Basics of Internet of Things

What is Internet of Things ?

Embed ’Things’
with computing intelligence
and connect them to the internet

Derive actionable insights

from the data received from ‘Things’
and respond effectively
 SENSORS H A R D WA R E
• New Sensing Capabilities • Moore’s Law
• Low Cost Sensors • Dropping cost of electronics
• Miniaturization – MEMS , Nanotech • Easier Hardware Realization
• Performance Improvements • Open Source Hardware
• Maker Movement
• 3D Printing
• Crowd Funding
• Data Centres

KEY ENABLERS OF IoT

S O F T WA R E CONNECTIVIT Y
• Embedded Software – Ease of Development • Pervasive Connectivity
• Cloud and Interoperable Webservices • IPV6
• API – Driven Software Ecosystem • Smartphone Adoption
• Cloud Computing • Low-cost Wireless Modules
• Big Data, Analytics & Distributing Computing
 Typical IoT Architecture

Front-end (UI)
Terminal Nodes Cloud Applications

Sense Analyze 4
Respond
Sensors

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Source: www.postscapes.com
 Selection criteria for Sensors

A number of static and dynamic factors must be considered in selecting a suitable sensor to measure the desired physical parameter.
Following is a list of typical factors:

❖ Range—Difference between the maximum and minimum value of the sensed parameter

❖ Resolution—The smallest change the sensor can differentiate

❖ Accuracy—Difference between the measured value and the true value

❖ Precision—Ability to reproduce repeatedly with a given accuracy Sensitivity—Ratio of change in output to a unit change of the input

❖ Zero offset—A nonzero value output for no input

❖ Linearity—Percentage of deviation from the best-fit linear calibration curve

❖ Zero Drift—The departure of output from zero value over a period of time for no input
 Selection criteria for Sensors

❖ Response time—The time lag between the input and output

❖ Bandwidth—Frequency at which the output magnitude drops by 3 dB

❖ Resonance—The frequency at which the output magnitude peak occurs

❖ Operating temperature—The range in which the sensor performs as specified

❖ Deadband—The range of input for which there is no output

❖ Signal-to-noise ratio—Ratio between the magnitudes of the signal and the noise at the output
 Identification and Tags

❖ Tags are used to identify Physical Entities, to which the Tags are usually physically
attached.
❖ The identification process is called “reading”, and it is carried out by specific Sensor
Devices, which are usually called readers.
❖ This process can be
❖ Optical (Ex: Barcodes and QR codes)
❖ RF-based (Ex: NFC, Microwave car-plate recognition systems)

MAC API Key

Address
Bar Code QR Code NFC Tag SIM / eSIM TPM

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 Actuators

➢ Actuators modify the physical state of a Physical Entity.

➢ Changing the state (switch on/off, rotate, stir, inflate) of simple Physical Entities

➢ Activating/deactivating functionalities of more complex ones.

➢ Examples
▪ Lights
▪ Displays

▪ Motors

▪ Relays

▪ Industrial Controls

▪ Alarms

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 Selection criteria for Actuators
In general, the following performance parameters must be addressed before choosing an actuator for a specific need:

✓ Continuous power output—The maximum force/torque attainable continuously without exceeding the temperature limits

✓ Range of motion—The range of linear/rotary motion

✓ Resolution—The minimum increment of force/torque attainable

✓ Accuracy—Linearity of the relationship between the input and output

✓ Peak force/torque—The force/torque at which the actuator stalls

✓ Heat dissipation—Maximum wattage of heat dissipation in continuous operation

✓ Speed characteristics—Force/torque versus speed relationship

✓ No load speed—Typical operating speed/velocity with no external load

✓ Frequency response—The range of frequency over which the output follows the input faithfully, applicable to linear actuators

✓ Power requirement—Type of power (AC or DC), number of phases, voltage level, and current capacity
 WHAT IS IOT?
The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical objects (‘Things’) that are embedded with sensors,
computing hardware modules, software, and actuators for the purpose of sensing and exchanging data with other
devices and systems over the Internet. The primary goal is to respond effectively to situations in the real world by
deriving actionable insights from the data we receive from the ‘Things’.
Analogy
Industry 4.0

Industry 4.0
 7 Layer Architecture
Layer 7 : Collaboration & Processes
Involving People & Business Processes

Layer 6 : Application
Reporting, Analysis & Control

Layer 5 : Data Abstraction

Aggregation & Access

Layer 4 : Data Accumulation

Storage (Data Stores)

