CHAPTER 1:

STOICHIOMETRY

By:
DR. MUHD FIRDAUS KASIM
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing the course, students will be able to:
1. Name and write formula of simple inorganic
compounds
2. Name and write formula of binary covalent
compounds
3. Name and write formula of simple acids, bases and
hydrates
4. Determine empirical and molecular formula of
unknown compounds
5. Solve stoichiometric problems involving limiting
reactants.
• A simplest pure substance consists
entirely of one type of atom only
• Atoms are composed of subatomic
particles, of which electrons, protons
and neutrons
• Cannot be broken down into any ELEMENT
simpler substances by physical or
chemical means

 A structure consists two or more

atoms that are chemically
bound together and thus behaves
MOLECULE as an independent unit
• A substance composed of two
or more different elements
that are chemically bound
together.

COMPOUND

• A group of two or more substances

(elements and/or compounds) that
are physically intermingled.

MIXTURE
 SAMPLE PROBLEM

MIXTURE ELEMENT COMPOUND

 Naming of Elements
❑ Elements are named by using symbols of 1, 2
or 3 letters. Each element symbol start with a
capital letter.
❑ H (hydrogen), O (oxygen), K (potassium) are
elements with symbols containing one letter.
❑ Ca (Calcium), Mg (Magnesium), Cl (Chlorine)
are elements with symbols containing two
letters.
❑ Uub, Uut, Uuq and Uup are elements with
symbols containing three letters.
 Naming of Elements
❑Earlier, no system for naming compounds.
Common names such as sugar, lead,
quicklime, milk of magnesia and laughing gas.
❑Now, nearly 5 million compounds are
currently known. Memorizing common names
for these compounds would be an impossible
task.
There are:-
1. Ionic compounds
• Binary ionic compound Type I
• Binary ionic compound Type II
2. Polyatomic ionic compounds
3. Covalent compounds
4. Acids & bases
 1. Ionic Compound Type I
 Composed of metals and non-metals:-
Metals Non-metals
• Metals will donate electrons • Non-metals accept electrons
• Form positive ions (cations) • Form negative ions (anions)

• Name cation first, then anion.

• Monatomic (meaning one atom) cation takes its name from
the name of the element. Many metal names end in –ium
• Na+ is called sodium
• Mg2+ is called magnesium
• Al3+ is called aluminium

 The name of anion takes the root of the nonmetal name and
adds the suffix –ide. Br− is called bromide, O2− is called oxide.
Compounds formed from monoatomic ions
• Formula unit – gives the relative numbers of
cations and anions

• The compounds has ‘zero’ net charge – the

positive charges of cations must balance the
negative charge of anions

Ca 2+ Br 1- gives CaBr2
 Example

Compounds Ions present Name

+ -
KCl K , Cl potassium chloride
+ 2-
Li2O Li , O lithium oxide
MgBr2 Mg2+, Br- magnesium bromide
3+ -
AlF3 Al ,F aluminium flouride
CaS Ca2+, S2- calcium sulfide
Common monatomic cations and anions
Table 2.0 Common monatomic cations and anions
Cation Name Anion Name
H+ hydrogen H− hydride
Li+ lithium F− fluoride
Na+ sodium Cl− chloride
K+ potassium Br− bromide
Cs+ cesium I− iodide
Mg2+ magnesium O2− oxide
Ca2+ calcium N3− nitride
Be2+ beryllium P3− phosphide
Ba2+ barium S2− sulfide
Al3+ aluminium
Ag+ silver
Zn2+ zinc
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Name the ionic compound formed from the
following pairs of elements:
(a) magnesium and nitrogen (b) iodine and cadmium
(c) strontium and fluorine (d) sulfur and cesium
Binary Ionic Compounds (Type II)
Metals form more than one type of positive ions (cation)

Rules for naming

• Name cation first, then anion.
• Monatomic (meaning one atom) cation takes its name
from the name of the element
• Pb2+ is called lead
• Sn2+ is called tin
• Determine the cation charge. Include in the cation name,
a Roman numeral indicating the charge.
• MUST SHOW the oxidation number (charge) in
parenthesis
• The suffix –ous for ion with lower charge
• The suffix –ic for the ion with the higher charge
Some Metals That Form More Than One Monatomic Ion

