milk.
Component Colostrum % Normal milk %

Total solids 31.0 8.36
Solids non- fat 27.0 10.12
Ash 0.9 0.78
Milk fat 4.0 7.27
Lactose 2.2 5.05
Total protein 23.8 4.49
Casein 7.7 3.20

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Albumin 3.6 0.15

Globulin 12.5 0.42
Table 22. Nutrient composition of the colostrum and normal buffalo milk
Artificial feeding of calf
Artificial feeding using milk replacer is highly recommended in dairy operation because milk
replacer is cheaper than the buffalo milk. There are some advantages of artificial feeding, first, it
regulates milk intake based on the requirement or base on the body weight of the calf, it also
eliminates the incidence of scouring due to over feeding, the dam can be train easily in machine
milking, excess milk from the dam after feeding the calf can be sold into cash, it also facilitate early
rumen development and early weaning of calf and absence of suckling shortens the occurrence of
post-partum heat period of dam.

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Milk Calf starter concentrates (in Hay Fresh grass Remarks

grams )
Age in days Am Pm Am Pm Colostrum pail or
bottle feeding
1-5 2 2 Milk replacer
6-15 2 2 50 50 50g 90g //

16- 25 2.5 2.5 150 150 150g 680g //
26- 35 2.5 2.5 200 200 250g 1.1kg //

36- 45 2.5 2.5 250 250 400g 1.8kg //
46 -55 2.5 2.5 300 300 500g 2.3kg //
56-65 2 2 400 400 750g 3.4kg //
66-75 2 2 500 500 Adlib Adlib //
76-85 2 2 550 550 Adlib Adlib //
86-90 1 1 600 600 Adlib Adlib Weaning
Table 23. Feeding schedule of artificially reared calf

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Feeding milk replacer
Milk replacer is a substitute to the normal mother’s milk in feeding buffalo calf during its
early life. It is prepared from powder formulation to nourish the calf. In preparation of milk
replacer, first prepare a clean pail, dissolve 280 -320 grams of milk replacer powder and pour
clean 50˚C of warm water, use 1 L of water for every 140 – 160 grams of powder. Dilute it with
tap water to make 2 L of milk and check the milk solution, feed it to the calf and if the
temperature is around 38 to 40˚C repeat the step 1 to 3 in the afternoon.
Natural suckling under cow calf operation
In rearing of calf by natural suckling, when a newly born calf starts to stand, bring it to
the dam to suck the first milk known as the colostrum. Suckling of colostrum will be complete at
after five days from birth. The calf must suck milk four to five times a day about 5 to 6 minutes
intervals lag time between sucklings. The calf sucks 3 to 4 liters of milk per day and always
monitor the calf during suckling. Excessive or minimal amount will cause health problem.
Feeding management of weanling buffaloes (3-6 mos.)
At weaning calves weigh around 80 to 90 kg body weight. It is important to give good

management to the new weaning calf because they serve as a source of replacement bulls or
heifers for future breeding and dairy production. A good quality roughages and supplementing of
concentrates will be given to the growing calves to ensure the normal growth and body
conditions.
Ration As fed Feeding system

Grass – Based Grass – Legumes Based
Grass (napier, para grass, 3-4kg 3-4kg
humidicola)
Legume (rensoni, stylo ) None 1.4kg
Concentrate, starter mix 2.2kg 1.6kg
Mineral mix Free choice Free choice
Table 24. Suggested ration of newly weaned calf weighing 80kg ADG 500g.
Assumption: dry matter 25%, legume 35%, concentrates 90%
Feeding of heifers
Heifers are the future dairy animals. They need suitable nutrition for normal growth and
early attainment of pubertal weights. To reach the pubertal age they must have an average daily
gain of 500-600 grams. Heifers have three phases of feeding heifers. Based on their on their age
and body weight in meeting their nutrient requirements. In phase one growing heifer’s, 6-
12months old heifers. In this age, heifers must weigh 150 to 230kg. It is advice to give them

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feed ration that is composed of fresh grasses with supplementary concentrates or legumes and
vitamins and minerals during the summer that most available feed are rice straw or hay and
other farm by products.in phase two at 13 to 18 months old heifers. In this age heifers weighs
230 to 310 kg and it is near in the pubertal weight. Introduce feed that is high in protein, energy,
minerals and vitamins to support the average daily gain of 500grams. Concentrates containing
15-16% CP and about 65 to 70% TDN content. Ad libitum of fresh grass, spent grain and rice
straw or combinations of fresh grass and legumes can support the desired average daily gain. In
the phase three heifers age at 19-24 months weighs at 310 to 350 kg introduce ration that is
containing more energy balance with protein to support an average daily gain of 300 – 400
grams. In stall feeding ad libitum is applied in a ration that containing rice straw and
supplementary concentrates or spent grains. Fresh grass like napier or para grass can support
300 to 400 average daily gain of the animals. Legumes can be serve as a practical supplement to
support the daily nutrient requirement of breeding heifers.
Ration, As fed Feeding system

Grass - based Grass - legume based
Grass (napier, para grass, 14kg 14kg
humidicola )
Legume (rensoni, stylo) none 1.7
Concentrates, starter mix 1.1g 0.6
Table 25. Suggested ration of growing heifers weighing 180kg ADG 500g (Phase 1)
Assumption dry mater of grass 25%, legumes 35%, concentrates 90%

Grass – based Grass - legumes
based
Grass (napier, para grass, 20.4kg 20.4kg
humidicola )
Legume (rensoni, stylo) None 2.8kg
Concentrates, starter mix 2 kg 1 kg
Table 26. Suggested ration of growing heifers weighing270 kg ADG 500g (Phase 2)
Assumptions: Dry matter of grass 25% legume 35% concentrates 90%

Grass – based Grass - legumes based
Grass (napier, para grass, 25kg 25kg
humidicola )
Legume (rensoni, stylo) None 3.7kg
Concentrates, starter mix 2kg 1kg
Table 27. Suggested ration weighing 330kg ADG 400g (Phase 3)
Assumptions: dry matter of grass 25%, legume 35%, concentrates 90%.