Layer 3 : Edge Computing

Data Element Analysis & Transformation

Layer 2 : Connectivity
Communication & Processing Units

Layer 1 : Physical Devices

The ‘Things’ in IoT
 7 Layer Architecture
Layer 7 : Collaboration & Processes
Involving People & Business Processes

Non-real Time

Query Based

Data at Rest
Layer 6 : Application
Reporting, Analysis & Control

IT
Layer 5 : Data Abstraction
Aggregation & Access

Layer 4 : Data Accumulation

Storage (Data Stores)

Data in Motion
Event Based
Layer 3 : Edge Computing

Real Time
Data Element Analysis & Transformation

OT
Layer 2 : Connectivity
Communication & Processing Units

Layer 1 : Physical Devices

The ‘Things’ in IoT
 Comparing OT and IT
Criterion Industrial OT Network Enterprise IT Network

Operational focus Keep the business operating 24x7 Manage the computers, data, and employee
communication system in a secure way
Priorities 1. Availability 1. Security
2. Integrity 2. Integrity
3. Security 3. Availability
Types of data Monitoring, control, and supervisory data Voice, video, transactional, and bulk data

Security Controlled physical access to devices Devices and users authenticated to

the network
Implication of failure OT network disruption directly impacts business Can be business impacting, depending on industry, but
workarounds may be possible
Security Low: OT networks are isolated and often use High: continual patching of hosts is required, and the
vulnerability proprietary protocols network is connected to Internet and requires vigilant
protection
Challenge Description
Scale While the scale of IT networks can be large, the scale of OT can be several orders of magnitude larger. For example,
one large electrical utility in Asia recently began deploying IPv6-based smart meters on its electrical grid. While this
utility company has tens of thousands of employees (which can be considered IP nodes in the network), the number
of meters in the service area is tens of millions. This means the scale of the network the
utility is managing has increased by more than 1,000-fold!

Security With more “things” becoming connected with other “things” and people, security is an increasingly complex issue for
IoT. Your threat surface is now greatly expanded, and if a device gets hacked, its connectivity is a major concern. A
compromised device can serve as a launching point to attack other devices and systems. IoT security is also
pervasive across just about every facet of IoT.

Privacy As sensors become more prolific in our everyday lives, much of the data they gather will be specific to individuals
and their activities. This data can range from health information to shopping patterns and transactions at a retail
establishment. For businesses, this data has monetary value. Organizations are now discussing who owns this data
and how individuals can control whether it is shared and with whom.
Challenge Description
Big data and IoT and its large number of sensors is going to trigger a deluge of data that must be handled. This data will
data analytics provide critical information and insights if it can be processed in an efficient manner. The challenge,
however, is evaluating massive amounts of data arriving from different sources in various forms and doing
so in a timely manner.
Interoperability As with any other nascent technology, various protocols and architectures are jockeying for market share
and standardization within IoT. Some of these protocols and architectures are based on proprietary
elements, and others are open. Recent IoT standards are helping minimize this problem, but there are
often various protocols and implementations available for IoT networks. The prominent protocols and
architectures—especially open, standards-based implementations—are the subject of discussion in the
next slide.
IoT is about connecting the unconnected, enabling smart

objects to communicate with other objects, systems, and

people. The end result is an intelligent network that allows

more control of the physical world and the enablement of

advanced applications.
 Layer 1: Things: Sensors and Actuators Layer
Battery-powered or power-connected: This classification is based on whether the object carries its own energy supply or
receives continuous power from an external power source. Battery-powered things can be moved more easily than line-
powered objects. However, batteries limit the lifetime and amount of energy that the object is allowed to consume, thus
driving transmission range and frequency

Mobile or static: This classification is based on whether the “thing” should move or always stay at the same location. A
sensor may be mobile because it is moved from one object to another (for example, a viscosity sensor moved from batch
to batch in a chemical plant) or because it is attached to a moving object (for example, a location sensor on moving goods
in a warehouse or factory floor). The frequency of the movement may also vary, from occasional to permanent. The range
of mobility (from a few inches to miles away) often drives the possible power source.

Simple or rich data: This classification is based on the quantity of data exchanged at each report cycle. A humidity sensor
in a field may report a simple daily index value (on a binary scale from 0 to 255), while an engine sensor may report
hundreds of parameters, from temperature to pressure, gas velocity, compression speed, carbon index, and many others.
Low or high reporting frequency: This classification is based on how often the object should report monitored parameters. A
rust sensor may report values once a month. A motion sensor may report acceleration several hundred times per second.
Higher frequencies drive higher energy consumption, which may create constraints on the possible power source (and therefore
the object mobility) and the transmission range.

