ANTH

6175

Conquistadores, Collapse,
and Coalescence
Southeastern Archaeology and Ethnohistory
Week 11
25 October 2022
Sarah Grace Rogers
 Mississippian Shatter Zone
➔ “region of instability from which shock waves radiated
out for sometimes hundreds and hundreds of miles”
(Meyers:82)
➔ 1540 - 1730 Southeast (1513 - 1838 FL)
➔ Instability created by:
◆ Structural instability and the inability to withstand
colonialism
◆ Diseases and depopulation
◆ Developing capitalist economy (European animal
and native slave trade)
◆ Increased violence and warfare (slave trade, slaving
societies)
➔ Reorganization: disappearance, splintering, coalescence
➔ Extends further (Iroquois, Erie, Susquehannock, and
Shawnee)
 1
Introduction: Mapping the
Mississippian Shatter Zone
pages 1 - 62, Robbie Ethridge
 2
Events as Seen from the North:
The Iriquois and Colonial Slavery
pages 63 - 80, William A. Fox
 3
From Refugees to Slave Traders:
The Transformation of the Westo Indians
pages 81 - 103, Maureen Meyers
 4
“Caryinge awaye their Corne and Children”:
The Effects of West Slave Raids
on the Indians of the Lower South
pages 104 - 114, Eric E. Bowne
 The Mississippian World
Cahokia
➔ AD 900 - 1700
◆ Early: 900 - 1200
◆ Middle: 1200 - 1500
◆ Late: 1500 - 1700
➔ Chiefdoms
◆ Elites and non-elites
◆ Simple, complex, paramount
◆ Mounds and plazas
◆ Self-sufficient
◆ Farming, hunting, fishing, gathering
◆ Manufacturing
◆ Endemic warfare
➔ Examples: Cahokia, Moundville, Etowah
Etowah
 Mississippian Collaspse
➔ Southern Native societies transformed 1540-1730
◆ Tied to larger context
➔ Gradual, not uniform, collapse
➔ Some causes of collapse
◆ Military loss from explorers and destabilized chiefdoms
◆ Old World diseases
◆ Atlantic World economic circuit (trade)
◆ Increased violence/warfare
➔ Evidence of collapse
◆ Migrations into compact and fortified towns
◆ Population loss and disappearances
◆ Group splintering and coalescence
◆ Decrease in artistic life
 Spanish entradas
➔ Major
◆ De Leon
◆ Narvaez
◆ De Soto
◆ Arellano
◆ De Luna
◆ Pardo
➔ Smaller
◆ Miruelo (1516) Increased Native instability
◆ De Cordova (1517)
➔ Micos leverage European power
◆ De Pineda (1519)
➔ Taking food stores
➔ Used requerimento (demands
➔ Slaving economy
of rights to conquest)
➔ Warfare
 Spanish Conquistadors
Juan Ponce de Leon
➔ 1513:
◆ Skirts Atlantic Coast: ashore for water, Native clash
◆ Key Biscayne: ashore for water
● Explores abandoned Tequesta village
◆ May 23 – June 8:
● Calusa territory
○ Relations waver between trade & war
● Encounters standing military
➔ 1521:
◆ Returns to Calusa
● Battle
◆ Retreats to Cuba and dies
 Spanish Conquistadors
Panfilo de Narvaez
➔ 1528 Landed north of Tampa Bay (200 die in hurricane)
◆ 60 people across 5 ships
◆ Split forces:
● Ships: 110
● Land: 300
○ Parallel with coast
○ North to Apalachee (Palachen)
○ Enslaved Indians from Withlacoochee River area and ate their CORN
○ Met Dulchanchellin (Timucua cacique)
○ Apalachee (Palachen) territory
◆ Attack & occupy village (but continually attacked)
◆ Chased to coast
● 242 survivors built boats (Bay of Horses)
● Only 4 survived (1 recorded this: Cabeza de Vaca)
 Spanish Conquistadors
Hernando de Soto
➔ Pizarro’s conquest of Inca
➔ Charter consolidated de Leon, Ayllon, Narvaez
➔ The Deathmarch (1539-1542)
◆ Landed in Tampa Bay May 25, 1539
◆ First leg: Florida
● Winter 1539-1540 in Apalachee
◆ Second leg: Apalachee to Alibamo
● Battle of Mabila: 2-6,000 killed
● Winter 1540-1541: Chicaza
◆ Third leg: Chicaza to de Soto’s death
● Entrada goes to Mexico via Mississippi River
➔ Indian slaving began with de Soto
Spanish Conquistadors
Tristan de Luna y Arellano
➔ 1559-1561
➔ 1st well-prepared entrada:
◆ 1500 soldiers & colonists, 240 horses
➔ Goal to establish 3 settlements:
◆ Bay of Ochuse (Pensacola)
◆ Coosa
◆ Santa Elena
● Established route to Santa Elena for silver
transport
➔ Bay of Ochuse August 14, 1559
◆ Hurricane strikes September 19 (food on ships)
◆ Move to Nanipacana (Alabama River)
◆ Relief ships sent
◆ June 1560: 200 soldiers sent to Coosa
◆ 1561: Villafane replaces Luna as governor
 Spanish Conquistadors
Pedro Menendez de Aviles
➔ Commander (Captain General) of Fleet of the Indies
◆ Wasn’t true entrada
➔ Son’s ship sunk off coast of South Carolina = search (denied at first)
➔ August 28, 1565
◆ Landed at St. Augustine
◆ Marched on French Fort Caroline
● September 20, 1565
○ Captured fort
○ Killed 132 men
● Executed 350 soldiers at Matanzas Inlet
◆ Established St. Augustine
➔ 1566: established Santa Elena (capital 1566-1587)
➔ 1566-1569 South Florida:
◆ Fort San Anton de Carlos at Mound Key
● 1567: 1st Jesuit Mission on Mound Key
◆ 1567: Mission at Tequesta (Miami River)
 Spanish Conquistadors
Juan Pardo
1566-1568
2 expeditions/entradas
➔ 12/1/1566 – 3/6/1567:
◆ 125 men from Santa Elena
◆ Fort San Juan de Xualla at Joara
➔ 9/1/1567 – 3/2/1568:
◆ Goal: road to Zacatecas
◆ Forts (with small garrison)
● Nuestra Senora, San Pedro, San Pablo, Santiago,
● Santo Tomas
◆ Claim lands for Spain
➔ 1568:
◆ Native Americans burn all forts
◆ Kill all but one
Diseases and Slaving
Diseases

