A MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

On

MAGNETIC SOLENOID ENGINE

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

by
NIRMAL KUMAR M (RA1411005010066)
J SARAVANA GANESH (RA1411005010164)
RAGHAVENDRAN SIDDHARTH (RA1411005010189)

Under the guidance of

Mr. P. Suresh M.E., (Ph. D)

(Assistant Professor (O.G), Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering)

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur- 603 203
Kancheepuram Dist.

MAY 2018
 ii

SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

(Deemed to be university u/s 3 of UGC Act, 1956)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “MAGNETIC SOLENOID ENGINE” is

the bonafide work of “NIRMAL KUMAR M [RA1411005010066], J SARAVANA
GANESH [RA1411005010164], RAGHAVENDRAN SIDDHARTH
[RA1411005010189]”, who carried out the project work under my supervision.
Certified further, that to the best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not
form any other project report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award
was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

Signature of the Guide Signature of the HOD

Mr. P. Suresh, M.E., (Ph. D) Dr. K. Vijayakumar, M.E., Ph. D
Assistant Professor (O.G) Professor and Head
Department of EEE Department of EEE
SRM Institute of Science SRM Institute of Science
& Technology & Technology

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Date:
 iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to our respected Director (E&T)

Dr. C.MUTHAMIZHCHELVAN for their encouragement towards our growth and
activities.

I extend my sincere gratitude to Professor and Head of EEE Department,

Dr. K.VIJAYAKUMAR, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur
for his commendable support and encouragement towards the completion of project
with perfection.

I owe my deep sense of gratitude to my Project Coordinator,

Dr. D.SATTIANADAN, Assistant Professor having extended their fullest support in
completing the project work.

I whole heartily thank to my Project Coordinator and Project Guide,

Mr. P.SURESH, Assistant Professor(OG), Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering for standing by my side during the hard days and being my guide for this
project.

Last but not the least; I would like to thank my Parents and Friends for the
supports, concerns and prayers, which were a major factor in the completion of this
project.

As everything begins and ends with God, I conclude this acknowledge by thanking
God for everything.

(NIRMAL KUMAR M)

(J.SARAVANA GANESH)

(RAGHAVENDRAN SIDDHARTH)
 iv

ABSTRACT

The objective of the project is to design, build and test the prototype of Magnetic
Solenoid Engine, which can replace the conventional Internal Combustion (IC) Engine.
Like conventional engines this system also has cylinder, piston (without piston heads),
connecting rod, crank shaft. Battery is used as the fuel for this system, unlike the
conventional engine that uses Gasoline or Diesel as fuels. The cylinders are made of
solenoid coils, the pistons consist of soft iron instead of piston head. Main factor is to
increase magnetic field and magnetic property of solenoid. In this project, the coil pulls
the crank shaft while passing current into it. Current is just required for few fractions of
seconds in every rotation of crank shaft. The solenoid pairs are triggered at regular
intervals based on position of Top Dead Centre (TDC) and Bottom Dead Centre (BDC)
of the cylinder. This is achieved by using Arduino based switching circuit that
energizes the solenoid based on the timing programmed in the Arduino board. This
project relates to electric motors, and more specifically to an electrical power
distribution system for a reciprocating electrical motor using solenoids. The Magnetic
Solenoid Engine was drawn and modelled graphically using 3D Computer Aided
Design (CAD) designing software SOLID WORKS 2018. Pertaining to the above
submitted prototype, the hardware was designed.
 v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
TITLE
NO NO
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ix
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE 1
1.2 ALUMINIUM AS THE RAW MATERIAL 2
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 5
2.1 U.S. PAT. NO. 4,317,058 TO BLALOCK 5
2.1.1 Disadvantage 5
2.1.2 Remedy 5
2.2 U.S. PAT. NO. 4,749,893 TO REYNOLDS 6
2.2.1 Disadvantage 6
2.2.2 Remedy 6
2.3 JSR ISSN: 2319-7064 6
2.3.1 Disadvantage 6
2.3.2 Remedy 6
2.4 U.S. PAT. NO. 5,469,004 TO JACHIM 7
2.4.1 Disadvantage 7
2.4.2 Remedy 7
2.5 U.S. PAT. NO. 3,935,487 7
2.5.1 Disadvantage 7
2.5.2 Remedy 7
3 DESIGN OF PROPOSED SYSTEM 8
3.1 INTRODUCTION 8
3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM 8
3.3 CONSTRUCTION 9
3.4 SWITCHING CIRCUIT 11
3.4.1 Arduino 11
 vi

3.4.2 Hardware 12
3.4.3 Software and Programming Tools 13
3.4.4 Programming structure 14
3.4.5 Advantage of Arduino programming 15
3.5 RELAYS 15
3.5.1 Classification of Relays 17
3.5.2 Basic design and operation 18
3.6 DESIGN OF PROPOSED MODEL 19
3.6.1 Estimated Output calculation 19
3.6.2 Cylinder 20
3.6.3 Piston 21
3.6.4 Crankshaft 22
3.6.5 Connecting Rod 23
3.6.6 Piston Pin 24
3.6.7 Crank Support 25
3.6.8 Base of module 26
3.6.9 Standard Wire Gauge 27
3.7 3D MODEL OF PROPOSED WORK 28
3.7.1 Working 28
3.7.1.1 Output shaft 30
3.7.1.2 Reciprocating motion 30
3.7.1.3 Piston stroke 31
4 HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION 32
4.1 BATTERY SOURCE 32
4.1.1 24V DC Battery Source 32
4.1.2 9V DC Battery Source 34
4.2 CONTROL SWITCHES 35
4.2.1 Contacts 37
4.2.2 Contact terminology 37
4.2.3 Electronic Switches 38
4.3 POWER TRANSISTOR 39
4.3.1 Transistor as Switch 41
4.4 RESISTOR 42
 vii

4.4.1 Power Dissipation 43

4.5 DIODE 44
4.5.1 Main Functions 44
4.6 MAGNETIC SOLENOID ENGINE 45
5 RESULTS & CONCLUSION 47
REFERENCES
 viii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
TITLE
NO NO
3.1 Block Diagram of Overall System 8

3.2 Arduino based Switching circuit 11

3.3 Arduino UNO 14

3.4 Relay Model 16

3.5 Dimensions of Cylinders 20

3.6 Dimensions of Piston 21

3.7 Dimensions of Crankshaft 22

3.8 Dimensions of Connecting Rod 23

3.9 Dimensions of Piston pin 24

3.10 Dimensions of Crank support 25

3.11 Dimensions of System Base 26

3.12 Standard Wire Gauge 27

3.13 Mechanical Engine Model 28

4.1 24V DC Battery 32

4.2 9V DC Battery 35

4.3 Operation of Transistor as Switch 41

4.4 Resistor representation 42

4.5 IN4007 Pin out Circuit 44

 ix

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

NOTATION MEANING
AC Alternating Current
BBM Break Before Make
BDC Bottom Dead Centre
CAD Computer Aided Design
CAE Computer Aided Engineering
CI Compression Ignition
DC Direct Current
EMF Electro Motive Force
F Force
FET Field Effect Transistor
IC Internal Combustion
IDE Integrated Development Environment
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
MBB Make Before Break
MMF Magneto Motive Force
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
NC Normally Closed
NO Normally Open
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PV Photo Voltaic
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
R Resistance
SI Spark Ignition
SWG Standard Wire Gauge
TDC Top Dead Centre
USB Universal Serial Bus
V Voltage
 1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Our day to day life, in fact, it is predominantly required in every field, whether it is
a household, industry, communication, transport, defence or agriculture. Energy
resources are broadly classified as Conventional and Non-conventional sources of
energy. Conventional sources of energy are not present in the environment in
abundance, however their uses are unlimited. One of the most important disadvantages
of conventional technologies is the environmental impact. The combustion of fossil
fuels leads to the inevitable production of Carbon Dioxide (CO2), while most of the
times harmful emissions are produced, such as Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen
Oxides (NOX), Sulphur Oxides (SOX), unburned Hydrocarbons (HC), and solid
particles. Another critical disadvantage of conventional technologies is that they need
continuous fuel supply to operate, which contributes to the operating costs. This cost
depends on various local and global parameters, such as fuel availability and type, fuel
purity, world economic conditions, local prices, etc. On the other hand, renewable
energy technologies do not require any fossil fuel during normal operation. Their
operation is based on the exploitation of natural resources, such as the sun and wind,
having relatively lower operating costs, although they still require some maintenance.