Object density per cell: This classification is based on the number of smart objects (with a similar need to communicate) over a
given area, connected to the same gateway. An oil pipeline may utilize a single sensor at key locations every few miles. By
contrast, telescopes like the SETI Colossus telescope at the Whipple Observatory deploy hundreds, and sometimes thousands,
of mirrors over a small area, each with multiple gyroscopes, gravity, and vibration sensors.

Report range: This classification is based on the distance at which the gateway is located. For example, for your fitness band
to communicate with your phone, it needs to be located a few meters away at most. By contrast, a moisture sensor in the
asphalt of a road may need to communicate with its reader several hundred meters or even kilometers away.
Example of Sensor Applications Based on Mobility and Throughput
 ARM Family of Processor Core

•Cortex-A (Application Processor cores)

•Cortex-R (Real Time Application cores)
•Cortex-M (Microcontroller Cores) https://gsasindia.com/newsroom/cortex-a-cortex-r-and-cortex-m/
ARM Family of Processor Core

https://www.bdti.com/InsideDSP/2014/09/25/ARM
 Layer 2: Communications network layer
When smart objects are not self-contained, they need to communicate with an external system. In many
cases, this communication uses a wireless technology. This layer has four sublayers:

Access network sublayer: The last mile of the IoT network is the access network. This is typically made
up of wireless technologies such as 802.11ah, 802.15.4g, and LoRa. The sensors connected to the
access network may also be wired.

Gateways and backhaul network sublayer: A common communication system organizes multiple smart
objects in a given area around a common gateway. The gateway communicates directly with the smart
objects. The role of the gateway is to forward the collected information through a longer-range medium
(called the backhaul) to a headend central station where the information is processed.
 Layer 2: Communications network layer

Network transport sublayer: For communication to be successful, network and transport layer protocols
such as IP and UDP must be implemented to support the variety of devices to connect and media to use.

IoT network management sublayer: Additional protocols must be in place to allow the headend
applications to exchange data with the sensors. Examples include CoAP and MQTT.
 COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA

• Communications Channel

– To transfer data from one devices to another requires some type of

link through which the data can be transmitted. This link is known as
the communications channel.
– To send data through the channel requires some type of transmission
media, which may be either physical or wireless.
 Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted-pair cable – consists of two independently insulated wires twisted around each other (least
expensive type of cable—the kind that is used in many telephone systems).
 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable – consists of an insulated center wire grounded by a shield of braided wire (the
primary type of cabling used by the cable television industry; it is more expensive than twisted
pair).
 Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-optic cable – contains hundreds of clear fiberglass or plastic fibers (threads) (made from thin, flexible glass tubing;
bandwidth is greater, so it can carry more data; it is lighter than metal wires and is less susceptible to interference; it is
fragile and expensive)
Wireless Communication for IoT : Key Parameters

Range & Reach

Latency Throughput (Speed)

IoT Wireless
Communication Protocol
Requirements

Size Power Consumption

Cost
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

✓ Spectrum is considered National Resource

✓ In every country, Government Bodies (like TRAI) allocate specific bands that can be used for Civilian Purposes
✓ Some bands are Licensed to Telecom Operators like Airtel, Reliance Jio, Vodafone (via Auction?)
▪ Cellular Services (2G, 4G, 5G, NB-IoT etc) are provided on these bands
✓ A few bands are allocated as ‘License-free bands’ and can be used by anyone
▪ WiFi and BLE use 2.4 GHz, WiFi also works on 5 GHz
▪ Sub 1-GHz (865-867 MHz)
 IoT Communication Protocols
IoT Communication
Protocols
(Low Power Wireless)

PAN LAN WAN

802.15.4 Cellular
BLE WiFi ZigBee Thread Unlicensed Band
6LowPAN (Licensed Band)

Personal Area Networks Local Area Networks

(Around 10-50 feet) (Within a Building, 50-100 feet) LTE-M NB-IoT LoRa SigFox

Use Unlicensed Bands Use Unlicensed Bands

(2.4 GHz, Sub 1-GHz) (2.4 / 5 GHz, Sub 1-GHz)

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 Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)
❖ It is a low power wireless technology used for connecting devices with each other.

❖ It operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.

❖ It is targeted towards applications that need to consume less power and may need to run on
batteries for longer periods of time — typically in the order of 2-3 years.

