Food Packaging and Shelf Life 28 (2021) 100638

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Food Packaging and Shelf Life

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fpsl

Optimizing QR code readability for curved agro-food packages using

response surface methodology to improve mobile phone-based traceability
Jianping Qian a, *, Bin Xing b, Baohui Zhang a, Han Yang a
a
Key Laboratory of Agricultural Remote Sensing (AGRIRS), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese
Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 100081 Beijing, China
b
National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Beijing 100097, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Quick response (QR) codes are two-dimensional (2D) barcodes that are widely used in food packaging. Moreover,
QR code scanning QR codes with mobile phones has become a convenient method to ensure product traceability. How­
Traceability ever, attaching QR codes to curved agro-food products to improve traceability effects and increase customer
Response surface methodology
satisfaction presents a significant challenge. This paper reports an optimization method developed for curved
Food packaging
surfaces that uses response surface methodology (RSM) analysis. The value ranges of the following four factors
affecting QR readability were selected and analyzed: reading distance, ball diameter, code size, and coded
characters. A central composite inscribed experiment using four factors with five levels was designed using RSM
to obtain the optimal reading parameters, and experimental equipment was designed in-house. The results
indicate the primary factors that significantly affect QR code readability are reading distance, ball diameter, the
interactions between reading distance and code size, and the interactions between ball diameter and code size.
Optimal parameters were obtained with the established model by using apples and melons. For actual experi­
mental testing, two solutions for apples and one solution for melon were selected to determine the requisite
average values for the parameters. Tests were performed using different mobile phones, including both iOS and
Android platforms. An analysis of the results reveals only slight differences between simulated readability and
actual readability for different fruits and mobile phone platforms.

1. Introduction traceability. Identification technologies, including barcodes and radio

Several paradigm-shifting events, including the bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE) case in the early to mid-1990s (Wales, Harvey, &
Warde, 2006) and the dioxin contamination of chicken feed in Belgium
in 1999 (Bernard et al., 2002), have drawn attention on food safety over
the past decades (Bertolini, Bevilacqua, & Massini, 2006). At the same
time, consumer demand for fresh-like, safe, and nutritious food is
increasing (Ramesh, Nayak, Amirbahman, Tripp, & Mukhopadhyay,
2016). The ISO 22005:2007 food traceability standard requires each
company to identify both its suppliers and customers, a concept based on
the principle of one-up, one-down (International Organization for
Standardization, 2007). Driven by food safety, quality, regulatory, so­
cial, economic, and technological concerns, voluntary and mandatory
traceability systems are now being enforced worldwide (Boys & Fraser,
2018; Jin & Zhou, 2014; Kim & Woo, 2016).
Traceable unit identification is very important for achieving
frequency identification (RFID), can be integrated into a supply chain
system as traceable unit identification methods (Fan et al., 2019;
Jedermann, Praeger, & Lang, 2017; Ruiz-Garcia & Lunadei, 2011).
Because of their low cost and ease of use, barcodes have become widely
used in retail over the last 30 years and now facilitate inventory control,
stock recording, and checkout (Ghaani, Cozzolino, Castelli, & Farris,
2016). A barcode is a one-dimensional pattern of parallel spaces and
bars arranged to represent 10 digits. The information encoded in the
barcode can be read by an optical barcode scanner that sends the in­
formation to a system where it is stored and processed. Two-dimensional
(2D) barcodes store more information than one-dimensional barcodes
because they consist of a combination of dots and spaces arranged in a
2D array or matrix in lieu of bars and spaces (Qian et al., 2012).
Quick response (QR) codes are typical 2D barcodes and are defined
by the industrial ISO/IEC 18004:2006 standard (Jiao, Zou, & Li, 2017).
Recently, some tamper-proof barcode indicators that provide time and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: qianjianping@caas.cn (J. Qian).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2021.100638
Received 24 July 2020; Received in revised form 18 January 2021; Accepted 19 January 2021
Available online 1 February 2021
2214-2894/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Qian et al. Food Packaging and Shelf Life 28 (2021) 100638

Fig. 1. Schematic of traceability procedure for circular agro-food.