The most important disadvantage of renewable energy technologies is the

fluctuation of their power output, which depends on the intermittency of the particular
natural resource, which can have a significant variation, even on an hour-to-hour basis.
This aspect has brought many second thoughts and scepticism on their wider
implementation when energy supply must be secured, irrespective of any possible
fluctuations in renewable energy resources availability.

1.1 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

The primary objective of this project is to provide an ecologically sound, light

weight, high power, inexpensive, durable reciprocating electrical motor which is
simple to design, highly efficient, easy to produce and repair, and utilizes common
everyday parts. An IC engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs
 2

with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the
working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the
high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force
to some component of the engine. The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine
blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming
chemical energy into useful mechanical energy. The term internal combustion engine
usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the more
familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the
six-stroke piston engine and the Wankel rotary engine.

A second class of IC engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines
and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same
principle as previously described. In contrast, in external combustion engines, such as
steam or Stirling engines, energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of,
mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids can be air, hot
water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, heated in a boiler.

IC engines are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel,

liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many stationary applications, most IC
engines are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles
such as cars, aircraft, and boats.

Typically an IC engine is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum
products such as gasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. There is a growing usage of renewable
fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bio ethanol or methanol for
spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used and can be obtained from either
fossil fuels or renewable energy.

1.2 ALUMINIUM AS THE RAW MATERIAL

The whole system except the piston is made of aluminium, to reduce the weight.
Aluminium or aluminium is a chemical element with symbol ‘Al’ and atomic
number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal in the boron group. By
mass, aluminium makes up about 8% of the Earth's crust; it is the third most abundant
element after oxygen and silicon and the most abundant metal in the crust, though it is
 3

less common in the mantle below. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite. Aluminium
metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme
reducing environments. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals.

The base of a reciprocating internal combustion engine is the engine block, which
is typically made of cast iron or aluminium. The engine block contains the cylinders,
pistons and crankshaft. The pistons are short cylindrical parts which seal one end of the
cylinder from the high pressure of the compressed air and combustion products and
slide continuously within it while the engine is in operation. There are four major steps
in operation of a four-stroke engine they are, Intake, Compression, Power, Exhaust.

A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat

engine (although there are also pneumatic and hydraulic reciprocating engines) that
uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This
article describes the common features of all types. The main types are: the internal
combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles; the steam engine, the mainstay
of the Industrial Revolution; and the niche application Stirling engine. Internal
combustion engines are further classified in two ways: either a Spark-Ignition (SI)
engine, where the spark plug initiates the combustion; or a Compression-Ignition (CI)
engine, where the air within the cylinder is compressed, thus heating it, so that the
heated air ignites fuel that is injected then or earlier.

Reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land
and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, and ships and to a lesser extent
in household power generation. The major idea of this project is to provide a
mechanical output that could be used feasibly for household applications in a more
efficient way. This project looks similar to an Internal Combustion Engine that consists
of Cylinder, Piston, Crankshaft and Case. The Cylinder here in case is replaced with a
magnetic solenoid that uses electric current as a fuel for the piston to move to TDC and
BDC.

The Magnetic engine powering device with magnetic components that aid in the
operation of piston propelled engines by attaching the device individually to the pistons,
causing the pistons to perform the up and down thrusts. Solenoid triggering sequence is
controlled by the power electronic circuit. A straight current carrying conductor
produces a circular magnetic field around itself at all points along its length and that the
 4

direction of rotation of this magnetic field depends upon the direction of current flow
through the conductor.

The force that sets up the magnetic field depends on the number of turns on the coil
and the magnitude of the current flowing. This force is called the Magneto Motive
Force (MMF) and the unit of measurement is the Ampere-turn

MMF = I x n …………(1.1)

In physics, the magneto-motive force is a quantity appearing in the equation for

the magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit, often called Ohm's law for magnetic circuits. It
is the property of certain substances or phenomena that give rise to magnetic fields:

The Magneto-motive force is given by,

F = Φ R, …………(1.2)

Where Φ is the magnetic flux and R is the reluctance of the circuit. It can be seen that
the magneto-motive force plays a role in this equation analogous to the voltage V in
Ohm's law:

V = IR, ………..(1.3)

The electrical control circuit is designed to power the solenoid at regular intervals.
This power energizes the solenoid and causes the iron piece to retract into the solenoid
pulling the connecting rod inwardly and moving the crankshaft to generate mechanical
power.
 5

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY
Electric motors, utilizing a stator and a rotor, are well known in the art.
Reciprocating electric motors, utilizing solenoids connected to a crankshaft, have also
been constructed. There are three other models that where developed and modelled.
They had their own Advantages and Disadvantages.

2.1 U.S. PAT. NO. 4,317,058 TO BLALOCK [1]

In a reciprocating electric motor, several solenoids are connected to a crankshaft

and are fired in an appropriate sequence using mechanical PWM switches to cause the
crankshaft to rotate in a fashion similar to an ordinary reciprocating gasoline motor.

2.1.1 Disadvantage

This type of mechanical Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) switching results in

heavy sparks when the overall speed of the engine is increased; this in turn causes
heavy amperage consumption that results in less efficiency.

2.1.2 Remedy

In this project, the mechanical PWM switches that were used in the
above-mentioned projects are replaced with Solid State switches. Since the Solid-State
switch does not have any mechanically moving part the heavy sparks are removed, they
are very much lighter than the mechanical switches, thus the weight of the system is
greatly reduced, and amperage consumption is reduced to increasing efficiency.
 6

2.2 U.S. PAT. NO. 4,749,893 TO REYNOLDS [2]

The engine model incorporated the use of Strong Earth Magnets, for the push and
pull operation of the piston rod.

2.2.1 Disadvantage

This model required complex switching circuit for the push and pull operation of
the piston. Also, the strength of Earth magnets deteriorates in due course of time; the
Earth Magnets are heavy and increased the system gross weight. So, it is not efficient to
use magnets that increases the making cost of the system.

2.2.2 Remedy

The above directed constraints in the model are proposed to be resolved by using a
Soft Iron piece instead of Earth Magnets, this decreases the weight and the use of
complex switching is not needed.

2.3 IJSR ISSN: 2319-7064[3]

The Magnetic Repulsion Piston Engine consists of a single electromagnet that was
controlled for the push and pull movement of the piston using a circuit, the incorporated
the use of Metal Oxide Field Semiconductor Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

2.3.1 Disadvantage

MOSFET was heated when supply of 24 V was given to its terminal and the output
voltage was around 3V causing error in magnetising the solenoid.