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Feeding of pregnant buffaloes
In the early stage of pregnancy the cow feeding ratio is the same in maintenance
requirement. During the last trimester of the pregnancy cows needs 25 to 30% more nutrients
than their maintenance required to support the fetus development and regeneration of the
mammary tissues. A pregnant cow requires 50% of higher digestible protein and 25% higher
total digestible nutrient than that of maintenance requirement. Flushing is needed by giving 1.0
to 1.5 kg concentrates, in preparation in parturition, lactation and for subsequent reproduction.
Apply this 1 to 2 months before the expected calving up to 2 months before expected calving up
to 2 months after parturition.

Grass – based Grass – legume based
Grass (napier, para grass, 26 kg 26 kg
humidicola )
Legume (rensoni, stylo) None 4.2 kg
Concentrates, starter mix 2.4kg 1.2 kg
Table 28. Suggested ration: pregnant weighing 350 kg, ADG-450g
Assumption: Dry matter of grass 25%, legume 35%, concentrates 90%.
Feeding of dry cows
In feeding dry cows we need high energy and low protein diets to meet their daily nutrient
requirements for maintenance. Rice straw and minimal concentrates like rice bran or spent grain is
needed for maintenance. Rice straw sprayed with urea- molasses solution can support the
maintenance requirement of dry cows use 50 urea molasses solution: 50 straw ratio and feed it ad
libitum.

Grass – Based Grass – Legumes Based
Grass (napier, para grass, 55.2 kg 55.2kg
humidicola )
Legume (rensoni, stylo) None 4.2 kg
Concentrates, starter mix 1.1 kg None
Table 29. Suggested ration: dry cow, with 550 kg body weight
Assumption: dry matter of grass 25%, legume 35%, concentrate 90%

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Feeding of bulls
Feeding management of young bull is the same in heifers to achieve the desired average
daily gain of 500 grams. It is necessary to introduce good quality forage and concentrates
supplement at this stage of growth. In mature bulls they are normally fed base on their
maintenance requirement. Avoid over feeding as this will led to obesity and may reduce libido or
sexual desires, semen volume and other semen characteristics. The maintenance of the bull
should be consist of adequate amount of fresh forage to meet the DMTIVE , CP, TDN and
minerals requirements. It is also important to include minerals such as calcium, phosphorus,
copper, selenium and iron. If rice straw or hay is use supplement animal with vitamins ADEK
regularly.
THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF RUMINANTS
Figure 31. Digestive Tract of Ruminant
THE STOMACH COMPARMENTS OF RUMINANT ANIMALS

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Figure 32. Stomach Compartments of Ruminants

Ruminants have four compartments stomach, the rumen, reticulum, omasum and the
abomasum. The rumen is the largest compartment that serve as the fermentation vat where
bacteria and protozoa thrive and break down roughages to obtain nutrients for their use. It is line
with numerous papillae, which give it the appearance of being cover with a thick coat of short
projections. The papillae increase the surface area of the rumen lining. The microorganisms in
the rumen can digest cellulose and can synthesize amino acids from nonprotein nitrogen as well
as the B complex vitamins. Later these microorganism are digested in the small intestine to
provide these nutrients for the ruminants animals use.

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DRY MATTER REQUIREMENT FOR BEEF CATTLE
Animal body weight % Body weight

Young 3.00
Fattener 2.50
Mature 2.00
Table 30. DM requirement of Beef Cattle
Example : Fattener
1. Body weight : 250

.025
6.25 kg, DM per day
2. Soilage – 31. 25 kg per day
3. R: C – 80: 20
6.25* .80 = 5 kg. DM per day – roughage
6.25 * .20 = 1.25 kg. DM- Concentrates
Pasture
Pasture is a land planted with forage grasses or vegetation cover used for grazing of
ruminant livestock. It is the primary source of food for the grazing animal like ruminants. Pasture
development options will depend on the availability of land, land topography labor and financial
resources to achieve operational objectives. It can range from simple utilization and management of
native pasture to introduction of cultivated pasture to introduction of cultivated pasture. It is the
land or piece with herbage or forage crops for grazing animals, it refers to all vegetation on which
animal graze.
The existing feed resources for ruminant production in the Philippines is essentially made up
of grasslands, weeds, residues from croplands, land under plantation (primarily coconuts), and
industrial by-products.
The Philippines contains 1.5 million ha of grassland which constitute part of the public
domain. Grazing is open to qualified groups and is administered by the Government through the
Department of Environmental and Natural Resources (DENR) via Pasture Lease Agreements (PLA)
and Forest Land Grazing Lease Agreements (FLGLA). Extensive areas of grasslands are found in

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the provinces of South Cotabato, North Cotabato and Bukidnon in Mindanao; in the island
provinces of Masbate and Occidental Mindoro; and in Cagayan and Isabela in Luzon.The area even
reached to 1.29 million ha in 1971/72. Since the early eighties, the number and area currently under
lease has been drastically reduced. Reasons for the reduction are: unstable law and order, cattle
rustling and squatting resulting in abandonment of the lease areas; cancellation of lease due to non-
compliance of leaseholders with the rules and regulation of the lease agreement; and conversion of
some lease areas to intensified reforestation and other land uses. Philippine grasslands are
dominated by “cogon grass”, the local name for Imperata cylindrical, which constitutes about 50%
of total grazing area. Other major grass community types observed are Themeda, Capillipedium and
Chryosopogon.
Option for pasture development
A. Native pasture or naturally growing pasture.
Native or naturally growing pasture common

under plantation crops could be managed as
grazing pasture. This can be done by
establishing fences and practicing rotational
grazing for the continued supply of naturally
growing forages while achieving optimum
animal productivity. Naturally growing forages
do not easily respond to area improvement
resulting to low animal carrying capacity.
B. Over sowing legumes in native pasture

This option is applicable in areas where land
cultivation is a problem, like hilly areas.
Legumes seeds are oversown in native pasture
or rootstocks are planted without or with
limited cultivation such as furrowing. Legumes
have high protein and mineral contents, thus
improve the overall quality and productivity of
the pasture. The most commonly used legumes
for oversowing are:
Kudzu (Puerania phaseoloides)
centro ( Centrosema pubescens)
Calopo (Calopogonium Mucoinoides)
siratro (macroptilium atropurpureum)
stylo (Stylosanthes guinensis)

