CHE 57 – PROCESS AND DYNAMICS CONTROL
Select Control Configuration
MIDTERM EXAM REVIEWER
Chapter 1: Introduction to Process Control, Overview
Chemical Plant
An arrangement of processing units integrated with one
another in a systematic and rational manner to convert input
feedstock into desired products in the most economical way
Should satisfy the ff requirements:
1. Safety – Operating conditions should be within
allowable limits
2. Product Specifications – Amount/Production level,
Purity
3. Environmental Regulations
4. Operational Constraints – set levels
5. Economics – Operating conditions controlled to give
optimum costs and maximize profits
All require continuous monitor and external intervention is done
by implementing a CONTROL SYSTEM
Needs that a Control System should satisfy
- Suppressing the influence of external disturbances
o The effect of surroundings are out of control
of the human operation
o Control mechanism is introduced that will
make proper changes to the process to
cancel the negative impacts / external
disturbances
- Ensuring the stability of a chemical process
o A process is stable or self-regulating hen no
external intervention is needed for its
stabilization after it has been subjected to
external disturbances
o Gains stability on its own
- Optimizing the performance of a chemical process
Design Aspects of a Process Control System
Classification of variables in a chemical process:
- Input Variables – Denote the effect of surrounding on
the chemical process
o Manipulated/Adjustable – Values can be
adjusted by human operator or control
mechanism
o Disturbances – Values are not the result of
adjustment by an operator or control system
- Output Variables – Denote the effect of the process
on the surroundings
o Measured – Values are known directly by
measuring them
o Unmeasured – They are not or cannot be
measure directly
Design Elements of a Control System
1. Define Control Objectives
2. Select Measurements
a. Primary if directly; Secondary if relationship
3. Select Manipulated Variables
4.
a. Control Config – information structure used
to connect the available measurements to
the available manipulated variables
b. Single Input, Single Output (SISO) – Not
common
c. Multiple Input, Multiple Output (MIMO) –
More common
d. Types:
i. Feedback
ii. Inferential
iii. Feedforward
5. Design the Controller
a. Controller = Active element that receives info
and takes appropriate control actions
b. Control law is implemented
Chapter 2: Modelling the Dynamic and Static Behavior of
Chemical Processes
Model of a System
Model = a mathematical representation of the physical and
chemical phenomena taking place in a system
Modeling – Activities leading to the construction of the model
Modeling a chemical process requires the use of all basic
principles of ChE
Process modeling is a critical step in designing control systems
Can be done experimentally or theoretically
Model Development by Experimental Approach
Physical components are available; We can change inputs; We
can measure/observe how outputs change; Time and effort
consuming
Model Development by Theoretical Approach
More common to happen since a control system is designed
before a process is constructed
Use a set of mathematical equations whose solutions yield the
dynamic or static behavior of the examined chemical process
State Variables and State Equations
State Variables – Variables representing mass, energy, and
momentum; define the state of a system
State Equation – Equations that relate state variables to
various independent variables and are derived from the
application of conservation principle on fundamental qualities
Additional Elements of Mathematical Models
- Transport Rate Equations
- Kinetic Rate Equations
- Reaction and Phase Equilibria Relationships
- Equations of State
Dead Time
Examples assume that change will cause instantaneous
observable effect
Physical experience = there is dead time / transportation lag /
pure delay / distance-velocity lag = time where no change is
Deviation Variables
observed
V’ = V – Vs
Modeling Difficulties
Minus steady state to variable for it to become deviation
Poorly understood processes
variable
Imprecisely known parameters
Definition of Laplace Transform
Size and complexity of model
Modeling Considerations for Control Purposes’
Input-Output Model Transformation of a function from the time domain to the s
domain
Laplace Transform of Basic Functions
Exponential
Trigonometric
Ramp – Linear increase with time
Step – Abrupt change to certain value