2.3.2 Remedy

The control circuit is designed free from transistors and consists of Arduino Board
that directs the relay in switching the solenoid.

2.4 U.S. PAT. NO. 5,469,004 TO JACHIM [4]

 7

The Electric Vehicle Solenoid Motor consists of Solenoids, Piston and Crankshaft.
The four crank pieces are places 45º from each other.

2.4.1 Disadvantage

The position of the solenoid has made the switching more complicated, that is each
solenoid has to be switched at regular intervals of 45º, thus the power input is increased.

2.4.2 Remedy

The position of the crank pieces is paired such that each pair is at 90º from other.
Thus, the complex switching is not required.

2.5 U.S. PAT. NO. 3935487[5]

Permanent Magnet Motor mentioned here involves the use of only magnets that are
fixed and movable.

2.5.1 Disadvantage

There is no option to stop the motor after it starts as the continuous repulsion makes
it to rotate and a low speed.

2.5.2 Remedy

The use of permanent magnet is avoided and modelled to use electro- magnet that
can be energised and de-energised as when needed.
 8

CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF PROPOSED SYSTEM

3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter enables us to understand the block diagram and design structures of
the proposed system. Here we discuss the construction and working of the proposed
model. The block diagram enlightens the layout and the major components. The
construction mainly focuses on the design elements of the system. The switching block
is also discussed.

3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

The entire system consists of the four major blocks that enables the functioning of
the system is shown in the Fig 3.1. The proposed system consists of a 24V Batter
Source connected to the control switches. The solenoids are then powered through the
control switches. To enable the continuous rotation of the crank shaft that is connected
to the control switch to provide a closed loop between the magnetic solenoid engine
output shaft and the control switches.

Fig 3.1 Block Diagram of Overall System Design

 9

The switching of the solenoids is governed by the timing signal programmed in the
Arduino board. So depending on the movement of piston from the BDC to TDC and the
timing between them is calculated and programmed in the Arduino board. The
proposed system doesn’t contain or make use of any sensor to determine the piston
position.

3.3 CONSTRUCTION
The Mechanical model of the Magnetic Solenoid Engine was designed and
fabricated with Aluminium. The sub-system that was fabricated was assembled in to a
single unit. The complete setup was designed using SOLID WORKS 2018 CAD
software. SolidWorks is a modeling CAD and Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE)
computer program that runs on Microsoft Windows. SolidWorks is published by
Dassault Systems.

According to the publisher, over two million engineers and designers at more than
165,000 companies were using SolidWorks as of 2013. SolidWorks is solid designer,
and utilizes a parametric feature-based approach which was initially developed by PTC
(Creo/Pro-Engineer) to create models and assemblies. The software is written on
Parasolid-kernel.

Parameters refer to constraints whose values determine the shape or geometry of

the model or assembly. Parameters can be either numeric parameters, such as line
lengths or circle diameters, or geometric parameters, such as tangent, parallel,
concentric, horizontal or vertical, etc. Numeric parameters can be associated with each
other through the use of relations which allow them to capture design intent.

Design intent is how the creator of the part wants it to respond to changes and
updates. For example, you would want the hole at the top of a beverage can to stay at
the top surface, regardless of the height or size of the can. SolidWorks allows the user to
specify that the hole is a feature on the top surface and will then honour their design
intent no matter what height they later assign to the can.

Features refer to the building blocks of the part. They are the shapes and operations
that construct the part. Shape-based features typically begin with a 2D or 3D sketch of
shapes such as bosses, holes, slots, etc. This shape is then extruded or cut to add or
 10

remove material from the part. Operation-based features are not sketch-based, and
include features such as fillets, chamfers, shells, applying draft to the faces of a part,
etc.

The designed Solenoid Cylinder was wound with a 26 GAUGE copper wire around
its outer surface, for about 175 turns along its length. Total of 1750 turns were wound
on the Cylinder for a thickness of 4mm. For each layer of winding there is a small layer
of insulation is given to maintain the magnetic flux density. This process was carried
out for all the four solenoid cylinders. The Solenoid Cylinder is placed on a supporting
frame that was made of aluminium. This choice of using aluminium was is to reduce the
system weight and give a more rigid structure.

The Piston was designed and fabricated using Mild Steel instead of aluminium.
This type of steel was used and the piston has to respond to the magnetic field changes
that are caused in the inner chamber of the Solenoid cylinder. The Mild Steel is made of
iron with very less impurities. This helps the magnetic property to be strong enough for
the pull force. This piston was design to pass into the internal chamber of the solenoid
cylinder.

The piston consists of a gudgeon pin connects the piston to the connecting rod. The
Gudgeon pins couple the top part of the connecting rod and the lower part of the piston.
This gudgeon pin is made of aluminium. This pin provides the connecting rod to move
through an angle of 135º.

The Connecting rod was constructed as a shape of a pendulum. It consists of two

ends top and bottom. The top end consists of a small hole that is coupled in the piston
via gudgeon pin. The bottom end of the connecting rod is coupled to the reciprocating
shaft of the crank. This setup was done for all the four connecting rods.

The Crankshaft is the major part of the Magnetic solenoid engine that helps in
converting the reciprocating motion to rotational motion. The Crankshaft was designed
and fabricated using aluminium. The crankshaft was designed for the Inline
Construction of the engine. It consists of 8 crank pieces coupled together by a
reciprocating shaft to form 4 pairs of crank. Each pairs of crank are placed at different
angles. The first and the fourth pair of the crank pairs are placed at same angle, and the
second and third pairs are at same angle. The two pairs are placed at 180º apart from the
 11

other pairs. This shows that when 1&4 are down, the pairs 2&3 are up. The crank pieces
are designed in a shape that helps to maintain the angular momentum of the engine. The
weights are equally distributed to ensure the continuous rotation of the engine.

The major construction part was the switching circuit for solenoid coils that
energised the coils and causes the magnetic flux that pulls the pistons towards the TDC.
The switching sequence of the solenoids is governed by the timing programmed in the
solenoid.

3.4 SWITCHING CIRCUIT

The triggering of the solenoid is done by the incorporation of the Arduino Board
based switching circuit as in Fig 3.2. The switching sequence is governed by the timing
which is pre-programmed in the Arduino board. A transistor is employed between the
Arduino Board and the relay coil to limit the increasing current passing through the
relay coil. A separate solenoid energising circuit is connected to the relay coil forming a
closed circuit. So whenever the relay is energised the path is closed and the solenoid
gets magnetised thereby pulling the piston upwards. Hence another relay coil is needed
to energise another set of solenoids to ensure the continuous rotation of the crankshaft.

Fig 3.2 Arduino based switching circuit.

3.4.1 Arduino
Arduino is a basic single board microcontroller as shown in Fig 3.3 it is designed to
make applications, interactive controls, or environments easily adaptive. The hardware
consists of a board designed around an 8-bit microcontroller, or a 32-bit ARM. Current
 12

models feature things like a USB interface, analog inputs, and GPIO pins which allows
the user to attach additional boards.

Arduino is open-source hardware. The hardware reference designs are distributed

under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and are available on the
Arduino website. Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are
also available. The source code for the IDE is released under the GNU General Public
License, version 2. Nevertheless, an official Bill of Materials of Arduino boards has
never been released by Arduino staff.

Although the hardware and software designs are freely available under copy left
licenses, the developers have requested the name Arduino to be exclusive to the official
product and not be used for derived works without permission. The official policy
document on use of the Arduino name emphasizes that the project is open to
incorporating work by others into the official product. Several Arduino-compatible
products commercially released have avoided the project name by using various names
ending in -duino.

Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The

boards are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be
interfaced to various expansion boards or Breadboards (shields) and other circuits.

The boards feature serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial

Bus (USB) on some models, which are also used for loading programs from personal
computers.

The microcontrollers are typically programmed using a dialect of features from the
programming languages C and C++. In addition to using traditional compiler tool
chains, the Arduino project provides an integrated development environment (IDE)
based on the Processing language project.

3.4.2 Hardware

Most Arduino boards consist of an Atmel 8-bit AVR microcontroller (ATmega8,

ATmega168, ATmega328, ATmega1280, ATmega2560) with varying amounts of
flash memory, pins, and features. The 32-bit Arduino Due, based on the Atmel
SAM3X8E was introduced in 2012. The boards use single or double-row pins or female
headers that facilitate connections for programming and incorporation into other
 13

circuits. These may connect with add-on modules termed shields. Multiple and possibly
stacked shields may be individually addressable via an I²Cserial bus. Most boards
include a 5 V linear regulator and a 16 MHz crystal oscillator or ceramic resonator.
Some designs, such as the Lily Pad, run at 8 MHz and dispense with the onboard
voltage regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions.

Arduino microcontrollers are pre-programmed with a boot loader that simplifies

uploading of programs to the on-chip flash memory. The default bootloader of the
Arduino UNO is the Opti boot bootloader. Boards are loaded with program code via a
serial connection to another computer. Some serial Arduino boards contain a level
shifter circuit to convert between RS-232 logic levels and transistor–transistor logic
(TTL) level signals. Current Arduino boards are programmed via Universal Serial Bus
(USB), implemented using USB-to-serial adapter chips such as the FTDI FT232. Some
boards, such as later-model Uno boards, substitute the FTDI chip with a separate AVR
chip containing USB-to-serial firmware, which is reprogrammable via its own ICSP
header. Other variants, such as the Arduino Mini and the unofficial Bo Arduino, use a
detachable USB-to-serial adapter board or cable, Bluetooth or other methods. When
used with traditional microcontroller tools, instead of the Arduino IDE, standard AVR
in-system programming (ISP) programming is used.

3.4.3 Software and Programming Tools

A program for Arduino may be written in any programming language with

compilers that produce binary machine code for the target processor. Atmel provides a
development environment for their microcontrollers, AVR Studio and the newer Atmel
Studio.

The Arduino project provides the Arduino Integrated Development

Environment(IDE), which is a cross-platform application written in the programming
language Java. It originated from the IDE for the languages Processing and Wiring. It
includes a code editor with features such as text cutting and pasting, searching and
replacing text, automatic indenting, brace matching, and syntax highlighting, and
provides simple one-click mechanisms to compile and upload programs to an Arduino
board. It also contains a message area, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for
common functions and a hierarchy of operation menus. A program written with the IDE
for Arduino is called a sketch. Sketches are saved on the development computer as text
 14

files with the file extension. ino. Arduino Software (IDE) pre-1.0 saved sketches with
the extension .pde.

The Arduino IDE supports the languages C and C++ using special rules of code
structuring. The Arduino IDE supplies a software library from the Wiring project,
which provides many common input and output procedures. User-written code only
requires two basic functions, for starting the sketch and the main program loop, that are
compiled and linked with a program stub main() into an executable cyclic executive
program with the GNU tool chain, also included with the IDE distribution.

The Arduino IDE employs the program avrdude to convert the executable code
into a text file in hexadecimal encoding that is loaded into the Arduino board by a
loader program in the board's firmware. The open-source nature of the Arduino project
has facilitated the publication of many free software libraries that other developers use
to augment their projects.

3.4.4 Programming Structure

A minimal Arduino C/C++ program consist of only two functions:

setup(): This function is called once when a sketch starts after power-up or reset. It
is used to initialize variables, input and output pin modes, and other libraries needed in
the sketch.

loop(): After setup() has been called, function loop() is executed repeatedly in the
main program. It controls the board until the board is powered off or is reset.

Arduino boards contain a light-emitting diode and a load resistor connected

between pin 13 and ground, which is a feature for many tests and program functions.

Fig 3.3 Arduino UNO

 15

3.4.5 Advantage of Arduino Programming

1. Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other

microcontroller platforms. The least expensive version of the Arduino module can be
assembled by hand, and even the pre-assembled Arduino modules cost less than $50.

2. Cross-platform - The Arduino software runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux
operating systems. Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows.

3. Simple, clear programming environment– The Arduino programming environment is

easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users to take advantage of as
well. For teachers, it’s conveniently based on the Processing programming environment, so
students learning to program in that environment will be familiar with the look and feel of
Arduino.

4. Open source and extensible software - The Arduino software is published as open
source tools, available for extension by experienced programmers. The language can be
expanded through C++ libraries, and people wanting to understand the technical details can
make the leap from Arduino to the AVR C programming language on which it's based.
Similarly, you can add AVR-C code directly into your Arduino programs if you want to.

5. Open source and extensible hardware - The Arduino is based on Atmel's ATMEGA8
and ATMEGA168 microcontrollers. The plans for the modules are published under a
Creative Commons license, so experienced circuit designers can make their own version of
the module, extending it and improving it. Even relatively inexperienced users can build he
breadboard version of the module in order to understand how it works and save money.

3.5 RELAYS

A relay is an electrically operated switch that is similar to the one in Fig 3.4.Many
relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch, but other operating
principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to
control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as
amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on
 16

another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers
to perform logical operations.

Fig 3.4 Relay model.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an
electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power
circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform
switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple
operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern
electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called
"protective relays".

Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of coil power to move their contacts in
one direction, and another, redirected pulse to move them back. Repeated pulses from
the same input have no effect. Magnetic latching relays are useful in applications where
interrupted power should not be able to transition the contacts.

Magnetic latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil
device, the relay will operate in one direction when power is applied with one polarity
and will reset when the polarity is reversed. On a dual coil device, when polarized
voltage is applied to the reset coil the contacts will transition. AC controlled magnetic
latch relays have single coils that employ steering diodes to differentiate between
operate and reset commands.
 17

3.5.1 Classification Of Relays

Depending on the operating principle and structural features relays are of different
types such as electromagnetic relays, thermal relays, power varied relays,
multi-dimensional relays, and so on, with varied ratings, sizes and applications.

• ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS.
• SOLID STATE RELAYS.
• HYBRID RELAY.
• THERMAL RELAY.
• REED RELAY.

The proposed system incorporates the use of electromagnetc relay as the entire
system works on the priciple of electromagnetic working principle. These relays are
constructed with electrical, mechanical and magnetic components, and have operating
coil and mechanical contacts. Therefore, when the coil gets activated by a supply
system, these mechanical contacts gets opened or closed.

The type of supply can be AC or DC. Since the entire system is based on the DC
powering a two DC relays are used for two consecutive powering cycles.

Electromagnetic relays are those relay which operates on the principle of

electromagnetic attraction. It is a type of a magnetic switch which uses the magnet for
creating a magnetic field. The magnetic field then uses for opening and closing the
switch and for performing the mechanical operation.

By their working principle, the electromagnetic relay is mainly classified into two
types. These are

1. Electromagnetic Attraction Relay

2. Electromagnetic Induction Relay

 18

3.5.2 Basic Design And Operation

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft

iron core (a solenoid), an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic
flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two contacts
in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to
one or more sets of moving contacts. The armature is held in place by a spring so that
when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this
condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other
set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their
function.

The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This
ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the
circuit track on the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the
PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic

field that activates the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contacts
either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact.
If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement
opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open.

