Cherokee Ethnogenesis: Origin Myths, Migration, and Early Cultural Development

Sarah Grace Rogers

Southeastern Archaeology and Ethnohistory
University of West Georgia
20 October 2022
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Unknown Origins

Cherokee origin is not completely known (Conley, 2005, 1). Previous research has

attempted to understand Cherokee origins, but material associated with mythical creation is rare

and tells little (Mails, 1992, 18). Tribal history states that the Cherokee have existed since the

distant past, with oral histories that detail a powerful Native tribe existing since prehistory

(Cherokee Nation History, 2019, para. 1; Conley, 2005, 1). Though questions cannot be

answered conclusively, stories are useful in understanding events not kept in historical records.

There are differences, however, between how the Cherokee view themselves and how others,

such as archaeologists and ethnologists, view them (Mails, 1992, 18).

Migration and Origin Stories

Cherokee recounted narratives about their origins through oral communication, often

recited in ceremonial events to ensure their longevity (Yates, 2017, x). None of these origin

stories can be proven; some are legends and some are theories (Conley, 2005, 6).

Red Man’s Origin

The “Red Man’s Origin,” tale is the Cherokee people’s traditional origin story

(APPENDIX 1). No version of “Red Man’s Origin” has ever been recorded in Cherokee, though

recreations have been recorded in English (Yates, 2017, xi). It was first recounted by Donald

Yates, who heard the origin story from an elder (Yates, 2017, x). This version a reproduction of

George Sahkiyah (“Soggy”) Sanders’ words that was translated by William Eubanks (1841-

1921). Sanders was full Cherokee and spoke little English and was literate in only Cherokee.

Eubanks used a pen-name (Cornsilk) to write political and anthropological news articles.
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Eubanks was a Cherokee Nation translator until 1906 when it was dissolved (Yates, 2017, xi).

The “Red Man’s Origin” narrative is one of his articles, published in 1896 (Yates, 2017, xi-xii).

“Red Man’s Origin” details how the Cherokee migrated from flood-prone lands over

many years into warmer, more favorable climates, settling, collecting clans, and withstanding

attacks from outsiders and “white beings.” It also features an oracle predicting a future of

reuniting as 12 clans.

Evidence of Crossing the Bering Land Strait

Scholars insist that people migrated into the Americas via the Bering Strait (Conley,

2005, 1). People came across a land bridge formed from the ice age that linked Asia with North

America before spreading into and populating the Americas (Conley, 2005, 1). One Cherokee

Nation migration legend supports this theory (Conley, 2005, 1). The legend, entitled “A

Cherokee Migration Fragment,” was told by a Cherokee to Englishman Alexander Long in 1717

in Carolina (Conley, 2005, 1; Corkran, 1952, 27; Corkran, 1957, 456; Long, 1725, 20-21):

four oure coming here we know now noething but what was had from our

ancestors and has brought it down from generation to generation/ / the way is thus

wee belonged to another land far distant from heare/ and the people increased and

multiplied so fast that the land could not hold them soe that they were forst to

separate and travele to look out for another countray I / they travelled soe four

that they came to a countray that was soe could that (obscure here) ... yet goeing

still one they came to mountains of snow and ice the prestes held a council to pass

these montains/ / and that they believed there was warmer wether one the other

sid of those mountains because it lay near the sone setting which was beleved by
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the whol assembly wee were forst to make raccits (Snowshoes) to put on our ould

and yonge / / and passed one our journey and at last found our our soe fare gone

over these mountains till we lost sight of the same and went thrues darkness for a

good space and then ... the sone again and goeing one we came to a countray that

could be inhabited and there we multiplaid so much that we over spr ead all this

maine, we brought all maner graines such as coren and pease pumpkins and

muskmelon as for all sorte of wild frute wee found heare naturalay growing/ /as

we were one our jrnay over these mountains we lost a vast quantitie of people by

the onseasonable could and darkness that we went thrue/ / when wee come one

this maine first wee were all one languige / /but the prid and ambeshun of some of

the leading men that caused . . . amonst the traibes/ /they separated from one and

other and the languige was corrupted I /moreover we are tould by our ancestors

that when wee first came on this land that the prestes and beloved men was

writting but nott one paper as you doe but one white deare skins and one the

shoulder bones of buflow for severall yeares but the .... of the young people being

so grate thatt they would nott obey the priest nor . . . . but lett thire minds rone

after hunting of wild beasts that the writing was qute lost and could not be

recovered againe Soe much for thire comeing on this maine . . . (Cockran, 1952,

27-28; Long, 1725, 20-21).

This piece of Cherokee lore states that the “red man” came from the east; this theme has both a

local geographic meaning and a mythological religious origin (Corkran, 1952, 28).

Geographically, it may refer to migrations from northeast Tennessee and east of the Alleghenies

(Corkran, 1952, 28; Hicks, 1826; Haywood, 1823, 226-233). Mythologically, it may come from
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the story that the sun (coming from the east) created the red man (Corkran, 1952, 28). The “sone

setting” movement appears to describe an east to west migration, which is not geographically

possible (Corkran, 1957, 457). However, this may be describing movement to warmer climate,

especially if woodland people were traveling through the arctic southward, which was inevitable.

People would have passed through Alaska at the end of the arctic summer and perceived the

setting sun as the southern horizon, where there was warmer weather. This account may be

generally describing people migrating into North America from Northeast Asia rather than

specifically the Cherokee alone (Corkran, 1952, 28; Corkran, 1957, 457). A specific Bering

Strait migration story, however, is not told in Cherokee origin tales, and, more recently, scholars

argue for multiple migrations into the Americas (Conley, 2005, 2-3).

 Homeland

Some scholars argue that the Cherokee descend from native people in the Appalachian

Mountains dating to 8000 BC with a distinct Cherokee language developing by 1500 BC

(Anderson and Wetmore, 2006, para. 1). Rodning argues that indigenous Americans developed

adaptations to the Appalachian by the Late Archaic (Rodning, 2011, 8).

Cherokee oral tradition identifies Cherokee homeland as the southern Appalachians

(Rodning, 2011, 8). The Cherokee origin story, “How the World Was Made,” seems to claim that

Cherokee people have resided in the Southeastern United States dating to antiquity, referring to it

as old Cherokee country (Conley, 2005, 3). This tale was collected by James Mooney, an

ethnologist in North Carolina between 1887 and 1890. Mooney lived among the eastern band of

Cherokee in the mountains for parts of the years between 1887 and 1890; he recorded several

origin stories and legends of the Cherokee during this time (Rodning, 2011, 3). His work is

respected by Native American and other scholars (Wolfson, 2001, 58). There are a few different
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iterations of “How the World Was Made,” though they are derived from Mooney’s work

(Mooney, 1902, 239-240; Wolfson, 2001, 51-56). They all tell the same creation story

(APPENDIX 2A and 2B). In the legend, Grandfather Buzzard molds the earth from the bottom

of the sea; as he flies, his wings form mountains and valleys (Wolfson, 2001, 50). Because of

possible Bible theme admixtures, the myth is argued to be broken down and recovered except in

fragments (Conley, 2005, 3; Mooney, 1902, 239–240.).

Furthermore, the archaeological record suggests the Cherokee have a long history of

development in the region. Cherokee characteristics are recognizable in western North Carolina a

thousand years ago. Linguistic analysis does not confirm Cherokee antiquity in the mountains,

but it does show that they had been separate from the Northern Iroquois, their nearest linguistic

relatives, for 3500 years (King, 2005, x).

 Migrating North?

The Nighthawk Keetoowah Cherokee of Oklahoma have an oral tradition entitled “The

Legend of Keetowah;” it was recorded by Levi Gritts and published in The Cherokee Nation in

1973. The tradition suggests that the Cherokee came from South America (Conley, 2005, 5-6;

Gritts, 1973):

A long time ago the Cherokees lived on an island off the coast of South America.