temperature information have been designed (Schumann & Schmid,

2018). Each QR code is composed of dark (logical “1′′ ) and light (logical
“0′′ ) modules that are evenly distributed over a square net of fields,
wherein the size of a field is the size of a single module. According to the
ISO/IEC 18,004 standard (International Organization for Standardiza­
tion, 2006), the size of one module is 4 × 4 pixels with a print resolution
of 300 dots per inch. This size ensures readability by most optical
devices.
In addition, the information collected and searched using portable
devices, including mobile phones, has become an effective means for
improving management effects (So-In, Poolsanguan, & Rujirakul, 2014;
Tseng et al., 2006). Steinberger, Rothmund, and Auernhammer (2009)
developed mobile farming information collection equipment that
transmitted information to the server via the internet. Li, Qian, Yang,
Sun, and Ji (2010) developed for cucumber traceability a farming
information-acquisition technique and a record-keeping and
decision-support system based on a personal digital assistant, which was
Fig. 2. Experimental set-up.a. Relationship between reading distance and QR
produced in two production companies in Beijing and helped improved
code readability (ball diameter:12.5 cm, code size:15 mm, coded characters: 60
production efficiency. Qian, Xing, Wu, Chen, and Wang (2018) incor­ bytes). b. relationship between reading distance and QR code readability
porated image processing technology in a smartphone to develop a (reading distance: 20 cm, code size: 15 mm, coded characters: 60 bytes).
simple, inexpensive, and rapidly accessible system to estimate apple
yield.
2. Materials and methods
Recently, scanning QR codes attached to agro-food using mobile
phones has become a convenient traceability method. Improving QR
2.1. Tracing systems
code readability for different conditions is important for information
acquisition and to ensure a satisfactory customer experience. Tarjan,
Tracing systems are fundamentally based on the following three
Senk, Tegeltija, Stankovski, and Ostojic (2014) used an Android
factors: a product identification system, a supply chain management
smartphone to analyze the readability of QR codes with variable con­
system, and a central database (Olsen & Borit, 2018). Two-dimensional
tent, sizes, and data error correction levels. The results show that the
barcodes have become an effective approach for product identification.
readability of the QR code is not directly affected by the number of
In most applications, product labels containing 2D barcodes are printed
coded characters or by the error correction level. However, the read­
by a barcode printer linked with a supply chain management system.
ability of the QR code is affected by the size of the modules comprising
The 2D barcode contains product information, including the production
the code.
batch ID, enterprise name, and verification results, and is attached to the
Existing studies and applications provide solid evidence for using QR
surface of the product. For agro-food, irregular surfaces are very com­
code labels attached to regular surfaces. However, many types of agro-
mon. A typical example includes fruits with curved surfaces, such as
food have curved surfaces, including tomatoes, apples, melons, and
tomatoes, peaches, apples, oranges, and watermelons. Upon delivery of
watermelons. Compared with reading QR codes on regular surfaces,
these fruits, customers can scan the 2D barcodes on the fruits with a
reading QR codes attached to curved surfaces is challenging in terms of
mobile phone to obtain relevant product information. A schematic of
efficiency. The following parameters require further study: (1) how
this procedure is outlined in Fig. 1.
different conditions affect readability results, (2) whether a measurable
model can be developed for ensuring that reading conditions correspond
with results, and (3) determination of the optimal reading conditions for 2.2. Experimental setup
different agro-food types with varying degrees of curvature. To examine
these parameters, we apply in this study a response surface methodology To test readability in a consistent manner, an experimental setup was
(RSM) to obtain the optimal reading parameters for curved agro-food. In designed as shown in Fig. 2. The experimental setup included a flexible
addition, QR code readability is tested experimentally by using two support, ruler, mobile phone holder, and ball fixture. A flexible support
typical fruits with curved surfaces. with a ruler was used to adjust the reading distance. A ball fixture was
adopted to keep the ball stationary and in place. A mobile phone holder
was used to support and stabilize the mobile phone. Two mobile phones
were used in this experiment. Table 1 shows the brand and performance
parameters of these phones. The phones use the two primary types of
operating platforms, Android OS and iOS. Both phones used the