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C. Cultivation of improved forages

It involves the complete replacement of
naturally growing forages with
cultivated forage species to improve
productivity in terms of herbage yield
and quality, that it will increase the
stocking rate. But it will require
intensive management and inputs than
naturally growing forages. Often the
guiding principle is to manage the
planted forages as a crop.
Pros of Pasture area
1. Labor efficient
2. Hilly/sleepy areas could be utilized
3. It is adapted to small herd
Cons of pasture as a forage

1. Pasture quality is variable
2. Yield of nutrients is reduced
Pons to Consider in Pasture Establishment
1. See quality
Factors involved
a. Longevity
b. % germination
c. Health of the seeds
d. Dormancy period
e. Origin
f. Size
AGRONOMIC TECHNOLOGY OF PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT
1. LAND PREPARATION
Reduce the native vegetation by over grazing, cutting or burning before seeding. Well
prepared area ensures good germination and growth of the forage. It lessens the seedlings. After

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germinating, good land preparation saves the farm manager from labor cost and possible damage to
the seeding due to weeding. Ideally, a good land preparation entails two times plowing and
harrowing.
2. PLANTING
Pl ant when the soil has sufficient moisture, during rainy

season to ensure good germination and survival. Planting
materials varies from vegetative materials. Planting
materials can be stem cutting or rootstock or seeds.
Seedling rate is approximately 5 kg. / Hectare.
3. SEEDING LEGUMES/GRASSES MIXTURE
a. Seed Treatment
b. Rate of Seeding
c. Depth of Seeding
d. Method of Seeding
e. Time of Seeding
Fertilizer computation for Napier

Establishment
Nitrogen- 80 kg Phosphorus- 12 kg
Fertilizer used
a) Complete (14-14-14) at P360.00/bag
12kgP= 85.71kg/50= 1.7 bags
.14
1.7 bags x 360= P612.00
b) Urea (46%N) at P 325.00/bag
80-12= 68kg N
68kg N= 147.8/50= 2.96 bags
.46
2.96 bags 325.00= 962.00
Maintenance/yr
Nitrogen- 400kg
Phosphorus- 60kg

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Fertilizer used
a) complete (14-14-14) at 360.00/bag
60kg P= 428.57kg/50= 8.57 bags
b) Urea (46%N)
400-60= 340kg N
340kg N=735kg /50kg= 14.78 bags
.46
14.78bags 325= P4803.50
8.57 bags 360= 3085. 704
Requirements in silage making
1. High quality forage

2. Harvest at proper stage of growth
3. Finely chop – 0.6 to 2 cm
4. Field dry to 85% or less
5. Use silo which excludes air and water
6. Use seal to exclude air
7. Silo should be kept undisturbed
8. Speed/proper compaction
Interaction factor in ensiling process
1. Composition of ensiling mats

2. Amount of air in silage mass
3. Bacteria on plant mat
SILAGE CLASSIFICIATION BASED ON MOISTURE CONTENT
1. High MC/direct-out silage – 70% MC

2. Wilted MC – 60-70%
3. Low Moisture – 40-60

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RECOMMENDED GRASSES AND LEGUMES
A. Grasses
1. Napier or elephant grass ( Pennisatum purpureum)
Highly rated because of its relative ease of establishment, vigor, productivity and drought tolerance
2. Guinea grass ( Panicum maximum)
Can survive long drought

periods but shows its best
performance in a humid
environment, can withstand
burning.
3. Para grass ( Brachiaria mutica
Tolerance to water logging,

most suitable for the lower
flat lands and any area where
poor drainage is problem.

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4. African stargrass ( Cynodon Plectostachyus)
Spreads easily and has

been found effective in
holding sandy soil
along water ways and
embankments, tolerant
to grazing and tramping
of animals.
5. Pangola grass ( Digitaria decumbens)
Fairly tolerant to
drought but not very
productive under these
condition.
6. Alabang x ( Dicanthium
Aristatum)

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Perennial, low grazing grass that is naturalized in the Philippines.
B. Legumes
1. Centro ( centrosema pubescence)
Grows on a variety of soil,

moderately palatable and
withstand heavy grazing
2. Ipil – Ipil ( Leucaena leucocephala)

One of the multi- purpose
trees, deep rooting
leguminous tree or shrubs,
less desirable features is the
presence of toxic substance
called mimosine in the
young leaves and seed. This
is harmful in grazing
animals particularly sheep
and horse.

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3. Townsville Stylo ( Stylosnthes guyanensis)
Locally known as
Magsaysay stylo, useful
in extending the
productive season of
pasture after native
grasses have become
values for livestock.
4. Siratro ( Microptilium atropurpureum)
Grows in a wide range of

soils but will not perform
well in poorly drained
situation, effective in
fixing nitrogen and
combine well with most
grasses except under high
rainfall condition and
strong competition.
C. Native pasture
1. Cogon ( Imperata Cylindrica)

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2. Bagokbok ( Themeda triandra)
3. Amorseco ( Chrysopogon aciculatus)

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D. Noxious weeds
1. Hagonoy ( Chromolaena odorata)
2. Lantana Camara

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3. Giant mimosa ( Mimoso invisa)
4. Bracken fern ( Pteridium aquilinum)
Principles of Feeding Cattle Herds

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The rumen and reticulum serve as compartments providing comfortable housing for billions
of living microorganism that are busy converting roughages and concentrates into simple chemical
form for their own food and for the cow. There is a symbiotic relationship existing here and the cow
feeds the bacteria and protozoa in the rumen. The microorganisms after doing their job and passed
on the true stomach where most of them are digested.
Volatile fatty acids
The principal end products of carbohydrates digestion by bacteria are the short chain volatile
fatty acids. Normally 70% is acetic acid 15 to 20% is propionic and 10 to 15% is butyric. They are
absorbed as a source of energy through the rumen wall of the blood stream and to the liver as well
as other organs. Acetic acid is used in the synthesis of milk fat in the mammary system.
The use of non – protein nitrogen (NPN)
The bacterial in the rumen are able to take in simple nitrogen compounds such as urea or
ammonia and use them to make bacterial proteins one kg. of urea is equivalent to 2.62kg protein.
Some thumb of rules for feeding urea:
 Not more than 1% of total ration