Then a time came when they were attacked by seventy different tribes, and they

fled the island, moving to the mainland. From there they went farther inland and

then turned north. They wandered for a long time until they finally settled in

what we know today as the old Cherokee country, the contemporary southeastern

United States (Gritts, 1973).

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This oral tradition suggests that the Cherokee migrated through Central America and Mexico

from South America, and eventually stopped in the northeast where there were Iroquoian-

speaking tribes (Conley, 2005, 6). Considering the “Cherokee Migration Fragment” story from

1717, though, the Cherokee may have migrated north to Alaska before turning south and east

again (Conley, 2005, 6). They moved south after warfare with the Delawares, settling in the

southeast (Conley, 2005, 6).

  Kneberg argues that the Cherokee may have pushed into the Appalachians from the south

based on evidence that connects the Cherokee to the Yamasee (Corkran, 1957, 455; Griffin, 1952

198). Lighthall also notes this trend, seeing the Iroquois moving from South America into North

America through the Caribbean and Florida; because the Cherokee were one of the Iroquois, he

notes this may be a contender for migration origins (Corkran, 1957, 455; Lighthall, 71-78).

Witthoft points towards Cherokee origin in Mexico based on Cherokee origin stories (Witthoft,

1947). Much us this could stem from the concept of a “nuclear America” that argues American

Indians spread from Central America outward. Evidence also does not hold up the theory

(Corkran, 1957, 455; Witthoft, 1947).

Descendants of the Iroquois

The Cherokee, though they may not have been known by the name according to

themselves, may have at once been a part pf a body of Iroquoian people in the north (Corkran,

1952, 27). Language, warlike spirit, traditions, arrow points, and grooved axes now show that the

Cherokee were once part of the Iroquoian family located in the Great Lakes region (King, 2005,

x; Mails, 1992, 19).

Migration. Many scholars, including Monney, argue that the Cherokee came south

through the Alleghenies in the last thousand years (Corkran, 1957, 456; Fenton, 1940). The
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Cherokee moved with the migration of Iroquois in an eastward direction that flanked Lank Erie

(Corkran, 1957, 456). At an unknown and distant point, something caused the Cherokee to

separate and migrate slowly toward the south through Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Virginia (Mails,

1992, 19). The Cherokee likely split in the northern Alleghenies from one Iroquois stream and

migrated toward the southern Appalachians along a mountain trough (Corkran, 1957, 456). They

may have diverged from the Iroquois in the Late Archaic, when people were adapting to

Appalachian mast forests (Rodning, 2011, 8; Whyte, 2007). They found a new home and claimed

land in what is now North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, northern Georgia

and Alabama, all but the western sections of Tennessee, and part of Kentucky (Mails, 1992, 19-

20). They continued until they met the Muskogean people in Georgia (Corkran, 1957, 456).

Some argue that the Cherokee are more recent settlers, settling just before European contact

(King, 2005, x).

Language. Cherokee speak an Iroquoian language; their nearest linguistic relatives are

the Iroquoian people around the Great Lakes (Conley, 2005, 5). Linguistic evidence also

suggests that the Cherokee split from the northern Iroquoian language in the Late Archaic

(Rodning, 2011, 1). Though the Cherokee are located in the Southeast, they are surrounded by

primarily Muskogean-speakers among others like Siouan, Tunicanm, and Algonquian (Conley,

2005, 5).

  Lennu Lanape Legend. The Lennu Lenape people (also known as Delaware) had an

ancient tale entitled “The Walam Olum,” describing a war with the Cherokee (referred to as

“Talligewi”). The tale suggests that the Cherokee lived in the northeast and migrated south.

However, some scholars argue the “Walam Olum” tale is a hoax (Conley, 2005, 5).
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Little People of Iroquois and Cherokee. There are many connections between the

Iroquois and Cherokee. One such connection is seen in lore, spefically with the folklore tradition

of the “Little People.” This tradition was isolated from European tradition, pointing toward

native development. Cherokee tradition is pretty conservative and did not borrow much of

European tradition. Iroquois Little People are integrated into religious concepts, some that date

back far in antiquity; Iroquois mythology seems to completely lack European motifs. There is a

well-recognized tiny spirit known to the Six Nations tribes, but the concept of Cherokee dwarves

is widespread. The folk feature is indigenous in both cultures since there is not a major

correspondence in several features (Witthoft and Hadlock, 1946, 413).

Cherokee Settlement and Development

Settlement

Charles Hicks recounts an old Cherokee national oration (APPENDIX 3), likely in the

priestly language and recited annually at the Green Corn Festival, that discusses later Cherokee

prehistory and settlement, including Virginia, the Carolinas, and Eastern Tennessee (Hicks,

1826). The story describes the Cherokee traveling southwest and explains colonization patterns

(Corkran, 1957, 459). The story outlines division, migration, and the earliest settlement of

Cherokee, which Hicks argues as being located in southwest Virginia; migrants traveled toward

the Unaka and Great Smoky Mountains (Corkran, 1957, 459). The Southern Appalachians were

unoccupied, as opposed to the northern region and flanking lowlands, thus encouraging the

Cherokee to settle (Corkran, 1957, 459-460). The size of the tribe at migration is unknown,

though it was likely large compared to other tribes (Mails, 1992, 25). The Cherokee settled in

parts of the Carolinas, Kentucky, Virginias, Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee in what is now the
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Southeastern United States (Conley, 2005, 6). They accumulated about 40,000 square miles of

hunting territory in this area (King, 2005, ix).

The Cherokee likely first settled in the Southeast somewhere in between AD 1000 and

1500, most probably around 1300 (Mails, 1992, 25). However, there is evidence suggesting they

had a unique cultural tradition by 1000 AD and began living a Woodland lifestyle with

Mississippian religious influences. They slowly started to adopt neighboring traits and absorbing

displaced peoples (Anderson and Wetmore, 2006, para. 1; Mails, 1992, 25).

  The Cherokee divided into four settlements (Mails, 1992, 20). Settlements at the time of

European contact included (1) Lower Settlements on the Savannah River in what is now South

Carolina, (2) Middle Settlements on the eastern part of the Little Tennessee and Tuckaseegee

rivers in North Carolina, (3) Valley Settlements in western North Carolina along the Nantahala,

Valley, and Hiwassee rivers, and (4) the Overhill Settlements along the Upper and Lower Little

Tennessee Rivers (Mails, 1992, 20, 38).

  The Cherokee themselves, however, recognized two geographic divisions of their

country: Ayrate (low) and Ottare (mountainous). The low division included the head branches of

the Savannah River, and the mountainous included the easternmost branch of the Mississippi

River. All towns and villages were located close to rivers or creeks for fertile land for access to

resources, cultivating crops, fishing and hunting, and gathering other resources for tools or

material goods (King, 2005, ix; Mails, 1992, 38-39). Cherokee occupied both sides of the South

Appalachian summit region at the time of European contact (King, 2005, ix).

Language

The Cherokee speak an Iroquoian language, contrasting the Muskogean languages among

others in the Southeast (Conley, 2005, 5). They spoke three main dialects at the time of European
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contact; these corresponded to major geographical settlements. The Lower (Elati) dialect was

spoken along the Keowee, Taugaloo, and headwaters of the Savannah River in present day South

Carolin and northeastern Georgia. The Middle (Kituhwa) dialect was spoken along th

Oconaluftee, Tuckaseegee, Nantahala, and Little Tennessee Rivers in western North Carolina.

The Western (Otali) dialect was spoken in Eastern Tennessee towns and along the Hiwasse and

Cheowa river in North Carolina (King, 2005, ix).

Government and Clan Organization

Cherokee towns had a Peace (White) and a War (Red) Chief, each with councilors likely

from each of the seven clans. The Peace Chief headed domestic components and town

ceremonies; the War Chief dealt with external matters like war, trade, and alliances.

Governmental matters were clan matters; the clan was the family (Conley, 2005, 6-7). Clan

responsibilities were similar to today’s police or court systems; they had responsibilities to

address wrongs committed against clan members (Conley, 2005, 7).