2
J. Qian et al.
Table 1
Mobile phone types and technical parameters.
Manufacturer and model Camera resolution CPU
Motorola Moto Z Play 16 MP Qualcomm snapdragon 625, 2 GHz
Apple iPhone 6 s Plus 12 MP Apple A9 + M9 motion coprocessor, 1.85 GHz
Table 2
Levels of coding factors.
Factors
Level Reading distance (cm)
Upper cube point (-1) 5 5
Upper axial point (-0.5) 12.5
Center point (0) 20
Lower axial point (+0.5) 27.5
Lower cube point (+1) 35
application (app) WeChat to scan QR codes. WeChat is a Chinese multi-
purpose messaging, social media, and mobile payment app developed by
Tencent. WeChat was first released in 2011, and by 2018 it had become
one of the world’s largest standalone mobile apps in terms of the number
of monthly active users, which was over one billion (Lien & Cao, 2014).
During the readability modeling stage (Stage I), only the Motorola Moto
Z Play was tested. During the actual fruit readability experiment (Stage
II), Motorola Moto Z Play and Apple iPhone 6 s Plus were both used to
analyze QR code readability.
2.3. Selection of reading factors and value ranges
QR codes consist of black modules (square dots) arranged in a square
grid on a white background that can be read by an imaging device (such
as a camera or scanner, among other devices) and processed using a
Reed–Solomon error correction until the image is interpreted appro­
priately. The required data are then extracted from both horizontal and
vertical patterns in the image. The amount of data that can be stored in
the QR code depends on the encoding mode (numeric, alphanumeric, or
byte-binary), version (1...40, indicative of the overall dimensions of the
symbol), and error-correction level (L, M, Q, or H) used. According to
steady-state test results obtained by Tarjan et al. (2014) at a fixed dis­
tance (15 cm) with different mobile phones, QR code readability is not
directly affected by the number of coded characters or by the
error-correction level. However, QR code readability is affected by the
size of modules. Because neither the data storage nor the
error-correction level for traceable encoding requirements are very large
for QR codes, a fixed version value of seven and an error-correction level
of L were suitable for use in this research.
To test readability at different distances, reading distance was
analyzed. In addition, code size was used as a test factor because it
corresponds to module size at a set printing resolution. Although the
coded characters do not directly affect the reading rate at a fixed dis­
tance, the effects of coded characters were also analyzed at variable
distances and for different curved surfaces in this research. In contrast
with flat surfaces, a radius is required to characterize a curved surface.
Four factors were selected for analysis, and a preliminary laboratory
trial was designed to obtain ranges of value for the four factors. Each
factor was assigned five levels for the upper cube point, upper axial
point, center point, lower axial point, and lower cube point, which were
respectively encoded with − 1, − 0.5, 0, +0.5, and +1. Table 2 gives their
range of values.
2.3.1. Reading distance
Reading distance is an important parameter because different mobile
Food Packaging and Shelf Life 28 (2021) 100638
Operation system Scanning app Stage I Stage II
Android 6.0 WeChat 7.0.0 + +
iOS 9 WeChat 7.0.0 – +
Ball diameter (cm) Code size Coded characters (bytes)
(mm)
5 20
7 10 40
10 15 60
14 20 80
20 25 100
phone cameras have different reading distances. According to the
experience of mobile phone users, the majority of scanning distances
span from 10 to 20 cm. When the reading distance is less than 5 cm or
more than 35 cm, readability using a mobile phone is significantly less
than that between 10 and 20 cm. Therefore, in this study, the reading
distance range was set to 5–35 cm, with a median value of 20 cm.
2.3.2. Ball diameter
Because reading QR codes on curved surfaces differs from reading
them on flat surfaces, QR codes of the same size were pasted on balls of
varying diameters to determine how diameter affects readability. Ac­
cording to survey results, fruits with small diameters, such as cherries,
rarely use 2D barcodes because of their low production price and
inconvenience of labeling. The diameter of most fruit ranges from 6 to 9
cm. A larger fruit, such as watermelon, is about 20 cm in diameter. For
the initial experiments, the balls served as substitutes for fruits 5, 7, 10,
14, and 20 cm in diameter.
2.3.3. Code size
A suitable code size requires a label that is easily read and that ad­
heres well to the product. Exception for the very small fruit such as
cherry and very big fruit such as watermelon, the diameters of most fruit
ranges from 6 to 9 cm. Considering these fruits as circles, the circum­
ference is from 188.4 mm and 282.6 mm. In general, the radians with 20
deg is adaptive as the scope of attaching the code label. According the
ratio of the radians in the circle, the appropriate range of code size is
approximately 10–15 mm. This size was used to provide a sufficient
surface area for the code and a satisfactory aesthetic appearance.
However, because various other ball diameters were analyzed in this
study, we used code sizes of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 mm.
2.3.4. Coded characters
QR codes have a larger character capacity than one-dimensional
barcodes. For traceability, important information, including the trace­
ability ID, manufacturer, date, and verification result, are encoded in the
QR code. Other information can be queried from the connected database
after loading the traceability ID from the scanned QR code. In general,
the encoded information ranges from approximately 20–100 characters.
2.4. Optimization experiments using RSM
2.4.1. RSM
RSM is a statistical tool originally described by Box and Wilson that
analyzes the effects of independent variables, either alone or in combi­
nation, and their interactions with response variables in a process to
3
J. Qian et al. Food Packaging and Shelf Life 28 (2021) 100638