When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force,
approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this
force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor
starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application
this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the
coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which
would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit
components. Such diodes were not widely used before the application of transistors as
relay drivers, but soon became ubiquitous as early germanium transistors were easily
destroyed by this surge. Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case.
 19

3.6 DESIGN OF PROPOSED MODEL

3.6.1 Estimated Output Calculation
CALCULATIONS PER SOLENOID:

Formula Used:

(𝑚𝑚𝑓)2μ0 𝐴
𝐹=
2 𝑔2

…..(3.1)

(𝑁∗𝐼)2μ0 𝐴
𝐹=
2𝑔2

…..(3.2)

μ0 = 4𝜋 ∗ 10−7 …..(3.3)

F is the force in Newton

N is the number of turns

I is the current in Amps

A is the area in length units squared

g is the length of the gap between the solenoid and a piece of metal.

Number of turns (N) = 1750

Area (A) = 14.8 mm. sq.

Force (F) = 51.902 N

The estimated calculations above show that the output power is nearly equal to 5 Kgs.
A flywheel of mass 5Kg with radius 8 cm is preferred for the torque calculation.

Estimated Torque (T) = Force x Radius

= 51.902 x 0.08

= 4.2 Nm (approx.)

Input Voltage (V) = 24V

Resistance (R) = 8.7Ω

 20

Current (I) = 2.7A

The above calculations are based on wire thickness of 26 SWG

3.6.2 Cylinder
A solenoid is a type of electromagnet whose purpose is to generate a controlled
magnetic field. The construction of the cylinder has the dimensions as shown in Fig 3.5.
If the purpose of the solenoid is instead to impede changes in the electric current, a
solenoid can be more specifically classified as an inductor rather than an electromagnet.
In physics, the term refers to a coil whose length is substantially greater than its
diameter, often wrapped around a metallic core, which produces a uniform magnetic
field in a volume of space (where some experiment might be carried out) when an
electric current is passed through it.

Fig 3.5 Dimensions of the cylinder

Height of the cylinder : 90mm

Diameter of the external circle : 60mm
Diameter of the internal circle : 34mm
 21

3.6.3 Piston
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas
compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the
moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings.
In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the
crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed
and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing
or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by
covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder. The dimensions of the piston are shown
below in the Fig 3.6.

Fig 3.6 Dimensions of the piston

Height of the piston : 70mm

Diameter of the piston : 20mm
Diameter of the piston pin hole : 12mm
Radius of the connecting rod space: 7.14mm
 22

3.6.4 Crankshaft
A crankshaft related to crank is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion
between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. The 2D dimensions of the
crankshaft are shown in Fig 3.7. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating
motion of the piston into rotational motion; whereas in a reciprocating compressor, it
converts the rotational motion into reciprocating motion. A crank is an arm attached at a
right angle to a rotating shaft by which reciprocating motion is imparted to or received
from the shaft. It is used to convert circular motion into reciprocating motion, or vice
versa. Attached to the end of the crank by a pivot is a rod, usually called a connecting
rod (conrod). The end of the rod attached to the crank moves in a circular motion, while
the other end is usually constrained to move in a linear sliding motion. Almost all
reciprocating engines use cranks (with connecting rods) to transform the
back-and-forth motion of the pistons into rotary motion. The cranks are incorporated
into a crankshaft.

Fig 3.7 Dimensions of the crankshaft

Length of the crankshaft : 410mm

Length of the crank piece : 55.19mm
Breadth of the crank piece : 15mm
Distance between the two-crank pieces : 30mm
 23

3.6.5 Connecting Rod

A connecting rod is a shaft which connects a piston to a crank or crankshaft in
a reciprocating engine that has the dimensions as shown in Fig 3.8. Together with the
crank, it forms a simple mechanism that converts reciprocating motion into rotating
motion. A connecting rod may also convert rotating motion into reciprocating motion,
its original use. Earlier mechanisms, such as the chain, could only impart pulling
motion. Being rigid, a connecting rod may transmit either push or pull, allowing the rod
to rotate the crank through both halves of a revolution. In a few two-stroke engines the
connecting rod is only required to push. They are not rigidly fixed at either end, so that
the angle between the connecting rod and the piston can change as the rod moves up
and down and rotates around the crankshaft.

Fig 3.8 Dimensions of the Connecting rod

Radius of the circle (inner) at the crank end : 12mm

Radius of the circle (outer) at the crank end : 15mm
Radius of the circle (inner) at the piston end : 10mm
Radius of the circle (outer) at the piston end : 12mm
Height of the connecting rod : 96.98mm
 24

3.6.6 Piston Pin

Piston pin is one of the essential mechanical components to lock the connecting rod
and the piston. This lock between the connecting road and the piston enables the free
movement of the connecting rod and the piston. This also ensures that the connecting
rod does not detach itself from the piston during the reciprocating motion. The
dimension of piston pin is shown below in Fig 3.9.

Fig 3.9 Dimensions of the piston pin

Length of the piston pin : 28mm

Width of the piston pin : 11mm
Radius (outer) of the piston pin : 5.5mm
Radius (inner) of the piston pin : 3mm
 25

3.6.7 Crank Support

Crank Support plays a major role in the weight division of the total crank and the
crank shaft. The weight of the crankshaft is evenly distributed on the support parts. The
use of the crank support is to enable a smooth and uninterrupted rotation of the
crankshaft placed on it. The model of the crank support has the dimensions as shown in
Fig 3.10.

Fig 3.10 Dimensions of the crank support

Height of the support : 95mm

Breadth of the support : 80mm
Radius of the crank holder : 15.5mm
 26

3.6.8 Base of module

The system Base is a long thick metal sheet which holds all the mechanical and the
electronic components of the system. The system ensures the stability during the
working of the system. More stronger the base is more stability is ensured to the entire
system. In this proposed project we use iron sheet as the base of the system. The base of
the module has the dimensions as shown in Fig 3.11.

Fig 3.11 Dimensions of the system base

Length of the base : 410mm

Breadth of the base : 160mm

Thickness of the base : 10mm

Thickness of the holder : 25mm

Length of the holder : 80mm

 27

3.6.9 Standard Wire Gauge (SWG)

Standard Wire Gauge is a set of wire sizes given by BS 3737:1964 (now

withdrawn) and is generally abbreviated to SWG is shown in Fig 3.12. It is also known
as: Imperial Wire Gauge or British Standard Gauge. Use of SWG sizes has fallen
greatly in popularity but is still used as a measure of thickness in guitar strings and
some electrical wire. Cross sectional area in square millimeters is now a more popular
size measurement. The current British Standard for metallic materials such as wire and
sheet is BS 6722:1986, which is a solely metric standard.

The basis of the system is the thou (or mil in US English), or 0.001 in. No. 7/0, the
largest size, is 0.50 in. (500 thou or 12.7 mm) in diameter, and the smallest, No. 50, is
0.001 in. (1 thou or about 25 µm) in diameter. The wire diameter diminishes with
increasing gauge size. Between each gauge, the weight per unit length diminishes by
approximately 20%. Because the weight per unit length is related to the area, and
therefore the square of the diameter, the diameter diminishes by approximately 10.6%:

Fig 3.12 Standard Wire Gauge

In the proposed model 26 SWG is being used. According to the current calculations
the usage of 26 SWG reduces the heat produced thus making it much efficient when
other SWGs are used.
 28

3.7 3D MODEL OF PROPOSED WORK

The mechanical design of the proposed engine is shown in Fig 3.5. It consists of
four cylinders which are placed in line. The first and the fourth cylinders are at 0 degree
whereas the second and the third are at 180 degrees. The pistons are made up of iron
core and are connected to the connecting rods. These connecting rods lock themselves
to the crank shaft providing a free space for the rotational motion of the crankshaft. The
entire system of the engine is mounted on the metallic base so as to withstand the
mechanical vibrations and to evenly distribute the system weight.