Clans were also matrilineal; kinship and clan affiliations were traced through women

(Anderson and Wetmore, 2006, para. 1; Conley, 2005, 11). Women held power; they owned

farms, gardens, and houses that would pass onto their daughters (Anderson and Wetmore, 2006,

para. 1; Conley, 2005, 6).

Worldview and Beliefs

The Cherokee called themselves Ani-yuwi-ya (the Real People) or Ani-Keetuwahgi

(People of Keetoowah) (Conley, 2005, 7). The Cherokee believed that spiritual beings existed in

the sun, moon, and stars as well as in all animals (Wolfson, 2001, 50). Their spiritual beliefs are

also incorporated into how they see the world. The Cherokee identify three worlds: the world on
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top, or Sky Vault, the world below, and the world in which humans live. The above and below

worlds also have spirits but oppose each other. Thus the world in which people live is dangerous;

people must maintain the balance between the above and below world. Balance and harmony are

then important components of religion; rituals seeks to achieve them. While there are seven

major ceremonies performed on an annual cycle, there are also special ceremonies and daily

ritualistic observances that make up Cherokee life (Conley, 2005, 7).

Subsistence

The Cherokee people occupied the southern Appalachian Mountains with wildlife such as

deer, elk, bears, turkeys, hemlock, pine, spruce, and fish. They were successful hunter-gatherers,

traditionally with men hunting and women gathering things such as wild grapes, blackberries,

huckleberries, wild roots, and nuts. They cultivated crops such as corn, beans, squash, pumpkins,

and sunflowers (Conley, 2005, 7-11; Wolfson, 2001, 50). The “three sisters” (corns, beans, and

squash) and occupations involving hunting and gathering held spiritual significance (Anderson

and Wetmore, 2006, para. 1). Hunters followed prescribed rituals and apologized to the spirit of

the animal they killed (Conley, 2005, 7). This practice is explained, with other things, in “Origin

of Disease and Medicine” as reported by James Mooney (APPENDIX 4; Mooney, 1902; Conley,

2005, 7-10).

The environment also provided medicine, clothing, weapons, shelter, musical

instruments, and adornment (Anderson and Wetmore, 2006, para. 1).

Warfare

Settlements were so rich in resources, they were contested by nearby nations and became

known as “the Dark and Bloody Ground” (Mails, 1992, 38). The Creek to the south never ceased
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to lay claim land as north as the Tennessee River. The Choctaw tribe was located to the west in

what is now lower Mississippi and Alabama; the Chickasaw were in northern Mississippi; the

Muscogee also provoked. However, there were moments when they united against a common

enemy (Mails, 1992, 38).

War was seasonal, involving ritual and ceremony. The Cherokee were involved in war

with many neighboring tribes, including the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Shawnees,

Delawares, and even some of the Iroquois Confederacy in the north (Mohawk, Seneca, Oneida,

Onondaga, Cayuga) (Conley, 2005, 11).

Cherokee towns

The Cherokee lived in more than 80 towns or villages, each with autonomous

government, not connected to other town governments, with about 200 to 250 people in each

(Conley, 2005, 6). Towns were organized into political units (Wolfson, 2001, 50). Cherokee

architectural ancestry dates back to mounds and posts as early as the Woodland period (Rodning,

2011, 8). They were not yet the “Cherokee Nation” but just towns and possibly considered a

Cherokee tribe; they spoke the same language, practiced the same rituals, and shared the same

seven clans (Conley, 2005, 11).

Cherokee legends identify towns, townhouses, and mounds as significant components of

culture (Rodning, 2011, 3). Towns were fundamental to social life, and townhouses were

architectural manifestations of towns; they are present in myths and legends, exhibiting their

cosmological importance. Mountains were landmarks for mythical townhouses as well (Rodning,

2011, 4).

Religious ceremonies and festivities occurred in central council houses and open plazas;

these were major community centers (Rodning, 2011, 7; Wolfson, 2001, 50). Community and
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sacrifice were essential aspects of life, symbolized in a central plaza for public ceremonies and

townhouses that held the “sacred fire” of spiritual essence of the town (Anderson and Wetmore,

2006, para. 1).

Central government

Cherokee government was through democratic consensus and priest, war chief, and peace

chief leadership (Anderson and Wetmore, 2006, para. 1). One major account of central

government comes from “The Massacre of the Ani-Kutani” tale, which described a time in

which the Cherokee had a central government of priests (Conley, 2005, 11; Mooney, 1902, 392-

393). The priests (Ani-Kutani) gained power and began to abuse it; a hunter came home to find

the priests had taken his wife so he organized a revolt killed the priests. Then, every town

became autonomous. This is not proven to have occurred; it could have represented dramatic

changes that occurred over time. However, the Cherokee did have a central government after the

Europeans arrived in response to new circumstances and needs (Conley, 2005, 11).

Major Cultural Phases

Contemporary archaeologists have researched Appalachian summit archaeology and

created a list of distinctive phases in which aboriginal remains are identified and categorized

(Mails, 1992, 35). This includes the Qualla Phase (AD 1500 to historic times), the Pisgah Phase

(AD 100 to 1500), the Connestee Phase (AD 100 or 200 to 1000), the Pigeon Phase (200 BC to

AD 100), the Swannanoa Phase (750 to 150 BC), the Savannah River Phase (2500 to 750 BC),

the Morrow Mountain Phase (4300 to 2500 BC), and earlier occupations from 7500 to 4300 BC

(Mails, 1992, 35). Only two phases are associated with the Cherokee, the Pisgah and the Qualla,

or the period after AD 1000 (Mails, 1992, 35). The Pisgah phase was more formative from 1300
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to 1540 with the Qualla seeing more development as a major nation with spiritual and material

life from 1540 to 1750 (Mails, 1992, 38).

Pisgah Phase

This phase is thought to represent the developmental period of primarily Mississippian

cultural patterns in the Appalachian summit, save for shell-tempered pottery and extended-body

burials common in the Tennessee Valley and Southern Piedmont (Mails, 1992, 36-37). For some

portion of the Pisgah phase, there were pre-Cherokee culture(s). Pisgah sites featured permanent

houses, palisades, and platform mounds but are not identical to later Cherokee towns to the south

and west (Mails, 1992, 37).

  The Pisgah phase occurred from AD 1000 to 1500 and is represented by 14,000 square

miles in the South Appalachian Province. Early in the phase, sites were occupied for short

periods; toward the interior, however, sites were occupied for the duration of the phase.

Settlements ranged from a quarter of an acre to six acres in size; alluvial valleys were favored for

their spaciousness (Mails, 1992, 35).

  Houses resembled Anasazi pit houses in the southwest, made of upright posts in a square

or rectangular plan twenty feet in length with a depressed floor, central hearth on a platform, and

vestibule entrance, walled with brick or woven mats, and roofed with bark or straw thatch. The

floors of houses and areas around them had burials and deposits of clay for storage pits and fir

basins (Mails, 1992, 35).

  Villages likely featured sweat houses, storage cribs, and other structures; architecture was

arranged around a central plaza fronting the town council house. The village was fortified with a

palisade with an entrance made of a wall offset located with easy access to a river (Mails, 1992,

35).
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  There is evidence (at Garden Creek) of platform mounds with ceremonial and civic

structures placed upon them as well as palisades of projecting rectangular bastions at village

sites. There is also evidence of burials near houses and in house floors, suggesting they were

buried close for spiritual reasons, the warfare climate made it dangerous to venture far to bury

without defense, or that they feared enemies would desecrate the remains (Mails, 1992, 35).

Sometimes hearths were removed to accommodate a burial with a new hearth placed atop

afterwards (Mails, 1992, 35-36). Burials are also seen in mound floors, in simple pits, side-

chamber pits, or central chamber pits; side-chambers were for infants or high rank adult males.