Table 3 Table 4
Matrix designed using RSM and corresponding response values. Variance analysis of regression equation for determining QR code readability.
Run X1: Reading X2: Ball X3: X4: Coded Y: Source Sum of Degrees of Mean F- P-value
order distance diameter Code characters Readability squares freedom (DOF) square value
(cm) (cm) size (bytes) (%)
Model 42750.76 14 3053.63 119.47 <
(mm)
0.0001
1 35 20.5 5 100 10 X1 2245.83 1 2245.83 87.86 <
2 5 4.5 25 100 0 0.0001
3 20 12.5 15 60 95 X2 6013.64 1 6013.64 235.27 <
4 27.5 12.5 15 60 80 0.0001
5 35 4.5 5 20 0 X3 64.02 1 64.02 2.50 0.1344
6 20 12.5 15 40 100 X4 18.56 1 18.56 0.73 0.4075
7 35 20.5 5 20 20 X1X2 689.06 1 689.06 26.96 0.0001
8 5 20.5 5 100 55 X1 X3 4389.06 1 4389.06 171.71 <
9 5 4.5 5 100 75 0.0001
10 35 4.5 25 100 0 X1X4 1.56 1 1.56 0.061 0.8081
11 20 8.5 15 60 90 X2X3 5814.06 1 5814.06 227.46 <
12 35 20.5 25 20 90 0.0001
13 20 12.5 20 60 85 X2X4 39.06 1 39.06 1.53 0.2354
14 20 12.5 15 60 100 X3X4 1.56 1 1.56 0.061 0.8081
15 20 12.5 10 60 90 X21 121.15 1 121.15 4.74 0.0459
16 5 20.5 5 20 60 X22 47.99 1 47.99 1.88 0.1908
17 12.5 12.5 15 60 95 X23 121.15 1 121.15 4.74 0.0459
18 20 12.5 15 60 95 X24 28.21 1 28.21 1.10 0.3101
19 35 4.5 5 100 0 Residual 383.41 15 25.56
20 20 12.5 15 60 100 Lack of 345.91 10 34.59 4.61 0.0527
21 20 12.5 15 60 95 fit
22 20 12.5 15 60 100 Pure 37.50 5 7.50
23 20 12.5 15 80 95 error
24 5 20.5 25 20 70 Cor total 43134.17 29
25 20 16.5 15 60 90
26 5 20.5 25 100 65
27 35 4.5 25 20 0
28 5 4.5 5 20 65 ∑
k ∑
k k− 1 ∑
∑ k

29 35 20.5 25 100 90 Y = β0 + βi χ i + βii χ i χ i + βij χ i χ j + εij , (1)