➔ Lost 90% of Native population

➔ First widespread documented: 1696 Great
Southeastern Smallpox Epidemic
➔ Iroquois epidemics: 1630s and 1640s
➔ Little documentation
➔ Evidence
◆ Settlement pattern data (demographic shift and
depopulation)
◆ Mortuary patterns (mass graves)
◆ Evidence of poor health in skeletal remains
➔ Combined with trade, warfare, and slavery– interplay
◆ Multicausal
 Slaving (Mair:2020)

➔ Native slaveholding
◆ Long-held institution
◆ Prestige (dominance)
◆ Via captives
◆ Upholding hierarchy of inequality (lacked kinship)
● Community united based on understanding they were superior to
captives
◆ Well-established before Atlantic Slave Trade
● Though soon overshadowed because of ease
 Tribal Zone Theory

➔ Warfare increased, intensified, and transformed

➔ “Tribal Zones”--
Edge of the empire
➔ 3 forms of warfare in tribal zones
◆ Resistance wars
◆ Ethnic soldiering
◆ Internecine warfare
Indian Slave Trade and Inauguration of the World Economy
English, French, Spanish, Dutch
contact and competition
➔ America = strategic commercial
outpost for extracting labor and
resources
➔ Global commercial power
➔ Connected Natives to world
capitalist economy in 17th
century (world systems theory)
➔ Major reason of
collapse/transformation
Capitalism: “large-scale
extraction of raw materials,
the production and
distribution of commodities,
the endless accumulation of
capital, the
supply-demand-pricing
mechanism of the market,
economies of scale, the
appropriation of human
labor in service to capitalist
production, and means of
production controlled by and
profits accruing to a few”
(Ethridge:16)
Slavery transforms with
European contact.
Indians, Imperialism, Slaving, and Colonial Violence
➔ Capitalist incorporation, imperialism, state expansion = violence and Native militarization
➔ Prized furs = trade and intra-Indian conflict/hostility (Iroquois)
➔ Europeans enlisted Natives to capture prisoners for trade– build empire
◆ Encouraged by Europeans
● Weakened threats
● Fulfilled labor shortage
➔ Natives traded other Natives to purchase guns, ammunition, tools, and resources made available with European
trade
◆ Saw advantage in trade
◆ Required force
◆ Warfare tied to commercial interests = intensified Native commercial interests
➔ Intense warfare, militaristic slaving societies
◆ Dislocation, migration, amalgamation, extinction
➔ Weapons used to raid rivals for slaves
◆ Rivals obtain guns to protect themselves
➔ Cycle of slaving, trading, and weapons = several militaristic slaving societies
➔ Eventually transformed into chattel slavery
➔ Existed only about 100 years (1620 to 1720)
 Slave Raids
➔ Snatching vulnerable, mostly women and children
◆ Kill men/warriors
◆ Spanish, FL raid (1704-1707): 10-12,000
➔ Shipped out
◆ West Indies and South America
● Plantations and mines
◆ New England, French Canada, and French Louisiana
● Domestic servants, concubines, laborers,
and agricultural laborers
◆ Jamestown and Charleston planters
➔ Half of the population loss from 1685-1715 Native Americans enslaved by Spaniards,
published in 1596
➔ Stressed chiefdoms to breaking point
➔ End of slave trade and collapse of last chiefdom: Tuscarora War of 1712, the Yamasee War of 1715, and
the Natchez Revolt of 1729
Militaristic Slaving
Societies
➔ Occoneechee, Chisca, Iroquois, Westos
 Occoneechee
Occoneechee Path