Fig 3.13 Mechanical Engine Model

3.7.1 Working
The mechanical sub-system consists of a piston that guide through the cylinder that
is the solenoid in a reciprocating motion. The linear up and down motion is converted to
rotational motion via crankshaft. The system consists of two pairs of solenoid that are
power electrically. These are similar to the construction of combustion chamber of the
Internal Combustion Engine. But the fuel used here for the power stroke is Electricity.
The solenoids that are arranged inline are being supported by wooden frame that is
attached to the ground plate.

The Piston inside the solenoid cylinder is connected to the crankshaft via a
connecting rod, which actually performs the conversion of motion. The piston is made
of Soft iron core to maintain the magnetic flux along its length. The connecting rod is
locked inside the piston using a piston bush that ensures a free movement that helps in
 29

conversion of motion. The major part of the system is the crankshaft, where the actual
output is derived. The crankshaft is designed so as to maintain the momentum of
rotation. It is made of aluminium in order to reduce the gross weight. The crankshaft
has two pairs of offset shaft that are place at 180º apart from each other.

To understand the working of the system, let us consider two modes of operations.
The two pairs of solenoids are 1&4 and 2&3.

MODE 1

Initially, let us assume that the solenoid 1&4 are energised, that causes the
magnetic field around its radius, and the piston inside the solenoids experiences this
magnetic field and gets attracted, by moving upward to the TDC position of the
cylinder. This makes the other pair of pistons in the solenoid 2&3 move downward to
the BDC.

MODE 2

Now the solenoid 2&3 are energised, that causes the magnetic field around its
radius, the piston inside the solenoids experiences this magnetic field and gets attracted,
by moving upward to the TDC position of the cylinder. This makes the other pair of
pistons in the solenoid 1&4 move downward to the BDC.

This process of energizing the solenoid based on the position of the piston is
achieved by the angular motion of the crankshaft, which is calculated and programmed
in the Arduino. The speed of the engine i.e., fast switching of solenoid is achieved by
changing the ON and OFF time period of the relay switches using the Arduino. The
Electronic Switching circuit shows the connection of the Solenoids to the 24v DC
battery source. The solenoid is then connected to the relays in order to complete the
circuit.

The solenoid is triggered when the relay completes the circuit. The timing for
triggering the relay coil is determined using the programme designed in the Arduino
board. A 9V DC battery is used to power the Arduino board. The Arduino board
automatically reduces the voltage to 5V DC. Depending on the timing which is
pre-programmed in the Arduino board the relay coil id triggered through the transistor.
An IN4007 diode is connected across the relay coil to limit excess current passing
through the relay coils. As the relay coil is triggered the solenoid triggering circuit is
 30

complete and the solenoid is energised to pull the piston up until the same process takes
place is the next solenoid circuit. Thus, this motion is cumulative and enables the
continuous rotation of the crank shaft.

3.7.1.1 Output shaft

A output shaft, driveshaft, driving shaft, propeller shaft (prop shaft), or Cardan
shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation, usually used to
connect other components of a drive train that cannot be connected directly because of
distance or the need to allow for relative movement between them. As torque carriers,
drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference between
the input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong enough to bear the stress,
whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia.

The output shaft is actually from the crankshaft. A crankshaft—related to crank—is a

mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and
rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the
piston into rotational motion; whereas in a reciprocating compressor, it converts the
rotational motion into reciprocating motion. In order to do the conversion between two
motions, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces
whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting
rods from each cylinder attach.

3.7.1.2 Reciprocating motion

Reciprocating motion, also called reciprocation, is a repetitive up-and-down or

back-and-forth linear motion. It is found in a wide range of mechanisms,
including reciprocating engines and pumps. The two opposite motions that comprise a
single reciprocation cycle are called strokes.

A crank can be used to convert circular motion into reciprocating motion, or

conversely turn reciprocating motion into circular motion.

For example, inside an IC engine (a type of reciprocating engine), the expansion

of burning fuel in the cylinders periodically pushes the piston down, which, through
the connecting rod, turns the crankshaft. The continuing rotation of the crankshaft
drives the piston back up, ready for the next cycle. The piston moves in a
 31

reciprocating motion, which is converted into circular motion of the crankshaft, which
ultimately propels the vehicle or does other useful work.

Reciprocating motion is close to, but different from, sinusoidal simple harmonic
motion. The point on the crankshaft which connects to the connecting rod, rotates
smoothly at a constant velocity in a circle. Thus, the horizontal displacement, of that
point, is indeed exactly sinusoidal by definition. However, during the cycle, the angle
of the connecting rod changes continuously. So, the horizontal displacement of the
"far" end of the connecting rod (i.e., connected to the piston) differs from sinusoidal.

3.7.1.3 Piston stroke

The distance the axis of the crank throws from the axis of the crankshaft
determines the piston stroke measurement, and thus engine displacement. A common
way to increase the low-speed torque of an engine is to increase the stroke, sometimes
known as "shaft-stroking." This also increases the reciprocating vibration, however,
limiting the high speed capability of the engine. In compensation, it improves the low
speed operation of the engine, as the longer intake stroke through smaller valve(s)
results in greater turbulence and mixing of the intake charge. Most modern high speed
production engines are classified as "over square" or short-stroke, wherein the stroke
is less than the diameter of the cylinder bore. As such finding the proper balance
between shaft-stroking speed and length leads to better results.
 32

CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 BATTERY SOURCE

4.1.1 24V DC Battery Source
An electric battery source as in Fig. 4.1 is a device consisting of one or more
electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices
such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying
electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the
anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to
an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an external device. When a battery
is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within,
allowing the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so
deliver energy to the external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the
battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work. The term
"battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the
usage has evolved additionally to include devices composed of a single cell.

Fig 4.1 24V DC Battery

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the
electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are
the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices.
Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly.
These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are
 33

used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such
as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only
intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since
the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to
their original forms.

Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple

times using an applied electric current; the original composition of the electrodes can
be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in
vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and
smartphones. Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable
batteries, must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active
materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying
electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use.
Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely
used in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid
electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the
area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during
overcharging.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power
hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead
acid batteries used in cars and trucks, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks
the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges
and computer data centres.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common
fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher
efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work, compared to combustion
engines.

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery consists

of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-cells connected in
series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell
 34

includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions
(negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the
positive electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Redox reactions
power the battery. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode during
charging, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode during
charging. During discharge, the process is reversed. The electrodes do not touch each
other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use different
electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to flow between half-cells but
prevents mixing of the electrolytes. The voltage developed across a cell's terminals
depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and
electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different chemistries, but
approximately the same Electro Magnetic Force (emf) of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCad
and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2
volts. The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium
compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more. Ac potential (power) can be
stored but dc potential (power) cannot be stored in batteries. This is a very big
advantage over ac. Almost all portable electronics need dc. Dc is unidirectional.
Suppose you have an electronic gadget, you can’t power it up reversing the polarity.
This unidirectional nature enables us to make much complex circuits.
Ac circuits are usually more power intensive and less complex e.g.: iron box, fan
etc. Dc circuits are (usually) less power hungry and much complex.