Element Ion Formula Systematic Name Common Name

Co+2 cobalt(II)
Cobalt
Co+3 cobalt (III)
Copper Cu+1 copper(I) cuprous
Cu+2 copper(II) cupric
Fe+2 iron(II) ferrous
Iron Fe+3 iron(III) ferric
Pb+2 lead(II)
Lead Pb+4 lead(IV)
Sn+2 tin(II) stannous
Tin Sn+4 tin(IV) stannic
Binary Ionic Compounds (Type II)
The monatomic anion is named by taking the root of
the element name and adding – ide. Thus Cl- is called
chloride, S2- is called sulfide.
Table 2.2 Examples of Type II Binary Ionic compounds
Compound Name
MnS manganese (II) sulfide
CrCl3 chromium (III) chloride
Fe2O3 iron (III) oxide
PbCl2 lead (II) chloride
CoBr2 cobalt(II) bromide
HgO mercury (II) oxide
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Give the systematic names for the formulas or the
formulas for the names of the following
compounds:
(a)tin(II) fluoride
(b)CrI3
(c)ferric oxide
(d)CoS
 2. Polyatomic Ionic Compounds
Polyatomic ions –
• ions containing more than one atom.
• are assigned special names that must be memorized in
order to name the compounds containing them
Common Polyatomic Ions (Anions and Cations)
Table 2.3 Common polyatomic ions
Ions Name Ions Name
Hg22+ mercury (I) NCS− Thiocyanate
NH4+ ammonium CO32− carbonate
NO2− nitrite HCO3− hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate)
NO3− nitrate ClO− hypochlorite
SO32− sulfite ClO2− Chlorite
SO42− sulfate ClO3− Chlorate
HSO4− hydrogen sulfate (bisulfate) ClO4− Perchlorate
OH− hydroxide C2H3O2− Acetate
CN− cyanide MnO4− Permanganate
PO43− phosphate Cr2O72− Dichromate
HPO42− hydrogen phosphate CrO42- Chromate
H2PO4− dihydrogen phosphate O22− Peroxide
SeO42− selenate C2O42− oxalate
2. Polyatomic Ionic Compounds

Compounds formed from Polyatomic Ions

• Polyatomic ion stays together as a charged unit

• Example:-
– one K+ balances one NO3- - KNO3
– two Na+ balance one CO32- - Na2CO3
– One Ca2+ balance two NO3- - Ca(NO3)2
Families of Oxoanions
• Several series of anions ION NAME
which contain an atom of a
given element and different NO2- nitrite
number of oxygen atoms.
These atoms are called NO3- nitrate
oxyanions.
SO32- sulfite
• With two oxoanions in the
family:- SO42- sulfate
– Ion with more O atoms
– suffix –ate S2O32- thiosulfate
– Ion with fewer O atoms
– suffix –ite
• With four oxoanions in the family (usually a halogen
bonded to O):-
– Ion with most O – Has prefix per- and suffix –ate
– Ion with one fewer O – has suffix –ate
– Ion with two fewer O – has suffix –ite
– Ion with least O – prefix hypo- and suffix –ite

ClO4- Perchlorate
ClO3- Chlorate
ClO2- Chlorite
ClO- Hypochlorite
 HYDRATED IONIC COMPOUNDS
Number Prefix
• A compound that contains
1 Mono-
water molecules weakly bound
in its crystals 2 Di-
3 Tri-
• Hydrates have a specific 4 Tetra-
number of water molecules 5 Penta-
6 Hexa-
• No of water molecules is 7 Hepta-
shown after a ‘dot’ and is 8 Octa-
named by a Greek numerical 9 Nona-
prefix before the word hydrate 10 Deca-
Naming hydrates
Hydrates are named from the anhydrous compound,
followed by the word hydrate with a prefix to
indicate the number of water molecules per formula
unit of the compound.
BaCl2•2H2O barium chloride dihydrate
LiCl•H2O lithium chloride monohydrate
MgSO4•7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Sr(NO3)2 •4H2O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

CuSO4
CuSO4•5H2O
Some ionic compounds with polyatomic anions
Table 2.4 Examples of ionic compounds with polyatomic anions
Compound Name
K2SO4 potassium sulfate
Fe(NO3)3 iron (III) nitrate
MgSO3 magnesium sulfite
LiBrO3 lithium bromate
CsClO4 cesium perchlorate
NaOCl sodium hypochlorite
K2Cr2O7 potassium dichromate
3. Covalent Compounds
• Binary Covalent Compounds are formed
between two nonmetals.
Rules for naming Covalent Compounds
1. The first element in the formula is named first, using
the full element name
2. The second element is named as if it were an anion-
named with suffix –ide
3. Prefixes are used to denote the number of atoms
4. The prefix mono is never used for naming the first
element
Prefixes used for Covalent Compounds
 Binary Covalent Compounds
• Note: To avoid awkward pronunciation, we often
drop the final o or a of the prefix when the element
begins with a vowel.
COMPOUND NAME
P4O10 tetraphosphorus decoxide
N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide

• Important: Some compounds are always referred to

by their common names.
• The two best examples are water and ammonia.
The systematic names for theses compounds are
hardly used.
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
• Write the chemical formula for the substances given
below.
1. Sodium thiosulfate 2. Copper (II) sulfate
3. Iron (II) chloride 4. Iron (III) chloride
5. Calcium carbonate 6. Zinc oxide
7. Zinc oxide 8. Lead (II) sulfate
9. Lead (IV) chloride 10. Hydrochloric acid
11. Carbon tetrachloride 12. Barium hydrogen carbonate
13.Hydrogen peroxide 14. Iron(II) sulphate heptahydrate
15. Lead (II) acetate 16. Ammonium dichromate
4. Acids and Bases
Naming Acids
• An acid is a substance that yields hydrogen
ions (H+) when dissolved in water. Formulas
for acids contain one or more hydrogen atoms
as well as an anionic group.
• Rules for naming acids depend on whether the
anion contains oxygen.
i) If the anion of the acid does not contain oxygen, the
acid is named with prefix hydro- and the suffix –ic.
 ii) When the anion contains oxygen, the acidic name is
formed from the root name of the anion with a suffix
of –ic or –ous, depending on the name of the anion.

(a) If the anion has an –ite ending, the -ite is replaced by –

ous
b) If the anion name ends in –ate, the suffix –ic is
added to the root name
 Conclusions Naming Acids

(do not contain oxygen)

 Bases
• A substance that yields hydroxide ions (OH-)
when dissolved in water
• A base is composed of a metal and an OH- ion,
except for ammonia (NH3)
• Guideline Naming Bases

– name the metal and add with hydroxide

– oxidation number with value more than one should

write in parenthesis after metal name
 Atom
1. Smallest unit in an element that can
take part in a reaction
2. It can combine with itself or with
other atoms to form molecules
3. have subatomic particles which are
protons, neutrons and electrons
Subatomic particles
Subatomic Location Symbol Charge Actual mass Relative
particle (kg) mass
-27
proton Nucleus p +1 1.67 x 10 1
-27
neutron Nucleus n 0 1.67 x 10 1
electron Outside e -1 9.11 x 10-31 0
nucleus
 Subatomic particles
• Mass of neutron is almost same as the mass of a
proton.
• A proton which have a positive charge is equal in
magnitude to an electron’s negative charge.
• In an atom, the number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons so an atom is neutral.
• In an atom, the size of the nucleus is very small
compared to the atom, however, most of the mass of
the atom is in the nucleus.
 Atomic symbol
mass number A
Atomic number Z X

X = Atomic symbol of the element

Z = atomic number (the number of
protons in the nucleus)
A = mass number; A = Z + N
N = number of neutrons in the nucleus
 Isotopes
• atoms with same atomic number but different mass
number.
• atoms with the same no. of protons but different no.
of neutrons.
• have similar chemical properties but may have
different physical properties.
Example:
1. Hydrogen has three isotopes with special names:
protium (¹H), deuterium (²H) and tritium (³H).
2. Carbon has three isotopes: C-12, C-13 and C-14
 Mass of an atom
• The mass of an atom depends on the number of
electrons, protons and neutrons
• We cannot weigh a single atom directly but we can
determine mass of one atom relative to another
atom experimentally
• First we need to assign a value to the mass of one
atom of a given element so that it can be used as a
standard
 Atomic mass
• Mass of an atom is usually expressed in atomic mass
units (a.m.u)
• The modern system of atomic masses, instituted in
1961 is based on 12C (C-12) as a standard
• 1 atomic mass unit (a.m.u) is defined as a mass exactly
equal to 1/12 the mass of a C-12 atom
• C-12 atom = 12.00 amu
• C-12 is the carbon isotope with 6p and 6n, and 1 C-12
atom has been set at 12.00 amu to provide the
standard for measuring the atomic mass of the other
elements.
• Experiments have shown (using mass spectrometer) that a
hydrogen atom is only 8.400% as massive as C-12 atom.
Therefore the relative atomic mass of a hydrogen atom is :
8.400 % x 12.00 a.m.u = 1.008 amu
100%
e.g