➔ 1640: new trade opportunity in

Occoneechee Trading Post
Jamestown = more militaristic
slaving societies
➔ Occoneechee Island and east of
Dan and Roanoke Rivers junction
◆ Commercial slaving: guns
and ammunition
➔ Middle men for VA traders–
controlling 500 miles of English
Southern trade

Occoneechee Band
Chisca

➔ Eastern Tennessee in the 16th century;

Alabama, Georgia, and Florida in the
17th (Yuchi)
➔ Raiding Spanish mission Indians (1620)
➔ No evidence of selling directly to
Europeans
➔ Ran out in 1677 by Apalachee-Spanish
battle
Iroquois
 Iroquois: Background (Wallace)

➔ Five Nations of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga,

Cayuga, and Seneca: “the Longhouse”
● Likely mid-15th century though no
documentation
● Great League of Peace and Power
➔ Light political bond, federal council, retained
sovereignty
➔ Surrounded by Algonquin-speakers: the Hurons; the
Petuns; the Neutrals; the Wenros; the Mahicans; and
the Susquehannocks
Five Nations Violence and Warfare

➔ Endemic warfare before Europeans arrived

➔ Coalitional aggression demographic that fueled warfare
◆ Prevalent aggressive young men fuel pre-contact
violent conflicts
● Agriculture = increase population in 14th
century and unrest
◆ Destabilization from epidemic losses
● Epidemics of 1630s-40s
● Mourning wars to replace dead
◆ Superior weapons after contact with Europeans
● Advantage in wars with other Native groups
➔ Explosion of Five Nations violence in the 17th century
 Beaver Wars (1603-1701)
➔ Europeans: economic revolution
● Trade– beaver furs for European weapons
➔ Native competition
➔ Beaver Wars: Native competition over hunting access
◆ Piracy: raiding French trade, ambushing Huron,
dispatching whole nations
◆ 1675: strongest military power in North America
● Territory in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio,
Maryland, and Virgina
◆ Beaver Wars outcomes
● Commercial failure (never became middlemen)
● Rerouting of Virginia Carolina Road (peace with
settlers)
● Open Susquehannock Valley
○ Defeated refugees
 17th Century Iroquoia
◆ 1640s-50s = pivotal for Native relations in lower Great Lakes
● European trade competition = musket advantage
◆ Emptied surroundings: Mahicans, Hurons, Petuns, Neutrals, Wenros, Eries
○ 1649: dispersed Petuns (Tionnontatehronnons) and Huron
○ 1650: dispersed Kiskakon Odawas
○ 1651-1652: epidemic-depleted Neutral confederacy succumbed to the Seneca
○ 1656: Eries were defeated, dispersed, and adopted into the Five Nations
◆ Fled to VA (Westos)
➔ Turned to distant groups (up to 1600 miles): Abenakis, Ojibwa, Ottawas, Wyandots, Crees,
Illinois, Miamis, and Chipewyans
➔ Moved to lower midwest: Ohio Valley, Michigan, Ohio, Illinois
➔ Filtered down Atlantic seaboard: Delaware Bay; Susquehannocks
➔ Displacement and Coalescence
◆ New groups incorporated into Iroquois or displaced and coalesced
 Iroquois–Southern Raids
● Iroquoian motives in the South
○ Raids based in Iroquois values and angry-young-man demographic brought on with
epidemic cycles
● Five and then Six Nations Iroquois continued southern raids in early to mid 18th century
○ Reasons
■ The Great Peace of Montreal in 1701: closed the east, north, and west to their
war parties
■ French encouraged Iroquois to divert young men to the south
○ 18th century Iroquois attacks on southern groups
■ Catawbas, Cherokees, Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws
● Shattering tradition
● Coalescence
Iroquois Slavery