The Battery Source used here is a Secondary Li-Ion battery and has capacity of 24
Volts. This battery can be recharged back by using a particular charger that supplied the
sufficient power. The Low Self Discharge of secondary batteries ensures the battery
from being dead when not used.

4.1.2 9V DC Battery Source

The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, is a common size of battery that was
introduced for the early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with rounded
edges and a polarized snap connector at the top. This type is commonly used
in walkie-talkies, clocks and smoke detectors.

The nine-volt battery as in Fig 4.2 format is commonly available in primary

carbon-zinc and alkaline chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and in
 35

rechargeable form in nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion.

Mercury-oxide batteries of this format, once common, have not been manufactured in
many years due to their mercury content. Designations for this format include NEDA
1604 and IEC 6F22 (for zinc-carbon) or MN1604 6LR61 (for alkaline). The size,
regardless of chemistry, is commonly designated PP3 - a designation originally
reserved solely for carbon-zinc, or in some countries, E or E-block.

Fig 4.2 9V DC Battery

Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5 V LR61 cells
enclosed in a wrapper. These cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 AAAA cells and
can be used in their place for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm shorter.
Carbon-zinc types are made with six flat cells in a stack, enclosed in a
moisture-resistant wrapper to prevent drying. Primary lithium types are made with
three cells in series.

4.2 CONTROL SWITCHES

In electrical engineering, a switch is anelectrical component that can "make" or
"break" an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor
to another. The mechanism of a switch removes or restores the conducting path in a
circuit when it is operated. It may be operated manually, for example, a light switch or a
keyboard button, may be operated by a moving object such as a door, or may be
operated by some sensing element for pressure, temperature or flow. A switch will have
 36

one or more sets of contacts, which may operate simultaneously, sequentially, or

alternately. Switches in high-powered circuits must operate rapidly to prevent
destructive arcing and may include special features to assist in rapidly interrupting a
heavy current.

Multiple forms of actuators are used for operation by hand or to sense position,
level, temperature or flow. Special types are used, for example, for control of
machinery, to reverse electric motors, or to sense liquid level. Many specialized forms
exist. A common use is control of lighting, where multiple switches may be wired into
one circuit to allow convenient control of light fixtures.

By analogy with the devices that select one or more possible paths for electric
currents, devices that route information in a computer network are also called
"switches" - these are more usually more complicated than simple electromechanical
toggles or push-button devices and operate without direct human interaction.

The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device

with one or more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits.
Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning the contacts
are touching and electricity can flow between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are
separated and the switch is non-conducting. The mechanism actuating the transition
between these two states (open or closed) are usually (there are other types of actions)
either an "alternate action" (flip the switch for continuous "on" or "off") or
"momentary" (push for "on" and release for "off") type.

A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system,

such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light
switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of
machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position
or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another work piece. Switches may be
operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and
force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system.

For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a

heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay.
Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches
 37

are used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation
that can be padlocked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during
maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.

An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed and would have no limits
on voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state
changes, and would change state without "bouncing" between on and off positions.

Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current
and voltage they can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often used in
circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved, but this can
lead to a less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal
properties is required in the design of large networks of switches, as for example used
in telephone exchanges.

4.2.1 Contacts

In the simplest case, a switch has two conductive pieces, often metal, called
contacts, connected to an external circuit, that touch to complete (make) the circuit, and
separate to open (break) the circuit. The contact material is chosen for its resistance to
corrosion, because most metals form insulating oxides that would prevent the switch from
working. Contact materials are also chosen on the basis of electrical conductivity,
hardness (resistance to abrasive wear), mechanical strength, low cost and low toxicity.

Sometimes the contacts are plated with noble metals. They may be designed to
wipe against each other to clean off any contamination. Non-metallic conductors, such
as conductive plastic, are sometimes used. To prevent the formation of insulating
oxides, a minimum wetting current may be specified for a given switch design.

4.2.2 Contact Terminology

In electronics, switches are classified according to the arrangement of their

contacts. A pair of contacts is said to be "closed" when current can flow from one to the
other. When the contacts are separated by an insulating air gap, they are said to be
"open", and no current can flow between them at normal voltages. The terms "make"
for closure of contacts and "break" for opening of contacts are also widely used.
 38

The terms pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact variations. The
number of "poles" is the number of electrically separate switches which are controlled
by a single physical actuator. For example, a “2-pole” switch has two separate parallel
set of contact that open and closes in unison via the same mechanism. The number of
"throws" is the number of separate wiring path choices other than "open" that the switch
can adopt for each pole. A single-throw switch has one pair of contacts that can either
be closed or open. A double-throw switch has a contact that can be connected to either
of two other contacts; a triple-throw has a contact which can be connected to one of
three other contacts, etc.

In a switch where the contacts remain in one state unless actuated, such as a
push-button switch, the contacts can either be Normally Open (NO) until closed by
operation of the switch, or Normally Closed (NC) and opened by the switch action. A
switch with both types of contact is called a changeover switch or double-throw switch.
These may be "Make-Before-Break" (MBB) which momentarily connects both circuits
or may be "break-before-make" ("BBM" or non-shorting) which interrupts one circuit
before closing the other.

4.2.3 Electronic switches

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to

operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also
used. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a
semiconductor device to perform switching—often a silicon-controlled rectifier or
Triac.

The analogue switch uses two MOSFET transistors in a transmission gate

arrangement as a switch that works much like a relay, with some advantages and
several limitations compared to an electromechanical relay.

The power transistor(s) in a switching voltage regulator, such as a power supply

unit, are used like a switch to alternately let power flow and block power from flowing.
Many people use metonymy to call a variety of devices "switches" that conceptually
connect or disconnect signals and communication paths between electrical devices,
analogous to the way mechanical switches connect and disconnect paths for electrons
to flow between two conductors. Early telephone systems used an automatically
 39

operated stronger switch to connect telephone callers; telephone exchanges contain one
or more crossbar switches today.

Since the advent of digital logic in the 1950s, the term switch has spread to a
variety of digital active devices such as transistors and logic gates whose function is to
change their output state between two logic levels or connect different signal lines, and
even computers, network switches, whose function is to provide connections between
different ports in a computer network.

The term 'switched' is also applied to telecommunications networks, and signifies a

network that is circuit switched, providing dedicated circuits for communication
between end nodes, such as the public switched telephone network. The common
feature of all these usages is they refer to devices that control a binary state: they are
either on or off, closed or open, connected or not connected.

4.3 POWER TRANSISTOR

Power transistors are transistors that are used in high-power amplifiers and power
supplies. Power transistors are suited for applications where a lot of power is being
used- current and voltage. The collector of the transistor is connected to a metal base
that acts as a heat sink to dissipate excess power. Typical power ratings range from
around 10 to 300 W, with frequency ratings from about 1 to 100 MHz Maximum IC
values range between 1 to 100 A. Power transistors come in NPN, PNP, and Darlington
(NPN or PNP) forms.

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals

and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one
pair of the transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals.
Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power,
a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but
many more are found embedded in circuits. The transistor is the fundamental building
block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems.
Julius Edgar Lilienfeld patented a Field-Effect Transistor (FET) in 1926 but it was not
possible to actually construct a working device at that time. The first practically
 40

implemented device was a point-contact transistor invented in 1947 by American

physicists John, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley. The transistor revolutionized
the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators,
and computers, among other things. The transistor is on the list of IEEE milestones in
electronics, and Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in
Physics for their achievement.