30 5 4.5 25 20 5 i=1 i=1 i=1 j=j+1

develop, improve, and optimize the process (Bas & Boyaci, 2007).
Moreover, RSM determines how independent variables affect the pro­
cess and generates a mathematical model that accurately describes the
process (Wang, Wang, Liu, & Huang, 2016). RSM can be helpful in
quantitatively and routinely adjusting parameters that affect QR code
readability. Box-Behnken design and central composite design are two
primary design modules used in RSM. The three types of central com­
posite design used in RSM include central composite circumscribed
design, central composite inscribed (CCI) design, and central composite
face-centered design.
Generally, RSM is a three-step process. The first step determines an
approximate range that includes the optimal conditions needed. The
second step establishes the relationship model between a set of inde­
pendent factors and the system response. The third step optimizes the
process by using the established model. The choice of design depends on
the properties required (or desired). Some of the design properties
considered are orthogonality, rotatability, and uniform precision (Khuri
& Mukhopadhyay, 2010).
2.4.2. Experimental design
The preliminary trial results were used to develop a CCI design for
four numerical factors (reading distance, ball diameter, code size, and
coded characters) at five levels. Six repetitions at the center point,
sixteen at the cubic point, and eight at the axial point are used in this
study and are necessary criteria for CCI design. We use α = 0.5 in this
study, and the factors and their levels are presented in Table 2.
2.4.3. Data analysis
Every experimental point was repeated 20 times, and the average QR
code readability served as response value. The CCI experimental results
were fit with a second-order polynomial by using a multiple regression.
The quadratic model for predicting the optimal point is
where Y is the response; β0 , βi , βii , and βij are the regression coefficients
for the intercept and the linear, quadratic, and interaction coefficients,
respectively; χ i and χ j are the independent variables; and k is the number
of factors.
The data were statistically analyzed by using Design Expert 8.06
(Stat-Ease, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota) and the reading parameters
were optimized. The significant effects of independent variables on each
response were determined by using an analysis of variance (ANOVA).
The multiple linear regression analysis of the experimental data yields
second-order polynomial models for predicting QR code readability.
3. Results
3.1. Readability modeling
Experiments were done according to the design matrix presented in
Table 3. The statistical test factor (F-value) served to evaluate the sig­
nificance of the model at a 95 % confidence level. The quadratic-model
results from the ANOVA are presented in Table 4. The sum of squares is
42 750.76 and there are 14 degrees of freedom. The F-value, 119.47, and
a P-value less than 0.0001 indicates that the model results are signifi­
cant. The lack-of-fit F-value of 0.0527, which exceeds 0.05, indicates
that the lack of fit is not significant relative to the pure error present in
the system. The nonsignificant lack of fit indicates that the model pro­
duces a good fit to the results. Upon applying a regression to test data,
the quadratic model in terms of coded factors can be expressed as
Y = +95.69–11.67X1+19.09X2+1.97X3− 1.06X4+6.56X1X2+16.56X
2
1X3− 0.31X1X4+19.06X2X3− 1.56X2X4− 0.31X3X4− 26.98X1− 16.98X2
2
− 26.98X23+13.02X24. (2)
The coefficient of determination R2 describes the relationship be­
tween the data: a high R2 indicates that the predicted model produces a
good fit. The R2 for this model is calculated to be 0.9595; thus, this
model produces a good fit to the data.