➔ Captives
➔ Descriptions from European writing
◆ Immediate death
◆ Torture
◆ Spared and roles in community
● Many as burdeners
● Roles determined by matriarch
of community
◆ Slave status was not inherited– free
members of society they were born
into (not chattel)
Iroquois actions: preserving
culture from external
threats and internal stress
 = Evidence that the
Mississippian Shatter
Zone extends further
The Westos
 Westos

➔ Commercial slave trade

system through English
trade partnership
◆ Slave raids for
English against
Natives in Georgia,
North Carolina,
South Carolina,
Florida, and entral
Alabama
➔ Two decades on Southern
trade monopoly
○ 17th century incursions into
VA by Massowomack and

Westos Origins
Monongahela made VA known
to northern groups

➔ “Richahecrians” that appeared in VA in 1656 from the mountains,

settling on the James River (Crane)
◆ Displaced northeastern Natives
➔ Displaced Eries (Bowne)
◆ Lived west of Five Nations Iroquois as coalescent society
◆ Incorporated groups like Huron, Neutral, and Wenroe
◆ One of the last to hold against Five Nations aggression
● Defeated 1654-65
● Dispersed (coalescent nature)
◆ Henry Woodward descriptions: Westo town along Savannah
River (1680) as evidence (Green)
● Multiple accounts of Richahecrians settling in Virginia
the same year the Eries were defeated by the Iroquois
● Similarity between Southern names for the Westo and
Northern names for the Eries
➔ Could originate from Wenro, Huron, Neutral, or even Five Nations
Iroquois (but not enough evidence)
 Northern-Mid-Atlantic Trade Connections

➔ Trade connected the Northeast with the South

◆ Westos ability to make their way down the east coast
➔ Abbyville: northern beaver and shell trade before mid 17th century
◆ Trade route may have lured Richahecrians to VA in 1656
◆ Northern, Iroquoian-speaking groups (the
Monongahelas-Massawomacks-Attioundaron)= procuring shell and beaver pelts from
VA and trading them north to the Neutrals and other groups in exchange for European
goods
◆ Dutch beads at Abbyville site
● Found on both Niagara Frontier and Seneca Iroquois sites as well as on Neutral
and Huron sites in southern Ontario where they are more popular
➔ Westos = middlemen in marine shell trade soon after arrival
◆ May have been following already established trade route
 The Battle of Bloody Run
➔ 600-700 people when settled
➔ VA colonists immediately organized
militia from Pamunkeyes (largest
group of Powhatan Confederacy)
➔ Westos were allied with
Susquehannocks (Pamunkey
enemies)
➔ Battle at Richahecrian settlement on
James River
➔ Richahecrian
 Trade Connections
➔ Richahecrian victory at Bloody Run = VA government sued for peace
➔ Colony wanted to open trade with interior Indians
◆ Aspiring traders saw their chance to seize control of trade
◆ Abraham Wood replaced Edward Hill as militia leader
● Initiated VA trade relationship with natives
◆ Other wealthy Indian traders
● Thomas Stegge II: established successful trade with southern VA and western NC Indians
● William Byrd I (Stegge’s nephew): active trading post 1673 and emerging trading path
● Trading family of Thodorick Blank and sons
● Edward Hill
◆ Bland-Stegge-Byrd I partnership
● More advantage: property located across from Bloody Run where Richahecrians were
settling
● Virginia Council contributed to Stegge’s advantage in securing trade agreement
○ 1656: lifted Jamestown Massacre 1622 trade restrictions, allowing direct Native trade
○ Trade establishments with trade regulations; Native trading licenses
 “Westos” Name Origin
➔ Bland’s plantation
“Westover”
◆ “Westos”
shorthand for
Westover on trade
agreement
➔ First record of the
name: 1670 in a warning
from SC natives to the
British
 Westos Raids
➔ Westos – Savannah River (1660s): Raid Spanish Mission Indians and low country groups
● Correspondence of James Needham, Abraham Wood, and Henry Woodward = connecting
SC and VA
◆ Westo aggression affected Spanish FL social geography
● Advantage of guns
● Emptied populations
● Impetus for Yamasee formation
➔ 1663-1674: Assault Indian groups to steal corn/capture Natives to trade as slaves to VA
◆ 1667: Westos attacking Indian settlements along SC coast
● 1670: Native groups were seeking alliances with Europeans for safety against the Westos
◆ 1674: Lords Proprietors of Carolina collaborated with Woodward to establish trade with Westos
● Thought slaves would be captured only from interior, nonallied Indians
◆ 1674-1690: Lord Proprietors fought with Carolina planters for control of trade
● Proprietors; monopoly on trade with Westos = angered planters
○ Most lucrative economic activity (deerskin, beaver pelt, slaves)
● 1674 agreement between Westos and Carolinians to take slaves from interior, nonallied
groups
End of the Westos (Fateful Blows 1670s)