Bluetooth Classic BLE

Used for streaming applications such as audio Used for sensor data, control of devices, and low-
streaming and file transfers. bandwidth applications.

Not optimized for low power, has a higher data Low power, low duty data cycles
rate
Operates over 79 RF (Radio Frequency) channels. Operates over 40 RF (Radio Frequency) channels

Device discovery on 32 channels, leading to Connections are much quicker (discovery occurs
slower connections. on 3 channels).
 Benefits of BLE

❑ Lower power consumption even when compared

to other low power technologies.

❑ BLE achieves the optimized and low power

consumption by keeping the radio off as much as
possible and sending small amounts of data at
low transfer speeds.

❑ Lower cost of modules and chipsets, even when

compared to other similar technologies.

❑ High market proliferation. Almost every

smartphone supports BLE .
 Limitations of BLE
Data Throughput: The data throughput of BLE is limited by the physical radio layer (PHY) data rate, which is the rate at which the radio
transmits data. This rate depends on the Bluetooth version used.

✓ For Bluetooth 4.2 and earlier, the rate is fixed at 1 Mbps.

✓ For Bluetooth 5 and later, however, the rate varies depending on the mode and PHY used. The rate can be 1 Mbps like earlier versions,
or 2 Mbps when utilizing the high- speed feature .

Range: BLE was designed for short range applications and hence its range of operation is limited. There are a few factors that limit the
range of BLE:

❖ BLE operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM spectrum which is greatly affected by obstacles that exist all around us such as metal objects, walls,
and water (especially human bodies).

❖ Performance and design of the antenna of the BLE device.

❖ Physical enclosure of the device

Gateway Requirement for Internet Connectivity .

 Wi-Fi
➢ Wi-Fi is a wireless connectivity technology based on the IEEE
802.11 standards.

➢ Wi-Fi is also increasingly used for peer-to-peer and wireless

personal area network connections (WPAN).

➢ A Wi-Fi network can be used to connect IoT devices to each

other, to the Internet, via access points that are either connected
to wireless backhaul network or to wired networks that use
Ethernet technology.

➢ Wi-Fi networks operate in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz radio bands,
with some products that contain both bands (dual-band).

➢ It provides secure, reliable, and fast wireless connectivity.

➢ Wi-Fi offers low power consumption and low cost relative to

cellular.
 Zigbee

➢ The Zigbee standard operates on the IEEE 802.15.4 physical radio

specification.

➢ It operates in unlicensed bands including 2.4 GHz, 900 MHz and

868 MHz.

Zigbee protocol features include:

❖ Support for multiple network topologies such as point-to-point,

point-to-multipoint and mesh networks.
❖ Low duty cycle – provides long battery life.
❖ Low latency.
❖ Up to 65,000 nodes per network.
❖ 128-bit AES encryption for secure data connections.
❖ Collision avoidance, retries and acknowledgements.
Zigbee
 Cellular Network

Generations Meaning Cellular Technologies

1G First generation of Mobile Networks AMPS,NMT,TACS

2G Second generation of Mobile Networks GSM,D-AMPS

3G Third generation of Mobile Networks UMTS,CDMA

4G Fourth generation of Mobile Networks LTE

5G Fifth generation of Mobile Networks NR

Cellular Network
 5G
5G classifies devices into three broad classes of devices namely:
➢ eMBB (Enhanced Mobile Broadband): For high-bandwidth use cases
➢ mMTC (massive machine type communications): For Low-power, low-speed use-cases
➢ uRLLC for Ultra-reliable and low latency communications.
 Why not use a Cellular Module ?

❖ Power Consumption is High

❖ Computationally intensive

❖ Needs Significant Memory (PM & DM)

❖ Higher Cost (SoC Cost + Network Usage Cost)

❖ Translates to larger Size (SoC + Battery)

❖ Availability of Cellular Network

 NB - IoT

❖ Narrowband Internet of things (NB-IoT) is a low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) radio technology standard
developed by 3GPP for cellular devices and services.

❖ NB-IoT focuses specifically on indoor coverage, low cost, long battery life, and high connection density.

❖ NB-IoT uses a subset of the LTE standard, but limits the bandwidth to a single narrow-band of 200kHz.