4
J. Qian et al.
Fig. 3. Relationships between significant single factors and QR code readability.a. Response surface obtained for interactions between reading distance, code
size, and QR code readability (ball diameter:12.5 cm, coded characters: 60 bytes). b. Contour figure obtained for interactions between reading distance, code size,
and QR code readability (ball diameter:12.5 cm, coded characters: 60 bytes). d. Contour figure obtained for interactions between ball diameter, code size, and QR
code readability (reading distance: 20 cm, coded characters: 60 bytes). c. Response surface obtained for interactions between ball diameter, code size, and QR code
readability (reading distance: 20 cm, coded characters: 60 bytes).
3.2. Single-factor analysis
Table 4 and Eq. (2) show that the effects of the different factors may
be ranked as follows: ball diameter > reading distance > code size >
coded characters. Thus, ball diameter and reading distance most
significantly affect the response of the system. Fig. 3 shows diagrams of
the relationship between the primary single factors and QR code read­
ability while holding other factors constant at median values.
Fig. 3a shows the relationship between reading distance and QR code
readability for a ball diameter of 12.5 cm, a code size of 15 mm, and 60
bytes of coded characters. The results indicate that QR code readability
increases as reading distance increases from 5 to 16.5 cm. However,
further increases in reading distance leads to a strong decline in QR code
readability, demonstrating that distances that are too small or too large
are not suitable for reading QR codes.
Fig. 3b shows the relationship between ball diameter and QR code
readability by holding other factors constant at their median values: QR
code readability increases as ball diameter increases. For a ball diameter
of 15 cm, the readability is nearly 100 %. When the ball diameter ex­
ceeds 15 cm, the readability is slightly less. When the ball diameter is
maximal, 20.5 cm, the QR code readability exceeds 97 %. In this study,
balls with larger diameters produce better readability than those with
smaller diameters.
3.3. Analysis of interaction effects
Table 4 shows a very significant interaction between reading dis­
tance and code size, which is important for QR code readability. Table 4
also shows a significant interaction between ball diameter and code size
with regard to QR code readability. The relationship between the pri­
mary factors and response is visualized with plots produced by using the
model graph tool of Design Expert software. The results are presented in
Fig. 4.
5
Food Packaging and Shelf Life 28 (2021) 100638
Fig. 4a shows the strong interaction between reading distance and
code size. The variation of QR code readability with reading distance
initially increases and then decreases when one-factor analysis is used.
As code size increases, the QR code readability first increases and then
decreases. The relationship between code size and reading distance is
further analyzed in Fig. 4b, which shows several contours with read­
ability values of 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, 90 %, and 95 %. At a 95 %
readability, 60 optimized combinations of reading distance and code
size are possible when the ball diameter is 12.5 cm and 60 bytes of coded
characters are used. For these combinations, the reading distance ranges
from 12.34 to 20.87 cm, and the code size ranges from 11.83 to 17.52
mm.
Fig. 4c shows the strong interaction between ball diameter and code
size. As the ball diameter and code size increases, QR code readability
declines slightly after a smooth increase. Fig. 4d further analyzes the
relationship between ball diameter and code size by showing several
contours with readability values of 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, 90 %, and
95 %. At a 95 % readability, 75 optimized combinations of ball diameter
and code size are possible when the reading distance is 20 cm and 60
bytes of coded characters are used. For these combinations, the ball
diameter ranges from 12.21 to 20.24 cm, and the code size ranges from
11.88 to 23.90 mm.
3.4. Results of simulation of optimized readability parameters
To test the readability model, actual fruits, apples, and melons were
selected for optimization. After considering most of the fruits involved in
customer operations, the reading distance range used for the mobile
phones in this study was set to 15–25 cm. For the best customer expe­
rience, the median reading distance was set to 20 cm. The fruits used in
this study were chosen according to survey results from a large fruit
company and included 10 Fuji apples and 10 melons that were selected
at random. The diameters of the apples ranged from 7.8 to 8.5 cm, and
J. Qian et al.
Fig. 4. Factors involved in interaction effects.
the diameters of the melons ranged from 14.2–16.9 cm. A code size
between 5 and 10 mm was determined to be suitable for apples, and a
code size of less than 20 mm was determined to be suitable for the
packaged melons. These sizes were considered pleasing to the eye and
could be used for easy operation of the QR code scanning system. The
QR code used in this study was used to encode the following traceability
information (62 bytes): 20 bytes of traceability code, 20 bytes of en­
terprise code, 6 bytes of harvesting date code, 10 bytes of authentication
type code and 6 bytes of verification result code.
Two issues should be discussed with regard to the enterprise
requirement. The maximum amount of information was contained in the
QR codes to provide the maximum amount of information to customers.
However, to further improve readability, all encoded data can be
reduced, except for the 20 bytes of traceability code, because the in­
formation can be stored in a searchable database that is accessed upon
scanning the traceability code. Therefore, in this study, the bytes of the
6
Food Packaging and Shelf Life 28 (2021) 100638
chosen coded characters ranged from 20–100 for the optimization plan
designed for these two fruits. The reading parameters for reading dis­
tance, fruit diameter, code size, and coded characters are set as given in
Table 5.
Maximization of QR readability is a subordinate goal of this study. To
achieve this goal, 11 optimization simulation solutions for apples and
100 optimization simulation solutions for melons were obtained by
using the model calculation function in Design Expert (version 10.04).
The top 27 optimization solutions obtained for the melons, which
exhibit a readability greater than 99 %, and all the optimization solu­
tions obtained for the apples are listed in Table 6. For the apple simu­
lation results, the readability of the top five solutions exceeds 90 %.
Upon comparison of Nos. 1 and 2, No. 2 was selected as a solution
because of its small readability difference and larger capacity for coded
characters. For Nos. 3–5, the code size and coded characters show little
difference upon comparison with those of Nos. 1 and 2. Therefore, the
J. Qian et al. Food Packaging and Shelf Life 28 (2021) 100638