People were typically buried flexed, heads pointed to the west. Adult skulls were artificially

flattened at the forehead and back. Adult grave goods included columella shell beads, shell ear

pins, shell bowls, turtle-shell rattles, and perforated animal bones; infant grave goods included

shell gorgets, columella shell beads, and perforated Marginella shells. The Warren Wilson site

shows social rank through grave goods only being found in burials in certain houses (Mails,

1992, 36).

  Lithic technology included small triangular projectile points, hand held flaking tools,

smooth ground stone celts, small disks, small elbow pipes, and pottery-burnishing stones. Pecked

stone tools included anvil stones, hammer stones, mortars, and manos. Cut stone included mica

and pigments like hematite, limonite, graphite, and ochre. Clay objects included small elbow

pipes, beads, animal figurines, disks from potsherd, and tiny vessels. There were bone awls, pins,

beads, and turtle-shell rattles. Beads were made of shell for necklaces and bracelets. Conch shells

were used to make pins or for ceremonial containers. Circular shell gorgets were engraved and

excised and worn around the neck (Mails, 1992, 36).

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  There were four main types of ceramics in the phase: rectilinear complicated stamped,

curvilinear complicated stamped, check stamped, and plain (Mails, 1992, 36). Pots might be

finished with woven-reed, corncob, cord, or net impressions (Mails, 1992, 36). Basic vessels

were globular jars with a decorated and turned-out rim and collar; thick, straight, and slanted

rims were also produced. Rim appendages were added for carrying or hanging such as handles

and lugs. Shallow bowls were decorated around the rim with a thin, pinched, or notched strip.

Pots were mostly tempered with fine to coarse sand, like crushed quartz. Vessels were light gray

to buff on the exterior and dark gray to black on the interior (Mails, 1992, 36).

  Subsistence was focused on hunting, gathering, and agriculture, with corn being a major

focus in addition to squash, pumpkins, beans, and sump weed. Wild plants like nuts, fruits, and

seeds also played an important role. White-tailed deer, bison, and turkeys made up most of the

meat along with birds, amphibians, and fish (Mails, 1992, 36).

  Notable complex Cherokee centers suggests these places were administrative and

redistribution centers for powerful chiefdoms. Pisgah Phase mound sites included significant

facets that developed into the major components of Cherokee culture with which Europeans

came in contact  (Mails, 1992, 37).

Qualla Phase

This phase represents the spiritual and material culture of the Cherokee as it was until it

was replaced in the nineteenth century by Euro-American material, economy, and culture. Sites

have been found at river floodplains, intermountain lands, cove floors, smaller creeks in

mountain propers, ridges, and on summits in the mountains; each part of the region was occupied

for at least some time in each culture phase. Artifacts and cultivated plants like corn, beans, and
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squash are found in every part of the mountains from the Archaic, Woodland, Mississippian, and

historic phases (Mails, 1992, 37).

  Ceramics feature complicated stamping and bold incising on the exterior. Stone materials

include small, thin, and well-made arrow tips as well as flake scrapers, side scrapers, and small

chipped drills. Native-manufactured gunflint has even been found. Celt ax heads are the most

common ground-stone item of the period. Other items include stone pipes, discoidals like

chungke game stones, stone hair or ear pines with ceramic and shell decorations, and native and

imported shells in the form of beads, gorgets, pins, ritual and hunting masks, ceremonial dippers,

and scrapers (Mails, 1992, 37).

  Early architecture included circular and rectangular structures on man-made dirt mounds;

they were likely used for religious and political purposes. Domestic habitations were small and

rectangular and constructed  at grade level. By the end of the eighteenth century, though, these

were replaced by frontier-type log cabins of logs and clay (Mails, 1992, 37).

Burials were made in simple pits and sometimes in shaft-and-chamber ways; bodies were

flexed. Grave goods were rare until the early historic period (1725) but consisted of exclusively

aboriginal items (Mails, 1992, 37).

  Camps in mountain gaps and stream heads were used for hunting and gatherings, but

there were farmsteads in intermountain zones and villages around central town council-house

mounds. Farmsteads or hamlets were linked to small ceremonial centers which likely made

growth possible but also made it difficult to have a strong, centralized, political organization

against Euro-Americans (Mails, 1992, 38).

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First Contact and European Relations

The Cherokee’s first European contact was with Hernando DeSoto’s southeastern

explorations starting in 1540 (Cherokee Nation History, 2019, para. 1). Until DeSoto arrived in

1540, the Cherokee established themselves and shaped their civilization (Mails, 1992, 25).

DeSoto described the Cherokee as living in the Chalaque province in palisaded villages,

surviving on roots, herds, berries, deer, and turkey. They hunted with bows and arrows and wore

skin garments, often of deer hide, with feather headdresses (Mails, 1992, 25). The Cherokee

were large and powerful by 1735 with numerous towns and villages and an estimated 6000

warriors (Mails, 1992, 39).

European – Cherokee Relationships

Cherokee written history began in 1540 with DeSoto’s expeditions (King, 2005, x).

Sustained European-Cherokee relationships began to establish toward the end of the seventeenth

century with Virginia and South Carolina traders (Anderson and Wetmore, 2006, para. 2; King,

2005, x). Cherokee began trading furs and hides for French and English guns, blankets, knives,

tools, beads, paint, hardware, and spirits (Mails, 1992, 38).

In 1684, the first Cherokee treaty with whites was concluded from Lower Towns of

“Toxawa and Keowa” in Charlestown, South Carolina (King, 2005, x). In 1721, 37 Cherokee

chiefs agreed to accept the idea of the first royal governor of South Carolina, Sir Francis

Nickolson, to systemize Native relations; they agreed to the first Cherokee land cession, yielding

a strip between the Santee, Saluda, and Edisto rivers (King, 2005, xi). Substantial population

movements in the Overhill country did not occur until the American Revolution when the white

frontier began rapidly expanding (King, 2005, xiv). Frontier armies were continuously raised
 19

against the Cherokee in the late eighteenth century, but hostilities ended in 1794 when

devastation forced Cherokee to pursue peace (King, 2005, xv).

The first part of the nineteenth century was a time of great social and political change and

acculturation for the Cherokee (King, 2005, xv-xvi). They adopted a constitutional government,

written language, and a bilingual newspaper, and other aspects of acculturation. They were

continuously met with demands for their land (King, 2005, xvi). Forced removal began in June

1838 with immense suffering on the “Trail of Tears” (King, 2005, xvi).
 20

References Cited
Anderson, William L., and Ruth Y. Wetmore

2006 Cherokee Origins and First European Contact. In Cherokee. In Encyclopedia of North

Carolina, edited by William S. Powell. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

Cherokee Nation

2019 History. About the Nation. Electronic documented, https://www.cherokee.org/about-the-

nation/history/, accessed 30 September, 2022.

Conley, Robert J.

2005 Theories and Legends. In The Cherokee Nation: A History, pp. 1-16. Robert J. Conley

and the Cherokee Nation.

Corkran, D. H.

1952 A Cherokee Migration Fragment. In Southern Indian Studies, Volume IV, pp. 27-28.

Archaeological Society of North Carolina and the Research Laboratories of

Anthropology, Chicago.

Corkran, David H.

1957 Cherokee Pre-History. The North Carolina Historical Review 34(4):455-466.

Fenton, W.

1940 Essays in Historical Anthropology of North America. In Smithsonian Miscellaneous

Collections, Vol. 100. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Griffin, James B.

1952 Archeology of Eastern United States. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Gritts, Levi

1973 The Organization of the Nighthawk Keetoowahs among the Cherokees: The Legend of

Keetoowah (John D. Gillespie). The Cherokee Nation News, July 17.

 21

Haywood, John

1823 The natural and aboriginal history of Tennessee: up to the first settlements therein by the

white people, in the year 1768. George Wilson, Nashville.

Hicks, Charles R.

1826 Correspondence to John Ross (1 February 1826). In the John Howard Payne Papers,

Volume VII, pp. 1-4.

King, Duane H.