 Not more than 3% of concentrates
 Not more than 6% of protein concentrates
 Not more than 33% of the total protein equivalent to the ration
One kilo grams of urea plus 6 kg of corn is equal to 7 kg of soybeans oil meal.
Some facts about the fermentation vat of cow
 A cow secretes approximately 54-55 kg of saliva
 Saliva is 99% water
 Saliva contains urea and is alkaline (pH = 8.3)
 At peak of fermentation, rumen contents are slightly acid (pH= 6.5)
 Rumens contracts twice per minute thrice per minute when eating
 The rumen and reticulum contracts in a synthetic rhythm
 The rumination cycle includes four steps, regurgitation, remastication, reinsalivation and
reswollowing.
Feeding Systems

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A. All roughage feeding system
Roughage is defined as feed which is relatively high in fiber and low in total digestible
nutrients. It includes forage of either grass or legumes in the form of pasture herbage, soilage,
silage, hay and crops residues sich as rice straw, corn stover, sugar cane tops and the like.
In extensive cattle production system (ranch type) cattle are usually fed all roughage ration
in the form of pasture grasses with or without legumes particularly during the rainy season when
grasses and legumes are abundant.
In intensive or backyard production system, roughage is usually supplied in the form of soilage or
green chop or by tethering the animals. During summer months when pasture grasses or green chop
are scarce, roughage is fed in the form of silage, hay or whatever crop residues available.
B. Roughage – concentrate feeding system
Concentrates are feeds which are contain high digestible energy, low fiber and high or low
protein. They include grains, oil meals, some root crops and grain by products. They are
included in cattle ration to increase the energy source. Protein rich concentrates on the other
hand increase the protein content of the ration.
High level concentrate in the total ration is recommended during the summer months when
grasses are scarce and crop residues are often utilized as feed, similarly, concentrate
supplementation is needed by fast growing animals and those in early lactation. Fattening or
finishing cattle required high amount of energy thus, a combination of energy – rich
concentrate supplement and roughage is necessary.
Ration Formulation
Ration formulation is the process of combing different feed ingredients to a proportion that
will give the animals the proper amount of nutrients needed at their particular stage of
production. The formulated ration should be palatable, have no serious digestive disturbances
or toxic effects and economical.
A present, the nutrients in formulating rations for cattle are total digestible nutrients (TDN,
Kg/day), crude protein (CP, g/day) calcium (Ca, g/day). Rations for ruminants are formulated
on dry matter basis due to wide variation in moisture content of feed especially roughage.
Two approaches are used in formulating cattle ration. The first approach which maximizes
the use of roughage and concentrates, is utilized to supply the remaining amounts of nutrients
to meet the animals requirements. The second approach calls for fixed roughage to concentrate
ratio. Since the concentrate is also used to balance the ration, the composition and nutrient of
the concentrate mixture depends of the roughage used.
UNIT VI

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BEEF CATTLE FARM BUILDING AND FACILITIES
Beef cattle are not sensitive to extremes in temperature heat and cold are as dairy cattle or
swine. In fact cattle can withstand extremely cold weather if kept dry.
It is especially noteworthy that finishing steers, whose bodies generate considerable heat
from the digestion and assimilation of their rations, do not need a warm shelter even during the cold
months. Their chief need is for dry bed and protection as cold winds, rain:
Beef cattle shelters are of two kinds
1. Natural that includes hill, valleys, timber and other natural outbreaks
2. Artificial that includes man – made structures design to protect against the elements of
heat cold and rains.
Beef cattle barns
Barns are more sustainable structures than sheds and provides more complete protection for
stocks in the colder areas. Stall pen and storerooms are also included. In general, beef cattle barn
affect a saving of labor and time in feeding and save feed.
Kinds of barn

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a. The pen stall or general utility barn – range up to 40 ft in whidth and may either one or two
story, the only difference between the two being the overhead left for hay and bedding
storage in the latter. If feeding is done inside, mangers are placed along the alleys and hay
racks along the sidewalks.
b. The central storage type of cattle barn with attached shed or livestock section. The popular
and economical type of cattle barn. This barn varies in the width, but the average structure is
about 60 ft. wide.
Beef cattle shade
Young growing cattle or the cattle finished on grass will make more rapid gains during the
hot summer if they have access to shade. When natural shade is not available artificial shade will be
profitable
It could be constructed from various materials. The most common is to set post in the
ground and connect the tops with boards or poles. Stretch wire across the top and cover with straw
or similar materials.
Corrals

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 It should be large enough to accommodate

easily the number of cattle involved
 It should be conveniently located with respect
to the pasture range of nearby water supply.
 It should include at least one long pan for
holding the hand , a chute or alley to be used
for separating the animals.
Weighing scale
It should be built within the coral system with some kind of housing or shelter over it. And
the only time the cattle should cross the scale is when the animals is being weighed.
Loading Chutes
These chutes maybe portable or the fixed type. If it is fix type chute it should be located in
large and small trucks and trailers can reach it conveniently any time of the year.
Dipping vat
The vat should be built on or side of the casual system where there is abundant supply of
water. it should be as new as possible to the grazing areas to avoid long travel and have
approaches on hard ground.
Restrain equipment
It is necessary to secure cattle for hoof trimming

dehorning and other similar operations. Stock and
squeezes are used for these purposes.
Cattle stock