Table 5
Reading parameters used in the optimization plan for apples and melons.
Fruit diameter (cm) Code size (mm) Coded characters
Fruits Reading distance (cm) (bytes)

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

Apple 20 7.8 8.5 5 10 20 100

Melon 20 14.2 16.9 5 20 20 100

solutions show a readability of 99 %. Except for the fixed reading dis­

Table 6
tance, the other reading parameters are varied. Considering the high
QR readability optimization simulation solutions for apples and melons. readability and the various parameters tested, the average code size and
coded character values are calculated to determine the testing condi­
Fruit No. Reading Fruit Code Coded Readability
distance diameter size characters
tions for actual readability experiments.
(cm) (cm) (mm) (bytes)
3.5. Analysis of readability results
1 20 8.50 10.00 20.00 92.08
2 20 8.50 10.00 100.00 91.83
3 20 8.50 10.00 20.48 91.77 Based on the optimization conditions, five tests for every fruit and
4 20 8.50 9.68 100.00 91.18 every solution were performed. In total, 50 tests were conducted for 10
5 20 8.50 9.18 20.00 90.27 fruits using one solution. To fit the requirements of a larger number of
Apple 6 20 8.50 10.00 96.60 89.72
7 20 8.50 8.88 20.00 89.52
customers, both Android OS and iOS mobile phones were used to read
8 20 7.96 9.55 20.00 89.23 the QR codes. The test results with different mobile phone platforms are
9 20 8.50 8.72 100.00 88.93 presented in Table 7. The average QR code readability values using the
10 20 8.50 10.00 58.03 78.97 Android platform with apples are 89.5 % for No. 1 and 84.0 % for No. 2.
11 20 8.50 10.00 59.77 78.94
Using the iOS platform, No. 1 exhibits the same readability value as that
1 20 16.18 19.64 64.09 100.00
2 20 15.02 15.02 62.49 99.99 obtained by using the Android platform and No. 2 exhibits a slightly
3 20 16.04 19.91 54.25 99.97 higher readability value than that obtained by using the Android plat­
4 20 16.23 19.75 60.06 99.96 form. Upon comparison with the simulation readability results, the
5 20 15.57 12.21 39.88 99.90 actual readability is less for both the Android and iOS platforms. The
6 20 16.39 12.41 41.39 99.87
7 20 15.39 11.75 87.75 99.85
lower actual values is most likely caused by the use of a ball diameter of
8 20 14.95 18.69 72.06 99.84 8.50 cm in the simulation versus a diameter of 7.8–8.5 cm for the actual
9 20 14.34 13.73 47.04 99.75 testing. According to the melon-testing results, the difference between
10 20 16.11 19.82 65.87 99.67 the simulation and actual readability is small.
11 20 16.66 12.46 42.11 99.66
The analysis of the readability comparison results shows that,
12 20 14.55 17.16 61.75 99.65
13 20 15.70 13.44 74.72 99.61 although the actual readability is less than the simulated readability, the
Melon 14 20 14.93 14.61 64.67 99.58 difference is not significantly larger for apples. Furthermore, melons
15 20 16.38 13.94 59.05 99.52 exhibit high readability during actual testing. Therefore, the optimiza­
16 20 16.33 13.27 49.80 99.51 tion method using RSM is considered an efficient and reliable method for
17 20 16.03 13.49 73.31 99.50
18 20 15.03 18.76 57.45 99.38
optimizing QR code readability.
19 20 14.26 14.45 52.61 99.35
20 20 16.54 11.79 38.13 99.35 4. Discussion
21 20 15.73 19.67 59.63 99.27
22 20 15.97 19.96 60.44 99.20
4.1. Applications
23 20 14.42 12.38 41.43 99.16
24 20 14.64 14.42 58.95 99.13
25 20 14.41 14.56 56.92 99.13 The results support the tracing of curved-surface agro-food. Specif­
26 20 14.91 11.08 34.16 99.07 ically, the optimized barcode-scanning results reveal a significant
27 20 16.09 13.74 62.28 99.03 improvement in readability. With nonoptimized parameters, the read­
ability success rate is not high, which degrades the tracing experience
for customers, and customer experience plays a vital role in the success
differences in the reading parameters were ignored due to inconve­ of applications of tracing systems. Therefore, the application of the
nience and insignificance. Solutions 1 and 2, which contain different present results should help to extend tracing systems by enhancing
coded characters for apples, were selected for actual readability exper­ customer experience.
imental testing. The optimization method and procedure used herein can also be
QR code readability rate for melons exceeds that for apples: 27 applied in the other areas. For example, Qian, Du, Zhang, Fan, and Yang
(2017) used the RSM to obtain the optimal reading parameters for