2005 Introduction. In The Cherokee Indian Nation: A Troubled History, edited by Duane H.

King, pp. ix-xix. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

Lighthall, W. D.

Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, ser. 3 25(2). Royal Society of

Canada, Ottawa.

Long, Alexander

1725 A Small Postscript of the Ways and Maners of the Nashun of Indians called Cherikees. In

Papers of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, IV. Washington, D. C. Library of

Congress.

Mails, Thomas E.

1992 Origin and Settlement. In The Cherokee People: The Story of the Cherokees from

Earliest Origins to Contemporary Times, pp. 17-40. Council Oaks Books, Tulsa.

Mooney, James

1902 How the World Was Made. In Myths of the Cherokee: Extract from the Nineteenth

Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, pp. 239-240. U.S. Government

Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

 22

Mooney, James

1902 Origins of Disease and Medicine. In Myths of the Cherokee: Extract from the Nineteenth

Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, pp. 250-252. U.S. Government

Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Rodning, Christopher B.

2011 Cherokee Ethnogenesis in Southwestern North Carolina. In The Archaeology of North

Carolina: Three Archaeological Symposia, edited by Charles R. Ewen, Thomas R.

Whyte, and R.P. Stephen Davis, Jr., pp. 16.1-16.18. North Carolina Archaeological

Council Publication NO. 30.

Witthoft, John

1947 Notes on a Cherokee migration story. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

37(9): 304-305.

Witthoft, John, and Wendell S. Hadlock

1946 Cherokee-Iroquois Little People. The Journal of American Folklore 59(234):413-422.

Wolfson, Evelyn

2001 How the World Was Made: Southeast (Cherokees). In American Indian Mythology, pp.

49-59. Enslow Publishers, Inc, Berkeley Heights.

Yates, Donald N.

2017 The Cherokee Origin Narrative: Authentic Text of William Eubanks' "Red Man's Origin"

with Notes and Illustrations. Panther’s Lodge Publishers.

 23

APPENDIX

APPENDIX 1: “Red Man’s Origin” (Yates 2017)

WHEN we lived beyond the great waters there were twelve clans belonging to the
Cherokee tribe. And back in the old country in which we lived the country was subject to great
floods. So in the course of time we held a council and decided to build a storehouse reaching to
heaven. The Cherokees said that when the house was built and the floods came the tribe would
just leave the earth and go to heaven. And we commenced to build the great structure, and when
it was towering into one of the highest heavens the great powers destroyed the apex, cutting it
down to about half of its height. But as the tribe was fully determined to build to heaven for
safety they were not discouraged but commenced to repair the damage done by the gods. Finally
they completed the lofty structure and considered themselves safe from the floods. But after it
was completed the gods destroyed the high part, again, and when they determined to repair the
damage they found that the language of the tribe was confused or destroyed.
ONE DAY while working, a builder sent me (Soggy) down to get some mortar, but
instead of bringing mud I brought a board. So with the other workmen, they could not understand
each other. Then the tribe held another council and concluded to move out of the floody country
and hunt one more dry and suitable to their liking.
SO THEY journeyed for many days and years and finally came to a country that had a
good climate and suitable for raising corn and other plenty upon which the tribe subsisted. Other
red tribes or clans to the Cherokee tribe began to come also from the old country. The emigration
continued for many years, never knowing that they crossed the great waters. In due course of
time the old pathway which had been traveled by the clans was cut by the submergence of a
portion of the land into the deep sea. This path can be traced to this day by broken boulders. This
was of no surprise to the clans as they were used to the workings of the floods.
Long years after they had settled in their new homes in the new country they began to
hunt for the clans of the Cherokee tribe, and after a fruitless search for the others finally gave it
up and established a new system of seven sacred clans to the tribe. From that day to this they
have been searching for the five lost clans of the Cherokees. But after the search was given up
they then permanently organized the seven clan system which were separately named after the
principal seven stars in the Yohna constellation.
 24

After this the Cherokees settled down and organized a government and a religious system
of worship. This worship consisted principally of certain rites which were intended to teach the
more intelligent the true nature of the heavenly bodies or powers and the laws by which they
govern themselves and their younger brethren, the lower planets and their children, the sons of
men.
After this was done and the tribe began to prosper in a more favorable climate and a
richer soil where an abundance of corn was raised and game was plentiful, a new difficulty
stared them in the face. A strange race of men crossed the great waters and landed warriors who
began to attack the Cherokee tribe. The Cherokees called in all the clans and began to destroy the
enemy. They used their war clubs with such vim that they defeated and annihilated the enemy
with the exception of a few prisoners whom they saved. These prisoners were placed in the
canoes and sent back across the water which they had previously crossed. They were told to
report back to their own country what great warriors the Cherokees were.
Then in a few more years another fleet of warriors came across. The broad waters were
literally black with the innumerable hosts armed with bows and arrows. They landed on the shore
and begun murdering the Cherokees, but the tribe again called in the clans and began to defend
themselves with their war clubs, slaughtering the foreigners by thousands, day and night, having
given one another the sacred word that they would not eat or sleep until the last enemy was
destroyed. They were again victorious and conquered the invaders.
THE CHEROKEES then organized a little hell of their own, and having instructed the
women and children to gather great quantities of pine resin they covered the feet of the prisoners
with great balls of the resin and set fire to them and burned off the feet of the captives, and while
still burning they placed them in their boats and canoes and were told to go home and report
what great warriors the Cherokees were.
Then the Cherokee tribe became uneasy as most of the clans were a long ways from the
scene of the great land of blood. So the warrior clans consulted the wise men of the tribe to see
what the next move on the part of the enemy would be.
THESE seven wise men, one from each tribe, then called all the clans together and they
then held a council of wisdom at the half sphere temple. The wise men ordered the seven clans to
dance around the round or half sphere temple for seven days and nights. When the seven days’
dance commenced the wise men entered the door of the temple, in which there was no light, as
 25

the light radiated and emanating from the wise men was sufficient to illumine the interior of the
temple. At the close of the seven days' dance one of the wise men came out of the temple in the
form of an eagle. This eagle formed seven gyrations as it ascended into the heavens. After the
eagle had performed its seventh spiral evolution and disappeared into the seventh heaven, the
clans broke up and went home, leaving the other six wise men in the dark temple, which was lit
up by psychic or spiritual light only.
The wise men then came home and after consulting the e-ca-ca-te or Urim and Thummin
told the people that these warriors would not come any more for seven years.
THEN the Cherokees trained their young men for war and all the clans were notified of
the fact.
And when the warriors came again across the great waters they were fully prepared to
meet them again. These warriors came by thousands and thousands but they had in the
meantime, knowing also that they had to resort to some other scheme besides depending upon
their war clubs, fell upon the idea of using poison in their wars with the terrible invader. They
then sent some great warriors out to kill the great and terrible seven-rayed serpent and get its
poison, which they did and placed the liquid poison in simblings.
AT THE CLOSE of the seven years the dark and terrible warriors crossed over like
locusts for numbers, with boats and loaded with poison and arms, thousands upon thousands.
When the enemy arrived the Cherokees and all their clans came in with their war clubs and the
simblings filled with oo-ca-te-ne poison and running near the lines of the enemy they shook their
gourds of poison and spilling the poison near them they kept on one after another, whooping as
they went. The Cherokees cut at right angles to the first run and decoyed the enemy to follow.
When the invader came to where the poison was spilled they fainted and fell down.
The Cherokees then came up and slaughtered them by thousands and thousands. This
defeat discouraged the dark invader and the war from that source ceased. The Cherokees then
lived for ages in peace. And a knowledge of the war with the dark invader became in the course
of time known only in story.
THEIR ancient worship of the wise ones of heaven was kept up. This worship was
organized at a time that was beyond the memory of the wisest of the Cherokee tribe, and it was
only reorganized in the new country as the ancient religion. The people lived for ages in peace
and happiness.
 26