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The cattle stock work well for pure bred herd and small commercial herds that have not be
handled and easily led or driven.
Branding chute and cattle squeeze
A cattle squeeze is more convenient than stocks for restraining the cattle that are not easily
driven or led. The squeeze may be set up at the end of branding chute and cattle may be driven
chute and to squeeze, where they may be caught and restrained. The branding chute is very
convenient in sorting cattle. A two way gate maybe set up the end of the chute. The gate may be
swung back and forth, directing cattle into the pen or either side,
Cattle yards and lots
Well planned corrals and lots make handling stocks easier and save labor. Paved lots are
ideal especially in the more humid regions. Paved lots keep out cattle in the mud, make easier to
work and save manure. Pave lots are easy to cleaned. If the lots are not paved they should be
located on areas of well drained.
Fences
Feed lots fences need to be strong. A good fence can be made by combining plank and
woven wire with post set not more than ten feet apart. While it is more expensive, a plank fence
by bolting two inch planks to wooden poles make a durable fence. Cattle confined to small lots
subject to considerable punishment.
Feed storage equipment
The kind of storage equipment needed will

depend upon the kind of feeds to be used. Where the
silage is the principal roughage, a trench silo will
provide temporarily but cheap storage facilities.
Trench silos are constructed by digging a trench into
the size of sloping areas where there will be drainage.
The side should be wider at the top to prevent
crumbling of the walls. Legumes and grass silage
maybe stacked on top of the ground. If the ground. If
the stack is well packed, little spoilage results.The
upright silo is more convenient or permanent but also
expensive.
Hay maybe stacked outside on an area where

drainage is good. If it is properly covered, it will keep well. In the large areas hay that is to feed
late in the season should be protected. Hay barns that shed water are necessary for keeping the
hay. To conserve labor the roughage should be closed to the feed yard.
Handling equipment

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Dehorning, vaccination, castrating, health examination, weighing, shipping. Applying

individual identification like branding, ear tag neck chains and tattoo and treatment for sickness
or parasites all may require handling and restrained of animals. a crowding pen with a working
chute, a head clamp and loading ramp constitute the minimum facilities that a herd owner
should provide. Such equipment aids not only in preventing injury to the livestock but to the
operator as well.
Feeding equipment
a. Feed bunks
b. Hay mangers
c. Creep feeders
d. Mineral feeders
e.
Space requirements of building and equipment for beef cattle
Lass age & age of Barn or shed Height of Shade animals Shade/ Length
the animals floor ceiling m. sq. m height m /animal
area/animal sq.
m
Cow or steers 2 4-5 2.5-3 3-4 3- 3.5 61-76
years or over
Yearlings 3-4 2.5-3 2.5-3.5 3- 3.5 51
Calves 160- 230kg 2-3 2.5-3 1.5-2.5 3- 3.5 46
Cow in maternity 10-15 2.5-3 3.5 - 4 3- 3.5 76
stall
Herds bulls 10-15 2.5-3 3.5-4 3- 3.5 76
Table 31. Space Requirement of Building and Equipment for Beef Cattle
UNIT VII

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HEARD HEALTH MANAGEMENT
Disease of livestock is one of the most common problem in the rural areas most especially to
the small farmers. A good livestock farming associates with proper management and proper care to
obtain optimum production.
Philippines belongs to a tropical county that livestock diseases are a seriously detrimental to
the animal’s health. The climate in the tropical countries is a perfect to the growth and spread of
pathogens and consequently the environment is widespread with diseases and there vectors.
Among the measures needs to be undertaken to prevent diseases is to keep susceptible

animals in safe place to prevent contact with infectious agents. A proper sanitations and disinfection
of all possible vectors of diseases enter in the farm also prevents the disease transitions.
Since livestock are predominantly exposed to possible diseases ca – causing agent and their
vectors, herd immunization via vaccination must be practiced regularly to prevent occurrence of
diseases. Controlling or eradicating the habitats of the vectors and intermediate hosts, by using
chemicals, drugs, and biologicals in the disinfection of the surrounding and handling of clinical
cases.
Terminologies
Health – physical soundness of an animal.

Diseases – state or conditions brought by parasites, microorganisms or anything detrimental to
animal health.
Mortality – the number of animals in a herd or flock dying for the disease.
Morbidity – the number of animals in a herd or flock which are affected by the disease but which do
not die.
FACTORS THAT CAUSE DISEASES
1. Infectious
- Infectious diseases are transmitted by direct or direct contact also known as contagious
disease. Eg. HMD, anthrax.
2. Non infectious
- Cause by factor other than living organism and it is not contagious like:
- Animal density
- Stress
- Nutrition
- Temperature
- Cleanliness
- Care and availability of water
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Disease
- Any deviation from normal health where changes in physiological, anatomical or chemical
in animals body.
Hygiene and sanitation program
 Proper removal of manure, litters and garbage

 Proper disposal of dead animals
 Cleanliness of water and feeder
 Proper grooming
 Clean and disinfect pens
 Prevent astray animals
 Provide disinfectant on footbaths
Disease Preventive measure
 Start with healthy stocks

 Work up for parasite and disease control
 Provide adequate quality diet
 Give optimum protection from environmental stress
 When confined, practice proper sanitation
 Graze in relatively safe pasture
 Deworm regularly for other internal parasites
 Delouse with effective insecticides
 Un productive stocks must be culled
 Regular check-up of parasitic diseases
 Isolate sick animals
 Immunize against diseases prevalent in the area
 Segregate animals by specie to avoid inter transmission of diseases
COMMON PEST AND DISEASES FOUND IN THE PHILIPPINES
1. Anaplasmosis- Is also known as yellow bag, yellow fever, gall sickness.

Causative agent -Anaplasmosis margenale / Anaplasmosis centrale.
Vector- Ticks ( Rhipicephalus spp.) Fly (Stomoxys Calcitrans)
Clinical signs
 Saver anemia ( gums and eyes are pail)
 Breathlessness (short breaths)
 Loss of appetite ( rejecting fodder)
 Less milk production
 Abortion in pregnant cattle (occasionally)
 Depression ( general mood is low)

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 Constipation
 Jaundice ( yellowing of the eyes)
 Starnge movements (due to un easiness)
Treatment- Tetracycline and Imido Propionate are the two most popular drugs known to cure
anaplasmosis.
Vaccination and Prevention- commercially available vaccine against anaplasmosis. The disease
can also be prevented with effective insect control with spray.
2. Anthrax - It is commonly known as malignant carbuncle, malignant pustule, woolsorter’s

disease and rag – picker’s disease. The bacterium is the spore forming microorganism that forms
many more bacterium if right conditions are available. Note: that this disease is zoonotic and it is
not fit for human consumption.
Causative agent - Bacillus anthracis
Clinical signs
 Weakness in the herd
 Difficulty in breathing
 Convulsions
 Bloody discharges from the natural opening of the body
 Mild fever
 Muscle aches and stomach pain
Treatments- Fluoroquinones like ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin are preferred treatments for anthrax.
Ciprofloxacin, tetracycline and doxycycline are to be used only as a second – line of defence.
Vaccine and prevention- Vaccination is very effective in preventing further occurrence of anthrax
in animals. This is useful even after an outbreak has occurred but the time for resistance is about 14
days.
3. Blackleg- Blackleg is commonly known by the names of black quarter and quarter ill. They also
form spores, which can live in soils for many years.
Causative agent - Clostridium chauvoei is the causative organism in most cases. Some affected
animals have also been found to be affected with Clostridium feseri.
Clinical signs
 Cattle not being able to walk properly
 Loses interest in food
 High temperature