➔ Other groups: guns and competition (Occaneechee)

➔ Planters want control of trade
◆ Charles Town planters and business men (Goose
Creek Men): trade coup against Lord Proprietors and
Westo monopoly
● Goose Creek Men hired Savannah (Shawnee)
mercenaries to annihilate Westos
● Goal: open trade to interior
➔ Virginia Government
◆ 1650s-1670s: Virginia Council passed laws to
regulate trade
 Bacon’s Rebellion
➔ First rebellion against the Crown
➔ Linked to Indian slave trade
◆ September 1675: Susquehannocks raided
plantations/farmsteads of Bacon and Byrd I
● Consequence of these attacks = Bacon’s
Rebellion
○ Feared Northern Indian incursions
would disrupt their trade
○ Bacon attacked Occaneechee and
Pamunkeys and other Indian traders
➔ Result for groups like Westos = Indians would no longer
control trade
 Effects of Westos Raids
● Enslaved Cofitachequi on Wateree River in SC = principal target
○ Disappearance (multicausal)
● Formation of coalescent societies in height of slave trade
○ Creek Nation: Ocheses, Hitchitis, Ocmulgees, and Cowetas
○ Catawba Confederacy: Chicasaws, Waterees, Congarees, and Sugarees
○ New social identities: Creeks, Catawbas, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Cherokees
● Unrecognizable South (1700s)
○ Diversity disappeared, polities decreased
○ Refugees seek Spanish/English settler protection or join with other Native groups
○ Increased acquisition of firearms
○ Effects on those not even involved with Europeans
Second Generation of Slaving Societies

Frenzy of slaving
➔ Tuscaroras- prevailing middlemen in the southern
Piedmont
➔ Cherokees- slaving in southwestern Appalachians and
Piedmont
➔ Yuchis- mobile militaristic slavers by the early eighteenth
century
➔ Yamasees (SC and GA)
➔ 1685-1698: Abhikas, Alabamas, Tallapoosas,
Apalachicolas, Cussetas, and Cowetas: intense slaving
campaigns
Militaristic Slaving Societies Outlive Usefulness

➔ Outliving usefulness to English trade by 1680 (European and Indian Wars)

◆ Occaneechee
● Diminished in Bacon’s Rebellion (1676)
● Survivors moved south
◆ Chiscas
● Dispatched by the Apalachicola with English guns (1686)
◆ Westos
● Destroyed by Shawnee mercenaries in the pay of Carolina traders (1682)
◆ Iroquois
● Reduced by wars with Europeans and Natives
● Retreated to NY and Canada (1686)
 Effects of Militaristic Slaving Societies
➔ Drastic effects on Southern Indian social and political
organization
◆ Turmoil, movement and dispersion,
chiefdoms/village instability
◆ Coalescence
● Chiefdoms of 1500s transformed into
coalescent societies of 1700s
◆ Refugees
● 1660-1715: about 50,000 Indians
captured by other Indians and sold into
slavery (English)
➔ Important economic component of early colonial
empire
◆ Caribbean sugar plantations
 Collapsed Groups

➔ Coosa paramountcy: collapse 1540-1560 (de Soto vs. de Luna)

➔ Cofitachequi: collapse 1672-1701

◆ de Soto 1540: issues
◆ Increased power 1600s

➔ Apalachee: collapse 1704-1705

◆ At the hands of Creek & Yamasee slavers
● English finance
◆ Heart of Spanish Mission System
Aftermath of Collapse

1. Petites nations

2. Settlement Indians

3. Aggregation

4. Coalescence
 (1) Petites Nations

➔ New social type: “little societies”