AFTER thus living for ages in peace and prosperity the Cherokee tribe increased greatly
in population. They built the cah-ti-yis throughout the seven-clanned nation organized on the
broad principle of universal brotherhood, which included the whole world except the five lost
clans. Then it happened, while the Cherokee tribe thus lived in their new country, that strange
white canoes appeared on the broad expanse of the great waters. The clans gathered on the shore
in wonder and astonishment at the arrival in their waters of these strange vessels. These white
canoes hovered in sight for several days as though not confident that they would be received with
welcome by the tribe. The clans, thinking they were beings from heaven, began to beckon to
them to come to the shore. The clans also prepared corn in which was cooked sweet nuts,
venison and other prepared food to be presented to these white beings in their white canoes.
White being an emblem of purity with the Cherokees, they looked upon these white
beings as a pure race from the upper world. The white beings of the white canoes were soon
convinced that no harm was to be expected and they landed. The strangers were received with
welcome by the tribe and food was brought in and given to them.
TOBACCO which had been purified and called the chola of peace was also brought,
together with pipes, and the strangers were asked to smoke with the clans. Then the white
strangers, which were supposed to be visitors from heaven and who were supposed to be such on
account of their white skins, as the idea and emblem of white was purity and spirituality among
the Cherokees, these strangers were taken to be such, asked that they be allowed a small piece of
ground upon which to camp, cook and sleep; it was charitably granted. These strangers were
entertained by the Cherokee clans very charitably and food and other articles of comfort freely
given to them. Then these strangers made known their desire and willingness to remain with the
native Cherokee clans if they were allowed to purchase a small piece of ground upon which to
camp and sleep. They made known to the tribe that they only needed a small piece of land about
the size of a bull hide. This modest request was freely granted to the strangers and sold to them
for a trifling consideration. The supposed heavenly strangers then cut one of the ox hides which
they had brought with them into a small string which they stretched around a square enclosing
several hundred square yards.
This they claimed to be in accordance with the purchase agreement to which the tribe
finally agreed, saying at the same time that they had been deceived. Other purchases of land were
made for which a consideration was always given by the white heavenly strangers, after the
 27

cession of which the tribe always acknowledged that they had been deceived. Then the tribe
finally came to the conclusion that this white stranger was from the opposite pole of the heavens
and put on his white skin for the purpose of deceiving. Then the Cherokee tribe began to destroy
the white invader and as in the case of the dark invader they saved some to report what great
warriors the Cherokees were. But the white invader began to use firearms against them and the
Cherokee tribe was driven back farther and farther.
The Cherokee tribe then became discouraged and completely demoralized and said to the
council of the clans that nothing could be done as the great serpents, the oo-ca-te-ni, had become
extinct and there was no chance to obtain the terrible poison that had been so successfully used
against the first invaders. So the wise men were consulted again, who ordered, as before, for the
clans to hold a council second war dance around the round or half sphere temple. This notice was
then made known to all the clans who gathered at the ancient site of the sacred round or half
sphere temple. The clans gathered in except one or two who refused to come but when sent for
finally came in. Then the seven days' dance commenced and completed, at the beginning of
which seven days' dance the seven  wise men of the clans entered the temple, which for ages had
been neglected and only somewhat improved. The wise men after entering found that it could not
be lighted with light that emanated from the spiritual light or from the wise men. Seeking the
cause of the failure of the temple to light up, the lowest grade clan of the wise men, the terrible
Sah-ho-ni clan, asked the next higher wise man of the second clan and he asked the third, and he
asked the fourth, and he asked the fifth, and he asked the sixth, and he finally, the wisest of the
wise, the Koola clan, answered and said: Our temple, ancient and sacred, has been neglected; the
original fire, the eternal and primitive, has been allowed to become extinct by destroying the
wise oo-ca-te-ni or the tanian, the wise of the tribe. He can never be found again until the other
clans be found and the tribe reunites. We can do nothing, only to employ a substitute to
illuminate our temple, and which shall be the outer body of the eternal fire. When the substitute
for light, the fire, was kindled, the wise men looked upon their e-ca-ca-tis and could behold
nothing in them but images as a brilliant light appeared in them originally.
The wisest of the wise men when he made his exit out of the round temple and began to
perform his spiral evolutions in the heavens could ascend no higher than the regions of crude
matter and after descending and reentering the temple so reported to the six other wise men.
 28

Then the wise men reported to their own clans, to the subordinate wise men of the clans, that the
race of deceit and cunning had adopted a new scheme to deceive the Cherokee or red race.
THIS new scheme was the writing of a strange teaching that the white invader claimed to
have been spoken from heaven, the truth or untruth of which the red tribe had to find out for
themselves. We are still under the influence of this great monster and deceiver of nations. A
tribute was placed upon the red race in land and gold to feed and keep alive this great deceiver
conceived in hell and born on earth, and to remain under his influence to the close of the seventh
period of the Sah-ho-ni clan when the red race will move from under his power.
When the race will, at that time, according to the oracle of the Stone of truth containing
the image, be driven to the sea shore, where they will cross the water and landing in the old
country from whence they came will find the five lost clans, become reunited into twelve clans,
into one people again, will become a great nation known as the Esh-el-okee of the half sphere
temple of light. They will become reunited into twelve clans, into one people again, and become
a great nation.

APPENDIX 2A: “How the World Was Made” (Mooney, 1902, 239-240)

The earth is a great island floating in a sea of water, and suspended at each of the four
cardinal points by a cord hanging down from the sky vault, which is of solid rock. When the
world grows old and worn out, the people will die and the cords will break and let the earth sink
down into the ocean, and all will be water again. The Indians are afraid of this.
When all was water, the animals were above in Gălûñ′lătĭ, beyond the arch; but it was
very much crowded, and they were wanting more room. They wondered what was below the
water, and at last Dâyuni′sĭ, “Beaver’s Grandchild,” the little Water-beetle, offered to go and see
if it could learn. It darted in every direction over the surface of the water, but could find no firm
place to rest. Then it dived to the bottom and came up with some soft mud, which began to grow
and spread on every side until it became the island which we call the earth. It was afterward
fastened to the sky with four cords, but no one remembers who did this.
At first the earth was flat and very soft and wet. The animals were anxious to get down,
and sent out different birds to see if it was yet dry, but they found no place to alight and came
back again to Gălûñ′lătĭ. At last it seemed to be time, and they sent out the Buzzard and told him
to go and make ready for them. This was the Great Buzzard, the father of all the buzzards we see
 29

now. He flew all over the earth, low down near the ground, and it was still soft. When he reached
the Cherokee country, he was very tired, and his wings began to flap and strike the ground, and
wherever they struck the earth there was a valley, and where they turned up again there was a
mountain. When the animals above saw this, they were afraid that the whole world would be
mountains, so they called him back, but the Cherokee country remains full of mountains to this
day.
When the earth was dry and the animals came down, it was still dark, so they got the sun
and set it in a track to go every day across the island from east to west, just overhead. It was too
hot this way, and Tsiska′gĭlĭ′, the Red Crawfish, had his shell scorched a bright red, so that his
meat was spoiled; and the Cherokee do not eat it. The conjurers put the sun another hand-breadth
higher in the air, but it was still too hot. They raised it another time, and another, until it was
seven handbreadths high and just under the sky arch. Then it was right, and they left it so. This is
why the conjurers call the highest place Gûlkwâ′gine Di′gălûñ′lătiyûñ′, “the seventh height,”
because it is seven hand-breadths above the earth. Every day the sun goes along under this arch,
and returns at night on the upper side to the starting place.
There is another world under this, and it is like ours in everything—animals, plants, and
people—save that the seasons are different. The streams that come down from the mountains are
the trails by which we reach this underworld, and the springs at their heads are the doorways by
which we enter it, but to do this one must fast and go to water and have one of the underground
people for a guide. We know that the seasons in the underworld are different from ours, because
the water in the springs is always warmer in winter and cooler in summer than the outer air.
When the animals and plants were first made—we do not know by whom—they were told to
watch and keep awake for seven nights, just as young men now fast and keep awake when they
pray to their medicine. They tried to do this, and nearly all were awake through the first night,
but the next night several dropped off to sleep, and the third night others were asleep, and then
others, until, on the seventh night, of all the animals only the owl, the panther, and one or two
more were still awake. To these were given the power to see and to go about in the dark, and to
make prey of the birds and animals which must sleep at night. Of the trees only the cedar, the
pine, the spruce, the holly, and the laurel were awake to the end, and to them it was given to be
always green and to be greatest for medicine, but to the others it was said: “Because you have
not endured to the end you shall lose your hair every winter.”
 30

Men came after the animals and plants. At first there were only a brother and sister until
he struck her with a fish and told her to multiply, and so it was. In seven days a child was born to
her, and thereafter every seven days another, and they increased very fast until there was danger
that the world could not keep them. Then it was made that a woman should have only one child
in a year, and it has been so ever since.