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 Swelling that develops in shoulder, back, neck

 These swellings make a cracking sound under pressure
 Gas is formed inside the enlarged swellings
Treatment- In the early stages, treatment with penicillin or other antibiotics in large doses is
helpful. The cattle which recover from this disease may have a weak muscle in legs, shoulder, etc.
Vaccination and Prevention- The most commonly used clostridial vaccination in cattle is a 7-type
prevention vaccine.
4. Bloat- Bloat is also known by the name of Pasture bloat. It occurs as a result of feeding on wheat
pasture and other highly digestible legumes
Causative agent- Bloat is not caused by any microorganism. It occurs as a result of feeding on any
forage that is low in fiber and high in protein.
Clinical signs
 Swelling of the left side of the animal
 The affected cattle show their discomfort by stamping of feet
 Alternatively they can also kick their belly
 Cattle usually also experience difficult breathing
 Frequent urination and defecation
 In advanced cases, cattle have been known to collapse almost completely.
Treatments- During bloat, dry hay should be offered to all the cattle. Anti-foaming agents or anti-
bloat.
Vaccination and Prevention- Since bloat is not caused by any microbe, there is no vaccine for
prevention. The best way to avoid bloat is to reduce the factors that can cause it.
5. Brucellosis- Brucellosis is commonly known by the names of Bang’s disease and Rock fever.
The microbes enter the bodies of cattle and other animals through skin wounds and inhalation
Causative agent - Brucella abortus
Clinical signs
 If a pregnant animal is infected, it might give birth to weak or lame calf, or the calf may be
aborted
 Milk production is reduced
 Enlarged joints with arthritis
 Uterine infections after birth

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 Reduced rates of conception
Treatments- Repeated attempts to develop a cure for Brucellosis in animals have failed. Some
animals may recover after a period of time but they pose more dangers. They can be powerful
sources of infection.
Vaccination and Prevention - Vaccination is most effective if it is done during 4 to 6 months of

age. As control measures, Brucellosis may be avoided with good sanitation and management
practices.
6. Coccidiosis- It is also known as Bovine Coccidiosis. Coccidiosis is primarily a disease of young

animals but can affect older animals that are in poor condition.
Causative agent- Coccidiosis is a virus caused by bovine coccidian. The organism has stages both
within the host animal as well as outside it. Eimeria zuernii and Eimeria bovis are associated with
the disease.
Treatments- Sulfa antibiotics are useful for secondary bacterial infections. Therapeutic doses of
amprolium are also quite effective in treating the disease.
Vaccination and Prevention - Coccidiosis outbreaks is the possibility of spreading the disease to
other susceptible animals in the herd. Drinking water and feed should be protected from
contamination with manure. Infected animals should be isolated to avoid exposure to other cattle.
7. Mad Cow Disease- BSE is commonly known as Mad Cow Disease. The disease can infect and
cause death in humans as well.
Causative agent - Scientists have not found the exact cause of BSE but it is believed to be caused
by abnormal proteins called prions. Other experts say that BSE can be caused by a virus-like
organism
Clinical sign
 Nervousness or aggression
 Change in attitude and behavior
 Abnormal posture
 Coordination problems
 Difficulty in walking or getting up off the ground
 Reduced milk production
 Acute muscular twitching
 Unexplained loss of body weight in spite of a good appetite
 Severe moaning and ultimately death

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Treatments- There is no treatment for cattle affected with BSE. The disease is fatal.
Vaccination and Prevention - There are no tests for the disease in live animals. Prevention can
only be done by culling affected animals. There are no available vaccines for BSE.
7. Hemorrhagic septicaemia- Hemorrhagic septicemia (HS) is an acute pasteurellosis,
Causative agent- Serotypes of Pasteurella multocida and manifested by an acute and highly fatal
septicemia principally in cattle and water buffaloes.
Clinical Signs
 The symptoms often start out vague with slight depression
 Can develop into more severe depression
 Fever, labored breathing
 Rapid weight loss.
 A cough may or may not be present and nasal discharge starts out as mostly mucous and
develops into a mostly purulent (pus) discharge
Treatments- Various sulfonamides, tetracyclines, penicillin, and chloramphenicol (where its use is
permitted) are effective if administered early.
Vaccination and Prevention- The principal means of prevention is by vaccination. Three kinds of
vaccine are widely used: plain bacterin, alum-type precipitated bacterin, and oil-adjuvant bacterin.
8. Constipation- A condition in which there is difficulty in emptying the bowels, usually associated
with hardened feces.
Clinical Signs
 Difficulty in defecation
 Arching of the back with pain
 Fever
 Rectal paralysis and stenosis
Treatments
• Administration of antipyretic drugs Ex. Copyrine
• If failed, administer antibiotics Ex. Oxytetracycline
• If there’s a need to relieve the constipation, administer liquid paraffin or vegetable oil

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9. Ketosis- Ketosis is a common disease of adult cattle. It typically occurs in dairy cows in early
lactation and it is most consistently characterized by partial anorexia and depression. Rarely, it
occurs in cattle in late gestation, at which time it resembles pregnancy toxemia of ewe.
Clinical Signs
 reduced feed intake
 cows are afebrile and may be slightly dehydrated
 abnormal licking and chewing
 Incoordination and gait abnormalities
Treatments- Treatment of ketosis is aimed at reestablishing normoglycemia and reducing serum

ketone body concentrations. Bolus IV administration of 500 mL of 50% dextrose solution is a
common therapy. This solution is very hyperosmotic and, if administered perivascularly, results in
severe tissue swelling and irritation, so care should be taken to ensure that it is given IV. Bolus
glucose therapy generally results in rapid recovery, especially in cases occurring near peak lactation
(type I ketosis).
Salmonellosis- Salmonella species can cause a wide range of clinical signs in cattle including
diarrhoea and possible dysentery, joint infections, chronic pneumonia
Clinical Signs
 Depression, dullness
 elevated temperature, diarrhea
 blood spots and
 loss of weight leading to emaciation
Treatments- Administration of antibiotics like trimethoprim + sulfa and norfloxacin.