When 12C and 13C are analysed in a mass spectrometer, the

ratio of their masses is found to be

mass 13C = 1.0836129

mass 12C
Determine relative atomic mass of 13C

Solution:

Mass of 13C = 1.0836129 x 12.00 a.m.u = 13.003355 = 13.00

amu
 Average Atomic Mass
• If you look up the atomic mass of carbon in a
periodic table, its value is not 12.00 amu but
12.01 amu
• The reason for the difference is because most
naturally occurring elements have more than
one isotope
 Average atomic mass

• Carbon has 3 isotopes

C-12 C-13 C-14
98.89 % 1.11% negligible
(12.00 amu) (13.00 amu)
Average atomic mass = (98.89% of 12.00 amu) + (1.11% of 13.00 amu)
= 12.01 a.mu.
• Everytime we say atomic mass- we mean average and relative atomic
mass.
• Even though natural carbon does not contain a single atom with mass
12.01 amu, for stoichiometric purposes, we can consider carbon to
be composed of only one type of atom with a mass of 12.01 amu.
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Silver’s(Ag: Z = 47) naturally occurring isotopes,
107Ag and 109Ag, give this mass spectrometric

data, calculate the atomic mass of Ag:

Isotope Mass(amu) Abundance(%)
107Ag 106.90509 51.84
109Ag 108.90476 48.16
 Molar mass
• is the mass in grams of one mole of a substance.
* Molar mass of C atoms (grams) is numerically equal
to atomic mass of C (amu)
Atomic mass of C =12.01 amu
Molar mass of C = 12.01 g

Atomic mass of Na = 12.99 amu

Molar mass of Na = 12.99 g
 Molecular Mass
• sum of the atomic masses of elements (in amu) in a
molecule
E.g. Molecular mass of CH4
1( atomic mass of C) + 4(atomic mass Of H)
1(12.01) + 4(1.008) = 16.04 amu
• Molar mass of a compound is numerically equal to
the molecular mass of its molecule
• So molar mass of CH4 is 16.04 g
• For ionic compounds, the term formula mass
is used

• The number of atoms of each element inside

the parentheses is multiplied by subscript
outside the parentheses

• Find formula mass of Ba(NO3)2:

Percent Composition of Compounds
A practical use is to determine the
amount of an element in any size sample
of compound
Mass % of element X =

moles of X in formula x molar mass of X (g/mol)

x 100
mass (g) of 1 mol of compound
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
In mammals, lactose is metabolized to glucose
(C6H12O6), the key nutrient for generating
chemical potential energy
a) What is the mass percent of each element in
glucose?
b) How many grams of carbon are in 16.55 g of
glucose?
 Mole
• Mole (mol) – is the amount of a substance that contains as
many entities (atoms, molecules, ions) as there are atoms in
12 g of C-12 atoms.

• 12 g C -12 (1 mole) – contains 6.02 x 1023 C-12 atoms.

• 1 mole of Na atoms – contains 6.02 x 1023 Na atoms
• 1 mole of H2O molecules - contains 6.02 x 1023 H2O
molecules
• 1 mole of cars - contains 6.02 x 1023 cars
• 1 mole of C-12 atoms – has a mass of 12.00 g
contains 6.02 x 1023 C-12 atoms
 Converting moles of elements

To convert between To convert between mol

mol and mass, use and no of entities, use
molar mass Avogadro’s no.

To find the no. of molecules in

a given mass, or vice versa,
convert to moles first
Example : How many copper atoms are in a penny weighing
3.10 g?
Given: 3.10 g Cu
Find:
atoms Cu
Conceptual Plan:
g Cu mol Cu atoms Cu
Relationships:

1 mol Cu = 63.55 g, 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023

Solution:

Check: because the given amount is much less than 1 mol Cu, the
number makes sense
Converting moles of compounds
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Tetraphosphorus decaoxide reacts with water to
form phosphoric acid.
a) What is the mass of 4.65x1022 molecules of
tetraphosphorus decaoxide?
b) How many P atoms are present in this sample?
Chemical formula
 Molecular formula
• In order to find the molecular formula of a substance,
two pieces of information are needed:
– the percentage composition, from which the empirical
formula can be obtained
– the molecular weight or mass