➔ Lower Mississippi Valley only
◆ Tunicas, Biloxis, Ofogoulas, Koroas,
Mugulashas, Bayagoulas, Mobilians,
Chitimachas, Tensas
➔ Individual cultures remained individual
◆ Multi-ethnic towns
◆ Newcomers and captives replaced loss
➔ Relied on complex alliances for survival
(Calumet Ceremony)
(2) Settlement Indians
➔ Splinter groups attached to English
settlements
◆ Maintained autonomous villages
➔ Carolina Low Country
◆ Outlying settlements of Charles
Town
◆ “liminal world”
◆ Maintained identity
● State laws
● Partial assimilation
○ Distinguish from other
Natives at war with
English
➔ Following Yamassee War:
◆ Many joined Catawbas & Creeks
(3) Aggregation
➔ Communities attach to functioning
chiefdom
◆ = subordinate village
➔ Common in Florida
◆ Westo & Yamassee–
Timucuan & Apalachee
◆ Freedmen & Black
Seminoles– Seminoles
➔ Natchez & Powhatan chiefdoms
took in refugees
 (4) Coalescence
➔ Population nucleation/aggregation
➔ Multi-ethnic communities
➔ More security concerns increase = fortification and settlement locations
➔ Intense subsistence and exchange
➔ Community integration
➔ Collective leadership: councils and confederacies
➔ Macro-regional interaction

Primary: collapse, dispersal, coalescence

Secondary: collapse, dispersal, coalescence, collapse, dispersal, coalescence

Tertiary: collapse, dispersal, coalescence, collapse, dispersal, coalescence, collapse, dispersal,

coalescence (Seminoles)
 Transformations
Contact did not leave Native lands completely destroyed
➔ Reformation and rebuilding, new social orders, and
political reorganization
➔ Maintained institutions
◆ Town councils, blood revenge, reciprocity, clan
organization, corn agriculture, hunting and
gathering, and matrilineal kin system
➔ Transformed institutions
◆ Chiefdom hierarchical political institution
◆ Replaced by town councils of warriors/elders–
every man given equal opportunity to participate in
decision making
“People quit building platform
mounds; craftspeople quit
producing elaborate religious and
political paraphernalia; the priestly
cult used to buttress the elite was
transformed into a cadre of
prophets administering to the
common person; and chiefs were
no longer considered divine but
mortal men and women”
(Ethridge:40).
 New South of 1730
➔ Polities de Soto saw were gone
➔ Replaced by Indian Nations (interior land)
➔ Europeans on coast but soon exercise economic strength to expand
➔ Thousands of Africans imported for slave trade– joined Native coalescent societies
➔ Natives fully engaged in global trade system
◆ Clothes, guns, metal tools- common/necessary
◆ Trading deerskins– commercial hunting
◆ Still farming, fishing, hunting, gathering
● BUT part time occupations: guides, translators, mercenaries, postal riders, horse
thieves, slave catchers, and prostitutes

Mississippian chiefdoms failed to rise again because of turmoil and instability.

 References
Bowne, Eric E.
2009 “Caryinge awaye their Corne and Children”: The Effects of West Slave Raids on the Indians of the Lower South. In Mapping the
Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie
Franklyn Ethridge and Sheri Marie Shuck-Hall, pp. 104-114. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Ethridge, Robbie
2009 Introduction: Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave
Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie Franklyn Ethridge and Sheri Marie Shuck-Hall, pp. 1-62.
University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Fox, William A
2009 Events as Seen from the North: The Iriquois and Colonial Slavery. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial
Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie Franklyn Ethridge and Sheri Marie
Shuck-Hall, pp. 63-80. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Mair, Edward
2020 Slaves and Indians. History Today (February 2020): 60-69.
Meyers, Maureen
2009 From Refugees to Slave Traders: The Transformation of the Westo Indians. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The
Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie Franklyn Ethridge and Sheri Marie
Shuck-Hall, pp. 81-103. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Wallace, Paul A.
1956 The Iroquois: A Brief Outline of Their History. Pensylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 23(1): 15-28.
This
Presentation is
Dedicated to
Rubeus
Hagrid.

“I shouldn’t’ve
said that…”
Questions?
Class Discussion
 Discussion Questions
1. We can outline cause-and-effect, but what all contributed to coalescence in
the 18th century Native sphere?
2. Was there ever a possibility that the Native Peoples could have “won” or
stood against Europeans? Could they have done so without drastically
changing themselves?
3. Iroquois: Whose fault is it?
4. Where does information on this come from?
5. How is this history different from what we are taught in public school growing
up?
6. Does American Indian history teach us lessons that can help reduce the
enormous potential for ethnic and religious conflict in today’s world?