Administration of anti-inflammatory drug Ex. Dexamethasone, decilone forte to avoid endotoxic
shock.
12. Fasciolosis- Fasciolosis is a common parasitic disease of sheep and cattle in many countries
worldwide. Infection is more commonly encountered in beef cows grazing poor wet pasture but
disease can be seen in dairy cattle
Causative agent - Fasciola hepatica or Fasciola gaigantica
Clinical Signs
 persistent diarrhea
 chronic weight loss with resultant poor
 body condition score despite an adequate ration
 Anaemia
 BOTTLE JAW”

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Treatments- Triclabendazole is effective at killing all stages of flukes. Nitroxynil and oxyclosanide
are less effective against immature flukes and should be used in the treatment of chronic fasciolosis
(adult flukes). Treated cattle should be moved to clean pastures wherever possible.
13. Lungworm infestation- Lungworm (Dictyocaulus viviparus) is the parasite which causes
parasitic bronchitis in cattle, also known as ‘hoose’ or ‘husk’. The disease is characterised by
coughing and breathing problems and typically, although not exclusively, affects first season
grazing animals on permanent or semi-permanent pastures.
Clinical Signs
 Mildly affected animals tend only to cough occasionally
 Moderately affected animals will cough even at rest and their breathing will be faster and
more laboured.
 Severely affected animals show very fast, laboured breathing and in an attempt to get air
into their lungs, frequently adopt the classic ‘air-hunger’ position (below) of mouth-
breathing with the head and neck outstretched
 Animals often have a deep harsh cough, frothy mouths and won’t eat.
Treatment- Lungworm can be treated with anthelmintics; benzimidazoles, THPs (levamisole) and
macrocyclic lactones (ivermectin, doramectin, moxidectin or eprinomectin-based products).
Benzimidazole and levamisole-based anthelmintics have no persistent activity and so only kill the
worms present at the time of treatment. Cattle continuing to graze infected pastures are, therefore, at
risk of becoming re-infected quite quickly.

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Unit VIII
SLAUGHTERING CARCCASS EVALUATION AND MARKETING

OF CATTLE AND BUFFALOES
Today large ruminant meat is widely distributed in wet markets and groceries. Supermarkets
primary sell beef cattle. The meat goes through deferent channels before arriving to our table. If the
animals were sourced from a local farmer, either goes to directly to livestock dealer or any number
of accepted meat establishment. As of 2013 the National Meat Inspection service, has accredited
137 slaughterhouse
Within these meat establishments, the animal is broken down into specific cuts, leaving
behind carcass, before being sent to the shipper. Cuts usually go to institutional buyers such as
restaurant and hotels, while the carcasses are sent to the wet markets and supermarkets,
supermarkets receive a bulk of the cattle and poultry from AAA and AA meat establishment. AAA
means that the establishment has been approved and registered by NMIS and respective local
government unit. AAA can distribute through domestic and international Channels. The AA have a
small reach it is only able to distribute their meat between province or within the city. Single a can
only distribute meat within the city or the municipality of its location.
General Rules in Slaughtering
Slaughtering depends mainly on the purpose for which the meat is to be used and on the cost
of the end product. There are some we need to consider when we slaughter animals.
1. Sex. In beef cattle bulls gain more rapidly and more efficiently than steers and produce leaner
carcasses. Meat from bulls is generally less tender and lower in overall acceptability than that
steers but is equal in flavour and juiciness. Meat from bull darker and coerces. Steer have more
marbling, more subcutaneous fat, less longissimus dorsi area and more kidney fat than bulls have.
Pregnant cattle is low of quality and it is strictly not slaughter as a general rules in slaughtering
animals.
2. Age. The desired age of cattle and buffaloes to be slaughter is about 3 years or younger the meat
from older animals are darker, tougher, fatter and usually poorer in quality, the dark rough textured
but flavorful, has high water binding and umulsion capacity and is associated with degree of
marbling. The most important factor which changes with ages is the tenderness.
Animals on the right age that is not suited for breeding should be healthy and well – finished
3. Size. The desired weight of cattle and Carabao is 300 to 450 kilo grams.

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Management Prior to Slaughtering Animals
1. Fasting. Fasting is withdrawn of feeds but water is given ad libitum. In large ruminant is
about 24- 48 hours. The advantages of this method are as fallows, first saving of feeds since this
will not digested, eases for cleaning the entrails’, ease of cleaning and eviscerating carcass, it also
give a thoroughly blend and brightly colored carcass, it also give long shelf life and low shrinking
of the resulting meat.
2. Relaxing the animal. It is important to relax the animals before slaughtering to avoid low
quality of meat produce and to maintain the longevity of the shelf life of the beef. A stress animals
that will be slaughter produce poor quality of meat the disadvantages of this stress animals are first
the loss of muscle glycogen that causes the shrinking of the beef, high temperature of the carcass,
low water binding capacity and low aroma, flavor, texture and juiciness score. All of this can cause
the beef to early spoilage or lessen the shelf life of the beef. A stress animal may cause pale soft and
exudate in slight stress animals but severe stress animals resulted in dry firm and dark.
3. Handling the animals gently. Mishandling of animals may cause early spoilage of the
meat. Whipping, kicking of animals prior to slaughter develops blood clots and red spot in the meat
due to breaking of blood vessels. The blood clots will not withdraw during bleeding and this a
perfect media of microorganisms that causes the early spoilage of the carcass.
4. Clean animals before slaughter. Bath the animals to remove the feces and mud attach to
their skin to avoid contamination of the carcass that may cause easy spoilage.
Procedure in Slaughtering Large Ruminant
 Wash the animal to remove the adhering dirt

 Tie the animals to a post or place in stunning pen
 Stun the animals using a matador or captive bolt.
 Bleeding the animal by sticking in sticking the animal bleed at the animal in the jugular vein
or in the biliary artery.
 Flaying the animal act of removing the hide of the animal
 Evisceration is the removal of the visceral organ of the animals. Avoid spillage of the feces
to the meat to prevent early spoilage.
 Removed of shank, tail and head.
 Splitting of the carcass from vertebral column
 Quartering of carcass on the side between two ribs
 Weighing and brand the carcass
 If not for immediate disposal, chill at about 2- 4 degrees centigrade for aging purposes.