Degrees of Freedom Unit Pulse – Depict opening and closing of a valve

Number of independent variables that must be specified in Translated – Deadtime is included

order to define a process completely Laplace Transform of Derivatives
Desired control of a process will only be achieved if and only if
all the degrees of freedom have been specified
The math model is the basis for finding the degrees of freedom
Degree of Freedom Analysis
Based on process model:
1. List all quantities in the model that are known Final Value Theorem
2. Determine the number of state equations and the
number of process variable (t not included)
3. Calculate f: NF = NV – NE
4. Identify Ne output variables that will be obtained by Allows us to compute the value that a function approaches as t
solving the process model approaches infinity when its Laplace transform is known
5. Identify NV input variables that must be specified as
either disturbance or manipulated variables in order to Initial Value Theorem
use NF
The presence of a control loop introduces an additional
equation corresponding measured and manipulated variables; Allows us to compute the initial value that a function
Initial DoF is reduced by 1 approaches as t approaches zero when its Laplace transform
Chapter 3: Linearization of Nonlinear Process Models and is known
Review on Laplace Transforms Chapter 4: Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of 1st Order
Linearization of State Equations Systems

Equations are often non-linear and should be linearized to be Transfer Functions

solved through Laplace transform
Taylor Series Expansion of a Function
dx
=f ( x )
dt
Taylor series expansion for 1st order approximation is G ( s ) is the transfer function – relates the output of the process
to its input
( ) ( x−x )
f ( x )=f ( x 0 ) +
df
dx x0
0
 K p is the steady-state gain or static gain or gain of the
process
y(0) = f(0) = 0

A 1st-order process with a transfer function

Obtained from a linearized/linear process model and does not a0 = 0

depend explicitly on the initial conditions if deviation variables
are used
Independent of the input forcing function
Poles and Zeroes of Transfer Functions This is purely capacitive or pure integrator

Transfer function will be a ration of two polynomials A process that possesses a capacity to store mass or energy
and acts as a buffer will be modeled as 1st order systems
Q( s)
G ( s )= Volume and temperature responses of tanks storing liquids or
P (s)
gases are examples
Q(s) will always be of lower order than P(s)
Buffering actions are attributed to flow resistance due to
Zeroes – Roots of Q(s) – transfer function becomes zero valves, pipes, etc., heat transfer resistance thru the fluid
volume
Poles – Roots of P(s) – transfer function becomes infinity
Qualitative Analysis of System Response thru use of Poles and
Zeroes
1. General observations
2. Completed picture of the response will only be
obtained if the additional roots by f(s) are determined
3. Poles to the right of the imaginary axis will give rise to
terms which grow to infinity with time (unstable).
System is stable if poles are located to the left of the
Dynamic Responses of 1st-Order System
axis
4. Zeroes do not influence exponents but influence the A pure capacitive process will cause serious control problems
constants in the response equation. Cannot affect the because it cannot balance itself
stability but can have a strong influence on the
trajectory of variables from initial to final values 1st-order lag system
5. A numerator zero may possibly cancel a pole and
affect the resulting behavior
6. The number of zeroes is always less than or equal to
the number of poles in practical system (physical
realizability condition)
Response of 1st Order Systems
1st Order System – one whose output y(y) is modeled by a first
order DE

Features of 1st-order lag system:

1. A first-order lag process is self-regulating, it can reach
a new steady state
2. The slope of the response of at t = 0 is 1
a. The smaller the value of the time constant,
the steeper the initial response of the system
b. The time constant of a process is a measure
of the time necessary for the process to
adjust to a change in its input
3. The value of the response reaches 63.2% of its final
τ p is the time constant of the process value when the time elapsed is one time constant
a. 2tp = 86.5, 3tp = 95, 4tp = 98; 5tp = 99.33
(ultimate value)
 4. The ultimate value of the response is equal to Kp for a
unit step change in input or AKp for a step size of A
a. A small change in input if Kp is large
(sensitive)
b. A large change in the input if Kp is small

Ramp Input
Other Inputs
Rectangular Pulse
- Processes sometimes are subjected to a sudden step
change that then returns to its original value. Suppose
that a feed to a reactor is shut off for a certain period
of time or a natural-gas-fired furnace experiences a
brief interruption in fuel gas.

Triangular Pulse
- Constructed using step functions

The last equation implies that after an initial transient period,

the ramp input yields a ramp output with a slope equal to Kpa
shifted in time by tp
An unbounded ramp will ultimately cause some process
component to saturate so the duration of the ramp is ordinarily
limited
A process input frequently will be ramped from one value to
another in a fixed amount of time so as to avoid the sudden
change associated with step change. Ramp inputs of this type
are particularly useful during the start-up of a continuous
process or in operating a batch process
Sinusoidal Input
Example: The drift in cooling water temperature that is closely
tied to the diurnal (day-to-night-to-day) fluctuations in ambient
conditions.