Table 7
Test results from mobile phones with different platforms.
Actual test readability (%)
Fruit Solution number Code size (mm) Coded characters (bytes) Simulation readability (%)
Android platform iOS platform

1 10 20 92.08 89.5 89.5

Apple
2 10 100 91.83 84.0 84.5
Melon Average value 13 58 97.89 95.5 96.5

7
J. Qian et al.
continuous chain traceability in non-static situations (i.e., systems in
motion). The results show that reading distance, belt speed, and the
interaction between reading distance and code size significantly affect
QR code readability.
4.2. Comparison with existing research
Two-dimensional barcodes are widely used for food tracing, and 2D
barcodes attached to regular surfaces are highly readable. However,
reading 2D codes attached to curved surfaces is challenging in terms of
efficiency. Research is limited on how to optimize the readability of 2D
barcodes on curved surfaces. Fröschle, Gonzales-Barron, McDonnell,
and Ward (2009) used the irregular surface of chicken beaks and legs to
investigate the use of e-tracking and tracing of poultry using linear and
data matrix barcodes. Their experiment estimated the readability of
barcodes imprinted on chicken beaks and legs, which was intended to
serve as a basis for sample-size calculation for an ongoing live trial.
The QR code is more popular for tracing than the data matrix bar­
code. Tarjan et al. (2014) analyzed the readability of QR codes with
variable content, size, and data-error-correction levels using Android
smartphones. The results show that QR code readability is not directly
affected by the number of coded characters or by the error-correction
level. However, QR code readability is affected by the size of the mod­
ules comprising the code. Based on single-factor analyzes of readability
tests by Tarjan et al. (2014), we propose herein an optimization method
using the RSM. The present results show that the interactions between
reading distance and code size and between ball diameter and code size
significantly affect QR code readability.
4.3. Future research
The aim of this study was to optimize reading parameters for curved
surfaces. Although the RSM is an effective method for obtaining optimal
values, it has several limitations that must be considered in any future
research:
(1) Irregular shapes are common in agro-food and other types of
food. The present study considered only curved or nearly curved shapes.
The readability of QR codes attached to products with various shapes for
different conditions therefore requires further in-depth study.
(2) Artificial neural networks are mathematical models used to
predict a result based on input data that do not exhibit a clear rela­
tionship. In future work, RSM and ANNs should be combined to better
optimize QR code readability.
5. Conclusions
Improving readability QR code fixed to irregular surfaces poses a
significant challenge, especially when using mobile phones for scanning
QR codes. We therefore use a RSM analysis to develop an optimization
method for products with curved surfaces. The primary factors that
significantly affect QR code readability include reading distance, ball
diameter, the interaction between reading distance and code size, and
the interaction between ball diameter and code size. We investigate the
code readability through experimentation with apples and melons and
through simulations. The simulation results indicate that, for apples, a
reading distance of 20 cm, a diameter of 7.8–8.5 mm, a code size of 10
mm, and 20–100 bytes of coded characters produce optimal results with
high readability. For melons, the simulation results indicate a high
readability rate with the maximum of 100 % and minimum of 99.03 %,
which is greater than 99 % for 27 solutions. A comparison of different
fruits and mobile phone platforms using the optimal parameters shows
that the simulated readability is similar to the actual readability. These
results should also help to extend the applicability of tracing systems by
enhancing customer experience.
8
Food Packaging and Shelf Life 28 (2021) 100638
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the referees for their suggestions,
which improved the content and presentation of this paper. This work
was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(31971808) and the “Science and technology innovation project” of the
Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences(2060302-05-962-3).
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