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Approved materials use in restraining animals prior to sticking.
This method are used to avoid inhumane activity to the animals which is again to the animal
welfare act. And to prevent the animal of too much stress.
1. Chemical (carbon dioxide): This method is approved for sheep, calves and swine. The
animal is asphyxiated by the use of carbon dioxide gas before being bled.
2. Mechanical (captive bolt): This method is approved for sheep, swine, goats, calves, cattle,
horses, mules and other equines.
3. Mechanical (gunshot): This method is approved for cattle, calves, sheep, swine, goats,
horses, mules and other equines.
4. Electrical (stunning or slaughtering with electric current) this method is approved for
swine, sheep, calves, cattle and goats.
Correct stunning Procedure
Figure 33. Correct Stunning Procedure
Preparing for slaughter
1. Wholesale cuts of a beef side in reference to the skeleton
2. Slaughter should be done in a dry, clean, dust-free area
3. Take precautions during slaughter, chilling and processing to keep the carcass and cuts clean
and free from contamination. Use clean equipment, keep hands clean, wear clean clothing
and keep work and storage areas clean

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4. The carcass can be chilled without refrigeration by hanging it in a dry, clean building.
Freedom from odors or contamination is essential
Causes of Meat Spoilage And Off-Odor And Flavors
1. Improper Chilling of the Carcass. The internal temperature of the round and other thick parts
should be lowered to 40-45 degrees Fahrenheit within 24 hours after slaughter
2. Adsorption of off-odors. When the carcass is chilled in an area with any odor (manure, gasoline,
paint or musty odor), the carcass will absorb it
3. Poor slaughter, chilling and processing. This contamination with microorganisms causes off-
odors and spoilage
4. Improper Freezing and Storage of Frozen meat. Packages meat should be quick-frozen and
stored at 0-6 degrees Fahrenheit
BASIC EQUIPMENT
 Stunning device such as 22 caliber rifle/matador/bolt

 Block and tackle chain hoist or tractor equipped with hydraulic lift
 Beef spreader (singletree equipped with hooks on both ends and a ring in the center will do)
 6-inch boning knife and 8-inch butcher knife
 10-12 inch steel
 24-26 inch hand meat saw
 Enough pans or buckets for edible meat
 Adequate supply of clean, cold water
BASIC REQUIREMENTS IN SLAUGHTERING
1. Cleanliness of the meat

2. Hygiene of production
3. Efficiency of meat inspection
4. Adequacy of meat preservation
5. Need for skilled butcher, proper tools and equipment
MEAT FABRICATION
Process of cutting carcasses into standard wholesale and retail cuts
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MEAT FABRICATION

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 Separate tender meat from tough meat

 Separate thick and clean portion
 Cut muscle across the grain/fiber
 Separate cheap parts from expensive parts.
BEEF CUT
Figure 34. Primal Cuts of Beef
VALUE ADDED CUTS

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Figure 35. Value Added Cuts of Meat

BEEF MARBLING
Figure 36. Marbling in Beef
COMMON BEEF CUTS

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Figure 37. Common Beef Cuts
TRANSPORTING OF STOCKS AND MARKETING TIPS

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In transporting of stocks provide bending materials so that the animals are feel comfortable,
examine tract before loading to prevent aberration while transporting, load the animals gently to
prevent injury and stress to the animals, avoid overloading for the comfortable of the animals and
avoid over feeding while on travel.
Marketing tips
The farmers aware of the current price, avoid buyers to enter the pen, sell animals on per
weight basis, dispose marketable animals, farmers sell their animals during favorable period and do
not market sick animals.

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Republic of the Philippines

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Abortion - premature birth

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Pasture - land with herbage or forage crops for grazing animals

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

STATUS OF THE PHLIPPINE BEEF CATTLE/BUFFALO INDUSTRY

Table 1. Inventory by Farm Type as of July 2015-2016

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Figure 1. Distribution of Cattle by Age

Inventory by Farm Type and by Region

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Status of Buffalo Production in the Philippines (January-June 2016)

Buffalo Production in the Philippines is dominated by the backyard industry which

Table 3. Inventory of Carabao by farm type and age group as of

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

It was observed that carabao stocks in

FiFFigure 2. Distribution of Carabao of Inventory

Table 4. Monthly Average Farm-gate Price per kg

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

ESTABLISHMENT/BREEDS AND REPRODUCTIVE PHENOMENA OF BEEF

Considerations in the Establishment

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Beef Cattle/Buffalo Breeds and Breeding

Table 1. Breeds of beef cattle, their origin and physical characteristics

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

grunt instead of mooing. They are more upstanding in

Figure 4. Beef Master Bull and a Cow

Figure 5.Belmont Red bull Figure 6. Braford Cattle

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Figure 7. Philippine Native Carabao Figure 8. Thai Buffalo

Figure 9. Indian Murrah Buffalo Figure 10. Indian Surti Buffalo

Figure 11. Pakistan Nili/Ravi Buffalo

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Figure 12. Batangas cattle

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Figure 13. Brahman Bull

Figure 14. Santa Gertrudis bull

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Figure 16. Hereford bull

Figure 17. Charolais Bull

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Figure 18. Charbray bull

Figure 19. Indu-Brazil

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Estrus cycle - 10-26 hours

Technical Coefficient Data of a Well-Managed Cattle Farm

Conception rate at 1st service 75%

Reproductive Physiology of Buffalo

A. Breeding season August to January

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Table 2. Milk Production among Different Water Buffalo

a. Hard milker caracows

GENERAL HERD MANAGEMENT

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Animals may be divided into the following herds:

Care and Management of Breeding Females (Lactating and pregnant cows)

Some signs of a pregnant cow are as follows:

LARGE RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Care and Management of Open Cows and Replacement Heifers

Care and Management of Calves

Care and Management of Weanling and Yearlings