Most transistors are made from very pure silicon or germanium, but certain other
semiconductor materials can also be used. A transistor may have only one kind of
charge carrier, in a field effect transistor, or may have two kinds of charge carriers in
bipolar junction transistor devices. Compared with the vacuum tube, transistors are
generally smaller, and require less power to operate. Certain vacuum tubes have
advantages over transistors at very high operating frequencies or high operating
voltages. Many types of transistors are made to standardized specifications by multiple
manufacturers.

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal
applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair
of terminals. This property is called gain. It can produce a stronger output signal, a
voltage or current, which is proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it can act as an
amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as
an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other
circuit elements.

There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are
used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labelled base, collector, and emitter.
A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing between the base and the emitter)
can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals.
For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labelled gate, source, and drain, and a
voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain.

The image represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow
between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Because
internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a
voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The
 41

amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is
referred to as VBE

4.3.1. Transistor as Switch

Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as electronic switches which can
be either in an "on" or "off" state, both for high-power applications such as
switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates. The
circuit of operation of transistor as a switch is shown in the Fig 4.3.

In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as

the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise exponentially. The
collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance from collector to emitter. If the
voltage difference between the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the
collector current would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb).

Fig 4.3 Operation of transistor as switch.

This is called saturation bbecause ccurrent is flowing from collector to emitter freely.
When saturated, the switch is said to be on.

Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of bipolar
transistors as switches. The transistor provides current gain, allowing a relatively large
current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller current into the base terminal.
The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a
particular type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch
circuit shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the
transistor will be saturated.
 42

In a switching circuit, the idea is to simulate, as near as possible, the ideal switch
having the properties of open circuit when off, short circuit when on, and an
instantaneous transition between the two states. Parameters are chosen such that the
"off" output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect connected circuitry; the
resistance of the transistor in the "on" state is too small to affect circuitry; and the
transition between the two states is fast enough not to have a detrimental effect.

4.4 RESISTOR

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element as shown in Figure 4.4. In electronic circuits, resistors are
used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements,
and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can
dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls,
in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.

Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control
or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical
activity.

Fig 4.4 Resistor representation.

 43

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and
are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can
integrate circuits are composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits

The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's

law:

V = I.R. ..... (4.1)

Ohm's law states that the Voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current
(I), where the constant of proportionality is the Resistance (R). For example, if a 300
ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 /
300 = 0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.

Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which affect the
relation between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.

4.4.1 Power Dissipation

At any instant, the power P (watts) consumed by a resistor of resistance R (ohms) is

calculated as:

V2 …………(4.2)
P = I 2 R = IV =
R
Where V (volts) is the voltage across the resistor and I (amps) is the current
flowing through it. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. This power is
converted into heat which must be dissipated by the resistor's package before its
temperature rises excessively.

Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. Discrete

resistors in solid-state electronic systems are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt.
They usually absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require little
attention to their power rating. Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of
power, particularly used in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power
amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this designation is loosely
applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater.

If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage
to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the
 44

reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms.

Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it
can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are
flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common

commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of
magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing
tolerance, indicated on the component.

4.5 DIODE

A diode is a two terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in

one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance in one
direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode as
shown in Fig 4.5, is the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of
semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A
vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode.
Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery
of crystals' rectifying abilities were made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in
1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around
1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of
silicon, but other materials such as selenium and germanium are sometimes used.

Fig 4.5 1N4007 Pin out circuit.

4.5.1 Main Functions

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking it in the opposite
 45

direction (the reverse direction). As such, the diode can be viewed as an electronic
version of a check valve. This unidirectional behaviour is called rectification, and is
used to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). Forms of rectifiers,
diodes can be used for such tasks as extracting modulation from radio signals in radio
receivers.

However, diodes can have more complicated behaviour than this simple on–off
action, because of their nonlinear current-voltage characteristics. Semiconductor
diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage
is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be
forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little
with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a
temperature sensor or as a voltage reference.

A semiconductor diode's current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting

the semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials
during manufacture. These techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that
perform many different functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage
(Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to
electronically tune radio and TV receivers, to generate radio-frequencyoscillations, and
to produce light (light-emitting diodes). Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit
negative resistance, which is useful in microwave and switching circuits. There are
alternative symbols for some types of diodes, though the differences are minor. The
triangle in the symbols points to the forward direction, i.e. in the direction of
conventional current flow. Diodes, both vacuum and semiconductor, can be used as
shot-noise generators.

4.6 MAGNETIC SOLENOID ENGINE

The Magnetic engine powering device with magnetic components that aid in the
operation of piston propelled engines by attaching the device individually to the pistons,
causing the pistons to perform the up and down thrusts. Solenoid triggering sequence is
controlled by the power electronic circuit. A straight current carrying conductor
produces a circular magnetic field around itself at all points along its length and that the
 46

direction of rotation of this magnetic field depends upon the direction of current flow
through the conductor.

The force that sets up the magnetic field depends on the number of turns on the coil
and the magnitude of the current flowing. This force is called the Magneto Motive
Force (mmf) and the unit of measurement is the Ampere-turn. This equals the current
times the number of turns. (mmf = I x n). A flywheel mechanism is employed to
maintain the momentum of the crankshaft. The electrical control circuit is designed to
power the solenoid at regular intervals. This power energizes the solenoid and causes
the iron piece to retract into the solenoid pulling the connecting rod inwardly and
moving the crankshaft to generate mechanical power. This engine is based on the
electromagnetic propulsion. Electromagnetic propulsion (EMP) is the principle of
accelerating an object by the utilization of a flowing electrical current and magnetic
fields. The electrical current is used to either create an opposing magnetic field, or to
charge a field, which can then be repelled. When a current flows through a conductor
in a magnetic field, an electromagnetic force known as a Lorentz force, pushes the
conductor in a direction perpendicular to the conductor and the magnetic field. This
repulsing force is what causes propulsion in a system designed to take advantage of
the phenomenon.

The term EMP can be described by its individual components: electromagnetic –

using electricity to create a magnetic field, and propulsion – the process of propelling
something. One key difference between EMP and propulsion achieved by electric
motors is that the electrical energy used for EMP is not used to produce rotational
energy for motion; though both use magnetic fields and a flowing electrical current.
 47

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

This project on the Magnetic Solenoid Engine re-establishes the operation of the
Conventional Combustion Engines in case of the fuel usage, power losses and usage of
the battery. It is found that the pre-existing magnetic engines employ the mechanical
switches in order to determine the switching sequence of the solenoids which results in
friction and heat production, whereas this project incorporates the use of electrical
switching circuit. This eliminates the frictional and heat losses thereby making it an
eco-friendly engine. The proposed system is design in such a way that it removes all the
complications which are caused by mechanical switching of the solenoid as this project
uses an electronic switching circuit to trigger the solenoids. Since there is no use of fuel
or combustion process involved the proposed design can be claimed as an eco-friendly
engine design.

FUTURE WORK

The proposed system requires a battery source for its operation. In future the same
prototype can be incorporated with a PV panel which replaces the external battery
source.
 48

REFERENCES

[1] U.S. Pat. No. 4,317,058 to Blalock Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine

[2] U.S. Pat. No. 4,749,893 to Reynolds Magnetically Actuated Engine

[3] IJSR ISSN: 2319-7064 Magnetic Repulsion Piston Engine

[4] U.S Pat. No. 5,469,004 to Jachim Electric vehicle Solenoid Motor

[5] U.S Pat. No.3,935,487A to Czerniak Permanent Magnet Motor