• The molecular weight or mass allows us to chose the

correct multiple of the empirical formula for the
molecular formula.
Conceptual plan
Attention!!!
After you calculate mole ratio & result is not whole
no. Proceed step below

if result is within 0.1 of whole number, round to

whole number
if ratio ~.5 multiply all by 2
if ratio ~.33 or ~.67 multiply all by 3
if ratio ~.25 or ~.75, multiply all by 4
Example: Laboratory analysis of aspirin determined the
following mass percent composition as follows:
C = 60.00%, H = 4.48% and O = 35.53%.
Calculate the empirical formula of aspirin.
Solution:
In 100 g of aspirin there are 60.00 g C, 4.48 g H, 35.53 g O
The conceptual plan is

gC mol C
whole empirical
gH mol H mole number formula
ratio ratio
gO mol O
Given the molar mass:
1 mol C = 12.01 g; 1 mol H = 1.008 g; 1 mol O = 16.00 g
calculate the moles of each element

The mole ratio of C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220

Divide the mole ratio by the smallest number of mole in the
above mole ratio to get the whole number mole ratio
Whole number mole ratio:
C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220 = 2.25 : 2 : 1
2.220 2.220 2.220
Choose a small number to multiply the mole ratio in order to get
the whole number mole ratio
Multiply by 4
C : H : O = 2.25 x 4 : 2 x 4 : 1 x 4
= 9: 8: 4
The empirical formula = C9H8O4

Once you’ve learnt how to convert one unit to another according

to the conceptual plan, you can evaluate
the empirical formula in a table format.
 Element C H O
% composition by
mass (g) 60.00 4.48 35.53

Relative atomic
mass 12.01 1.008 16.00

Number of moles
4.996 4.44 2.220

Mole ratios 4.996 4.44 2.220

2.220 2.220 2.220
= 2.25 =2 =1
Simplest ratio
(x4) 9 8 4
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
During excessive physical activity, lactic acid (M =
90.08 g/mol) forms in muscle tissue and is
responsible for muscle soreness. Elemental
analysis shows that this compound contains 40.0
mass % C, 6.71 mass % H, and 53.3 mass % O.

Determine the empirical formula of lactic acid

and the molecular formula
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Determine the empirical and molecular formulas
for a compound that gives the following analysis
(in mass percents)
71.65% Cl, 24.27% C, 4.08% H
The molar mass is 98.96 g/mol
 Combustion analysis
Combustion Train for the Determination of the Chemical Composition of
Organic Compounds

• The unknown compound is burned in pure O2

• All the H in the unknown is converted to H2O which is
absorbed in first chamber and all the C is converted to CO2
which is absorbed in second chamber
• By weighing absorbers before and after combustion,
we find the masses of CO2 and H2O to calculate mass of C and H
 Example 11: Combustion of a 0.8233 g sample of a compound
containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen produced
2.445 g CO2 and 0.6003 g H2O. Determine the empirical
formula of the compound

Solution:
Let the empirical formula to be CxHyOz
Write a conceptual plan

g mol mol g g mol

CO2, H2O CO2, H2O C, H C, H O O

mol mol empirical

C, H, O ratio formula
Convert : g CO2 mol CO2 mol C
9 H2O mol H2O 2 mol H
Use the following relationship:
Molar mass of CO2 = 12.01 + (16.00)2 = 44.01 g/mol
Molar mass of H2O = 2(1.008) + 16.00 = 18.02 g/mol
1mol CO2 = 1 mol C; 1mol H2O = 2 mol H
Calculate the grams of C and H using molar mass of C and H

Calculate the grams and moles of O

Mass of O = Mass of compound – (mass of C + mass of H)
= 0.8233 g – (0.6673 g + 0.06715 g) = 0.0889 g O
Mole ratio C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556
Divide by the smallest mole
C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556
0.00556 0.00556 0.00556
= 10 : 12 : 1
The empirical formula = C10H12O
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
A dry cleaning solvent (M = 146.99 g/mol) contains C, H
and Cl. When a 0.250 g sample was studied by
combustion analysis, 0.451 g of CO2 and 0.0617 g H2O
formed. Find the molecular formula
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical
Equations
Chemical reactions
– a process in which a substance (or substances)
is changed into one or more new substances.
– involves a reorganization of atoms in one or
more substances
• Standard way to represent chemical reactions
is by using chemical equations.
Consider the reaction of sodium metal and
chlorine gas:

Reactants Product

2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g)→ 2 NaCl (s)

Coefficients Subscripts Coefficients

+ : Reacts with
→ : Yields or produces
(s), (g) : Phase labels which indicates
physical states
 For a chemical equation to be balanced, it
must have the same number of each type of
atoms on both sides of the arrow

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

1C 1C
4H = 4H
4O 4O
Intrepretation of a balanced equation
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Microscopic level 1 molecule 2 molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules

Macroscopic level 1 mole 2 moles 1 mole 2 moles

23 23 23 23
6.02 x 10 2(6.02 x 10 ) 6.02 x 10 2(6.02 x 10 )
molecules molecules molecules molecules

16.04 g 64.00 g 44.01 g 36.03 g

80.04 g reactants 80.04 g products

 Steps for balancing chemical equations

Write the unbalanced equation

Determine what coefficients are

necessary
Start with the most complex
substance
End with the least complex
substance

Specifying states of matter

Start with the most complex
substance (ethane, C2H6)

Then balance least

complex substance
(oxygen)
EXERCISE
 Calculating amounts of reactant and
product

• In a balanced equation, the no. of moles of

one substance is stoichiometrically equivalent
to the no. of moles of any substance

• The coefficients - tell us mole ratio of

reactants that correctly react to form products
Solving stoichiometry problem

Write balanced equation

Convert mass to moles

Use mole ratios

Convert moles to mass

Summary of the mass-mole-number
relationships in a chemical reaction
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Cu2S (s) + O2 (g) → Cu2O (s) + SO2 (g)
a) How many moles of oxygen are required to roast 10.0
mol of copper(I) sulfide?
b) How many grams of sulfur dioxide are formed when
10.0 mol of copper(I) sulfide is roasted?
EXERCISE
 Limiting reactant
• Sometimes when a chemist carries out a reaction,
the reactants are usually not present in exact
stoichiometric amounts, i.e. in the proportions
indicated by the balanced equations.
• This means some reactant will be used up when
others will be left over at the end of the reaction.
The reactant that will be used up is the limiting
reactant. The reactant that will be left over at the
end of the reaction is the excess reactant.
Importance of limiting reactant
The amount of product formed is
determined by the limiting reactant.
Example: When 28.6 kg of C are allowed to react with 88.2 kg of
TiO2 in the reaction below, 42.8 kg of Ti are obtained. Find the
limiting reactant.

TiO2 (s) + 2 C(s) → Ti(s) + 2 CO(g)

}
kg
C smallest
amount is
from
limiting
kg reactant
TiO2
Relationship required :
1000 g = 1 kg
Molar Mass TiO2 = 79.87 g/mol
Molar Mass Ti = 47.87 g/mol
Molar Mass C = 12.01 g/mol
1 mole TiO2 : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)
2 mole C : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)

limiting reactant
smallest moles of Ti

TiO2 is the limiting reaction.

 Stoichiometry involving limiting
reactants
Given:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

a) What mass of H2O can be produced by 4.00 g of H2

reacting with 16.0 g of O2 ?
b) What mass of excess reactant is left after the
reaction ?

Ans: (a) 18 g
(b) 2 g
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
• Hydrazine(N2H4) and dinitrogen
tetraoxide(N2O4)ignite on contact to form
nitrogen gas and water vapor. How many
grams of nitrogen gas form when 1.00x102 g of
N2H4 and 2.00x102 g of N2O4 are mixed?

Ans: 131 g N2
 Percent Yields

The effect of side reactions on yield.

 The percent yield is the measure of productivity
of a reaction

Percent yield (%) = Actual yield x 100

Theoretical yield

 Actual yield - actual mass obtained in a real

experiment
 Theoretical (Calculated) Yield – amount under
“perfect” lab conditions
 % yield may range from a fraction of 1% to 100%
 Chemists strive to maximize % yield in a reaction
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Marble (CaCO3) reacts with HCl solution to form
CaCl2 solution, water and CO2. What is the
percent yield of CO2 if 3.65g of the gas is
collected when 10.0g of marble reacts?

Ans: 83.0 %
 SAMPLE PROBLEM

34.6 g of silver was reacted with excess sulfur,

according to the following equation:

2Ag + S → Ag2S

24.8 g of silver sulfide was collected. What are the

theoretical yield, actual yield and percent yield?

Ans: 62.4 %