❖ IoT applications which require more frequent communications will be better served by NB-IoT, which has no duty cycle
limitations operating on the licensed spectrum.
Features of NB - IoT
 LORA

❑ A Sub-GHz wireless technology enabling communication over long distances (5 – 15 kms)

❑ Low data rate
❑ Proprietary modulation technology developed by Semtech Corporation

❖ Physical Layer Protocol Based on Chirp Spread Spectrum Modulation

❖ Provides WAN capability using a Open-source MAC protocol called LoRaWAN
❖ Good option for Private Industrial IoT Networks Spread over Acres
 Advantages of LoRa WAN

❖ Long battery life for devices and sensors due to low power consumption

❖ Low cost implementation due to low cost hardware and unlicensed spectrum

❖ Long range coverage and in-building penetration

❖ Less complexity in programming

❖ Offers a secure transmission network

❖ Scalable network to support future upgrades

❖ Ease of access and connectivity to the cloud applications

❖ Remote management and control access

❖ Highly intelligent architecture

 Comparison
SigFox LORA NB-IOT

Coverage 160dB 127dB 164dB

Technology ISM ISM Licensed(LTE)

Output Power 25mW 25mW 200mW

Duty Cycle Yes Yes No

Data Rate 0.1kbps 0.3-50kbps 0.5-200kbps

Battery life 10 Years 10 Years 15 Years

Security LOW LOW VERY HIGH

 Terminal Node, Gateway and Cloud

Compute Communication
Module Module

Processing Send
Module

Receive
Memory &
Storage

Energy Source

Cloud

System Memory Size Latency

Design Computation Power
Cost
Criteria
Privacy Reliability Security
Enhanced Efficiency
Performance Improvement
Goal 58At
Cost Reduction System Level
 The Ideal IoT Solution Architecture

➢ When each functionality of the System (Sensing, Analysis, Storage &

Response) is executed at the Most Appropriate Location (Node, Compute Module Communication
Module

Gateway or Cloud) Processing Send

Module

Receive

➢ Typically, Sensing will always happen at the Terminal Node.

Memory &
Storage

Energy Source

Cloud

➢ Analysis & Storage can happen either at the Terminal Node,

Gateway or Cloud.

System Memory Size Latency

Design Computation Power
Cost
Criteria
Privacy Reliability Security
Enhanced Efficiency
Performance Improvement At
Goal
Cost Reduction System Level
Cloud-Centric Architecture: Most of the processing is done on the Cloud
Node Analytics / Edge Analytics: Most of the processing is done on the Terminal Node or Edge Node
Fog-Computing: Significant portion of computing is concentrated in Gateways and Fog Nodes (Fog Node A marketing term to
denote computing modules above the Edge but below the Cloud)
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 Why do we need an IoT Gateway ?

❖Local aggregation of Data

❖Deriving meaningful information from raw data

❖Local Analytics, Visualization & Dashboarding (at Product System Level)

❖Connecting to local devices with multiple connection protocols

❖Management, Configuration and Commissioning

❖Enhanced Security

❖Privacy - Adherence to standards like HIPAA

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 Application Layer : Communication Models / Patterns

• Request – Response
• Publish-Subscribe
• Exclusive Pair
 Request - Response

Request

Client Server Resources

Response

Example: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

 Publish - Subscribe

Consumer – 1

Receives Messages on
Topic 1

Message published
Publisher 1 Topic -1

Sends messages on Broker

Topic 1 Topic – 1
Publisher List
Subscriber List Consumer – 2

Receives Messages on
Topic 1 & 2
Message published
Topic -2
Publisher 2
Topic – 2
Publisher List
Subscriber List
Sends messages on Consumer – 3
Topic 2
Receives Messages on
Topic 2

Example: MQTT (MQ Telemetry Transport)

 Application Layer Protocols - MQTT

• MQTT - Message Queue (MQ) Telemetry Transport

• Light-weight messaging protocol
• Based on Publish-Subscribe Model
• Uses TCP as the Transport Layer Protocol
• IBM significantly involved in developing this protocol, but has now
Open-sourced MQTT. Hence a large number of free, easy to use
libraries are available

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 Exclusive Pair
Request to set up connection

Response accepting the Request

Message from Client to Server

Message from Server to Client

Message from Client to Server

Message from Server to Client
Client Server

…….
Message from Client to Server
Message from Server to Client

Request to close connection

Connection close Request

WebSocket APIs use Exclusive Pair Model

Some Wireless Trends
 Some Wireless Trends

• WiFi 6
• Cellular – 4G, 5G (including NB-IoT), Femto Cells
• Bluetooth 5, 5.1 & 5.2
• UWB – Ultra Wide-band
• Weightless – Adaptive usage of the unused TV spectrum
• Thread by Google
• GAGAN & NAViC

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