 APPENDIX 2B: “How the World Was Made” (Wolfson, 2001)

When all the world was water, the animals lived in the sky beyond the rainbow where
everyone complained about being cramped for space. “It is much too crowded up here,” said
Grandfather Buzzard. “Why don’t we find out what is down there under the water?”
I will go. I will go,” clicked Beetle as he extended his little forelegs as far as they would
go.
Grandfather Buzzard agreed that since Beetle belonged in the water, he should go. “See
what you can find down there,” said Grandfather Buzzard, and he waved good-bye.
Beetle dove from the sky and floated slowly to earth. He landed on top of the water and whirled
around and around and around. When he found an opening in the surface, he kicked his little
hind legs in the air and dove under. After awhile, Beetle surfaced, his forelegs coated with soft
mud.
Beetle’s friends watched from above as the mud from under the water spread out in all
directions. The mass of mud grew, and grew, and kept on growing, until it was a great big island.
Then it was magically tied to the sky with four sturdy ropes.
Beetle returned home pleased with his good work. “When the mud dries,” he said, “there
will be much land for us to share. We will never be crowded again.”
The others in the sky saw that the mud was still soft and wet. Everyone waited for the
land to dry out. At last Raven grew impatient. “Why don’t we just go down and try it out?” he
asked. Bluejay flicked his blue and white tail and hopped forward. “I want to go,” he said, “but
perhaps I am too small to undertake such a long journey.”
“Do not worry,” said Grandfather Buzzard, “you are quick and clever. You will make it.”
Bluejay flew to earth. He traveled north, south, east, and west. Everywhere the island’s
mud was wet and sticky. “It is too soon,” reported Bluejay when he returned to the sky. “Our feet
will get stuck if we try to land down there now.”
 31

Old Man Owl closed his big round eyes and went back to sleep. Mountain Lion curled up
in a clump of grass and sighed. The trees let their leaves fall to the ground in disgust. Everyone
was disappointed.
The animals busied themselves in the sky while they waited for their little mud island to
dry out. Then one day Grandfather Buzzard stood up firm and tall. His big black body swayed,
and his feathers rippled. “I have waited long enough,” he declared in a loud voice. “I am going
down to take a look for myself.”
No one ever challenged Grandfather Buzzard. Instead, they watched as he flapped his
huge wings and flew down to earth. The long journey made the old bird very tired, and he sank
lower and lower and closer to the ground. When he was as low as he could get without actually
landing, the flapping of his wings carved out great long valleys wherever they touched the soft
earth. And where his wings swept upward, they created tall rugged mountains.
The animals watched from above. “We have got to get Grandfather Buzzard back up
here,” said Bluejay. “Look what he is doing. He is creating too many mountains.”
Grandfather Buzzard finally returned to the sky. He strutted among the animals with his chest
puffed out. “The mud is not completely dry,” he admitted. “But one has to admit that it is very
much more interesting down there since I have visited.”
Bluejay rolled his eyes. “That remains to be seen,” he muttered. For a long time
afterward, the animals took turns checking to see if the earth had hardened. But each time they
returned home they were sorry to report that the land was still too soft.
A long time passed before Grandfather Buzzard spoke again. “I think it is time to
descend,” he said. “Look how solid those mountains are. And see how the water has formed into
long ribbons that flow through the valleys. The land is ready. We must go.”
Bluejay, Hawk, Crow, Magpie, and a stream of little songbirds fluffed up their wings in
readiness for the flight. Mountain Lion, Panther, Deer, Fox, and all the other animals preened
themselves in preparation for the trip. The trees pulled themselves up by their roots and wrapped
themselves up in tight little bundles so that they, too, would be prepared to move.
At last Grandfather Buzzard led off, and the others followed. Indeed, he was right. The earth was
not too hard and not too soft. It was just right. There was only one problem: It was totally dark.
“Oh my,” said Grandfather Buzzard. “I did not count on this. I must grab Sun from up there
beyond the rainbow.”
 32

So Grandfather Buzzard went back and got hold of Sun. “I will show you how to
behave,” he said to Sun in his firmest voice. “Start here in the east and travel toward the west
every day across the island.”
Sun did as she was told and lit up the land exactly as Grandfather Buzzard had told her to
do. But the animals were not at all happy. Sun was too close and too hot.
“Sun must be moved away,” complained Crawfish. “Look what has happened to the shell
on my back. It is scorched, and now I am bright red. My flesh is spoiled.” So Grandfather
Buzzard pushed Sun higher up into the sky. Still things did not cool off. So he pushed Sun higher
and higher above the land.
“There,” said Grandfather Buzzard. “That looks like a good distance.” But the animals
still complained. After many attempts, he finally got Sun in just the right position under the arch
of the rainbow. “Now,” said Grandfather Buzzard to Sun, “travel from east to west across the
island each day.” Again Sun did as she was told, and this time everyone was happy.
The animals and plants were barely settled when Grandfather Buzzard announced that
they must stay awake for seven nights. (Seven is a sacred number to the Cherokees because it
represents the directional units of the world: east, west, north, and south, as well as up, down,
and here.) So the animals and plants tried their best. The first night was easy, and everyone
stayed awake. But on the second night several of the animals fell asleep. On the third night even
more of them fell asleep. And by the seventh night Owl, Panther, and only a few others were
able to remain awake.
As a result, Owl and Panther were given the ability to see at night and prey on others who
could not. Cedar, Pine, Spruce, Holly, and Laurel trees, who also stayed awake the whole seven
nights, got to keep their leaves all year round, and to hold strong medicines. The trees that fell
asleep too soon were made to lose their leaves before winter came.
After the plants and animals were in place, a young brother and sister arrived. At first it was only
the two of them. Then one day the brother hit his sister with a fish, (the Cherokees’ symbol for
fertility), and told her to multiply. Seven days later, the sister bore a child. And seven days later
another child was born. Thereafter, every seven days she bore another child. The children arrived
so often everyone was frightened the earth would become as crowded as the sky had been.
So, afterward, the woman was made to have only one child a year. And it has been that way ever
since.”
 33

APPENDIX 3: Cherokee National Oration (Hicks, 1826)

Can too ghi [towns] che oas ter [people] oosungh he tah oo lay mingh say ach [night's
rest to another—or may be rendered, towns of people in their many nights' rest to another—or
may be rendered, towns of people in their many nights' rest to others] ; and the name is missing
here, which there is no doubt belongs to this part of the oration—as a day represents for one
year . . . and the first account that is given speaks of only two resting places in their emigration
before they finally reached the lands of their rest ; and the first of which is mentioned was at ah
nee cah yungh lee yeh which have reference to some large mountains lying somewhere between
the headwaters of the Holston, the Clinch and the Cumberland waters ; and the other rest was
some where near noh nah cloock ungh; and from this rest it is pre sumable the nation separated
although there is no account given in the traditions ; but it is stated that the third settlement was
at a place called two sparrows-tully-ach-chesquah-yaw-ach-lying on the head of Tuckaleetchee
River, fork of the Little Tennessee —and no doubt this part of the nation came up the French
Broad River and from this it may justly be concluded that they extended their settlements on
Cowee and Highwassee Rivers ; and the other part of the nation as on about Echota [old Echota]
on the Little Tennessee, but not till many years after of those two first settlements mentioned ;
and it is very likely that Cowee be came the parent of the settlement they made on the Koo, wah,
he [Kewehe] and Too, goo, lah rivers; and the settlement in the valley Towns became the parent
of those on the big Tellico ; and the nation being thus established as their final resting place, the
concluding part of their emigrations is here introduced as testi monial of their rights of the soil
by the gift of the power above— Cho tau, le, eh [Grand Elders of all] Can [u?], lauh, we, tah-oo,
da, kne-la, eh [Their coundil been convened] Can [ ?] ske, lo, gi, eh-cheu, na, ka, se, eh [on their
seats of white] Tay, che, eeh-can [u?] le, lui, te, ch [kept above and may be rendered thus "Grand
Elders, or sires of all, their council been convened, on their benches, or seats of white, kept
above" and it is represented that [it was] this council above that give this country to our fore
fathers ; and some believe that this was the center of the conti nent where the forefathers were
placed being at the extreme heads of the southern and western water; but this last part of the
emigration oration will be found to be missing—that which  bestowed the gift on the fathers of
the Cherokees, of which there is no trace of it more than is represented above ; and the nation
being thus established in four divisions and in a country that was calculated to supply themselves
with food from the abun dance of wild game of all kinds which must have abounded on their first
 34

arrival in this country ; beside they had other resources to obtain their subsistence from the
waters also—with the wild potatoe, which must have grown in abundance in these prairies.
Besides these advantages they were in a situation to provide for their families from the
inclemency of the cold, with warm wig wams from the long blue grass which grows in these
prairies, where their settlements were established . . . and the antiquity appearance of the first
two settlements of the lands and woods around them will justify a belief [that] they were the first
that was established in this nation, etc.
The two foregoing parts of the emigration oration have been related as near as I have
heard them repeated . . . and the lands they claimed by the gift from the elder fires above, for the
word cho tauh ne le eh implies the elder brother, as [well as] Elder Fire of all—for he is
acknowledged to have had a being before all things, etc.

APPENDIX 4: “Origin of Disease and Medicine” (Mooney 1902)

In the old days the beasts, birds, fishes, insects, and plants could all talk, and they and the
people lived together in peace and friendship. But as time went on the people increased so
rapidly that their settle- ments spread over the whole earth, and the poor animals found
themselves beginning to be cramped for room. This was bad enough, but to make it worse Man-
invented bows, knives, blowguns, spears, and hooks, and began to slaughter the larger animals,
birds, and fishes for their flesh or their skins, while the smaller creatures, such as the frogs and
worms, were crushed and trodden upon without thought, out of pure carelessness or contempt.
So the animals resolved to consult upon measures for their common safety.
The Bears were the first to meet in council in their townhouse under KuwS'hi mountain,
the "Mulberry place," and the old White Bear chief presided. After each in turn had complained
of the way in which Man killed their friends, ate their flesh, and used their skins for his own
purposes, it was decided to begin war at once against him. Some one asked what weapons Man
used to destroy them. "Bows and arrows, of course," cried all the Bears in chorus. "And what are
they made of? " was the next question. "The bow of wood, and the string of our entrails," replied
one of the Bears. It was then proposed that they make a bow and some arrows and see if they
could not use the same weapons against Man himself. So one Bear got a nice piece of locust
wood and another sacrificed himself for the good of the rest in order to furnish a piece of his
entrails for the string. But when everything was ready and the first Bear stepped up to make the
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trial, it was found that in letting the arrow fly after drawing back the bow, his long claws caught
the string and spoiled the shot. This was annoying, but some one suggested that they might trim
his claws, which was accordingly done, and on a second trial it was found that the arrow went
straight to the mark. But here the chief, the old White Bear, objected, say- ing it was necessary
that they should have long claws in order to be able to climb trees. " One of us has already died
to furnish the bowstring, and if we now cut off our claws we must all starve together. It is better
to trust to the teeth and claws that nature gave us, for it is plain that man's weapons were not
intended for us."
No one could think of any better plan, so the old chief dismissed the council and the
Bears dispersed to the woods and thickets without having concerted any way to prevent the
increase of the human race. Had the result of the council been otherwise, we should now be at
war with the Bears, but as it is, the hunter does not even ask the Bear's pardon when he kills one.
The Deer next held a council under their chief, the Little Deer, and after some talk decided to
send rheumatism to every hunter who should kill one of them unless he took care to ask their
pardon for the offense. They sent notice of their decision to the nearest settlement of Indians and
told them at the same time what to do when necessity forced them to kill one of the Deer tribe.
Now, whenever the hunter shoots a Deer, the Little Deer, who is swift as the wind and can not be
wounded, runs quickly up to the spot and, bending over the blood-stains, asks the spirit of the
Deer if it has heard the prayer of the hunter for pardon. If the reply be "Yes," all is well, and the
Little Deer goes on his way; but if the reply be "No," he follows on the trail of the hunter, guided
by the drops of blood on the ground, until he arrives at his cabin in the set- tlement, when the
Little Deer enters invisibly and strikes the hunter with rheumatism, so that he becomes at once a
helpless cripple. No hunter who has regard for his health ever fails to ask pardon of the Deer for
killing it, although some hunters who have not learned the prayer may try to turn aside the Little
Deer from his pursuit by building a fire behind them in the trail.
Next came the Fishes and Reptiles, who had their own complaints against Man. They
held their council together and determined to make their victims dream of snakes twining about
them in slimy folds and blowing foul breath in their faces, or to make them dream of eating raw
or decaying fish, so that they would lose appetite, sicken, and die. This is why people dream
about snakes and fish.
 36

Finally the Birds, Insects, and smaller animals came together for the same purpose, and
the Grubworm was chief of the council. It was decided that each in turn should give an opinion,
and then they would vote on the question as to whether or not Man was guilty. Seven votes
should be enough to condemn him. One after another denounced Man's cruelty and injustice
toward the other animals and voted in favor of his death. The Frog spoke first, saying: "We must
do something to check the increase of the race, or people will become so numerous that we shall
be crowded from off the earth. See how they have kicked me abqut because I'm ugly, as they
saj"^, until my back is covered with sores; " and here he showed the spots on his skin. Next came
the Bird—no one remembers now which one it was—who condemned Man "because he burns
mj'^ feet off," meaning the way in which the hunter barbecues birds by impaling them on a stick
set over the fire, so that their feathers and tender feet are singed off. Others followed in the same
strain. The Ground-squirrel alone ventured to say a good word for Man, who seldom hurt him
because he was so small, but this made the others so angry that they fell upon the Ground-
squirrel and tore him with their claws, and the stripes are on his back to this day.
They began then to devise and name so many new diseases, one after another, that had not their
invention at last failed them, no one of the human race would have been able to survive. The
Grubworm grew constantly more pleased as the name of each disease was called off, until at last
they reached the end of the list, when some one proposed to make menstruation sometimes fatal
to women. On this he rose up in his place and cried: ^^ Waddn' / [Thanksl] I'm glad some more
of them will die, for they are getting so thick that they tread on me." The thought fairly made him
shake with joy, so that he fell over backward and could not get on his feet again, but had to
wriggle off on his back, as the Grubworm has done ever since.
When the Plants, who were friendly to Man, heard what had been done by the animals,
they determined to defeat the latters' evil designs. Each Tree, Shrub, and Herb, down even to the
Grasses and Mosses, agreed to furnish a cure for some one of the diseases named, and each said:
"I shall appear to help Man when he calls upon me in his need." Thus canie medicine; and the
plants, every one of which has its use if we only knew it, furnish the remedy to counteract the
evil wrought by the revengeful animals. Even weeds were made for some good purpose, which
we must find out for ourselves. When the doctor does not know what medicine to use for a sick
man the spirit of the plant tells him.