CHAPTER 9:

THE GASES STATE

DR NUR VICKY BIHUD

LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Upon completing this topic, you should be able to :

Have a better understanding of the

 properties of gases,

 how they interrelate,

 and how to use them to predict gas behavior

by using Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, Gay-Lussac’s

law and Avogadro’s law
 ?
 ?
OUTLINE

❑ Substances that exist as gases & Gas pressure

❑ The Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, Gay-
Lussac’s Law and Avogadro’s Law
❑ Density Calculations and Molar mass determination
❑ Reaction Stoichiometry involving gases
❑ Dalton’s Law of partial pressures
❑ Graham’s Law of Diffusion and Effusion
❑ Deviation from Ideal gas behavior (VDW eq)
SUBSTANCES THAT EXIST AS GASES

❑ We live at the bottom of an ocean of air whose

composition by volume is roughly 78% N2, 21% O2
and 1% other gases, including CO2.

❑ Generally, focus on substances that exist as gases

under normal atmospheric conditions, which are
defined as 25oC and 1 atmosphere (atm) pressure.
❑ The elements that are gases under normal atm
conditions are H2, N2, O2, F2 & Cl2 – exist as gases
diatomic molecules.

❑ Ozone (O3) is also a gas at room temperature.

❑ All the elements in Group 8, the noble gases are

monoatomic gases: He, He, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn.
❑ Ionic compounds do not exist as gases at normal
condition, because cations and anions in an ionic
solid are held together by very strong electrostatic
forces .

Example:
▪ Under normal conditions, NaCl melts at rather
high temperature of 801oC.
▪ In order to boil it, we would have to raise the
temperature above 1000oC
❑ The behavior of molecular compounds is more
varied.

❑ Examples: CO, CO2, HCl, NH3 and CH4 – are gases.

❑ but the majority of molecular compounds are liquids

or solids at room temperature.

❑ However, on heating they are converted to gases

much more easily than ionic compounds.
8
Some substances found as gases at 1 atm and 25oC

Elements Compounds
H2 HF
N2 HCl
O2 HBr
O3 HI
F2 CO
Cl2 CO2
He NH3
Ne NO
Ar NO2
Kr N2O
Xe SO2
Rn H2S
General Properties of Gases

❑ Gases assume the volume and shape of their

container.

❑ Most compressible of the states of matter.

❑ Mix evenly and completely when confined to the

same container.

❑ Lower densities than liquids and solids.

 Opening thoughts…

Have you ever:

Seen a hot air balloon?

Had a soda bottle spray all over you?

Baked (or eaten) a nice, fluffy cake?

These are all examples of gases at work!

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Properties of Gases

You can predict the behavior of gases based on

the following properties:
Pressure
Volume
Amount (moles)
Temperature
Lets review each of these briefly…

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You can predict the behavior of gases based on
the following properties:

Pressure
Volume
Amount (moles)
Temperature

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Pressure

Pressure is defined as the force the gas

exerts on a given area of the container in
which it is contained. The SI unit for
pressure is the Pascal, Pa.
• If you’ve ever inflated a tire,
you’ve probably made a
pressure measurement in
pounds (force) per square inch
(area).

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EXERCISE 1
1. The pressure outside a jet plane flying at high altitude falls
considerably below standard atmospheric pressure.
Therefore, the air inside the cabin must be pressurized to
protect the passengers. What is the pressure in atmospheres
in the cabin if the barometer reading is 688 mmHg?

2. The atmospheric pressure in San Francisco on a certain day

was 732 mmHg. What was the pressure in kPa?
You can predict the behavior of gases based on
the following properties:
Pressure
Volume
Amount (moles)
Temperature

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Volume

Volume is the three-dimensional space inside

the container holding the gas. The SI unit for
volume is the cubic meter, m3. A more common
and convenient unit is the liter, l.

Think of a 2-liter bottle of soda to get

an idea of how big a liter is.
(OK, how big two of them are…)

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You can predict the behavior of gases based on
the following properties:
Pressure
Volume

Amount (moles)
Temperature

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Amount (moles)

Amount of substance is tricky. As we’ve already

learned, the SI unit for amount of substance is the mole,
mol. Since we can’t count molecules, we can convert
measured mass (in kg) to the number of moles, n, using
the molecular or formula weight of the gas.

By definition, one mole of a substance contains

approximately 6.022 x 1023 particles of the
substance. You can understand why we use mass
and moles!

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You can predict the behavior of gases based on
the following properties:
Pressure
Volume
Amount (moles)

Temperature

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Temperature

Temperature is the measurement with which you’re

probably most familiar (and the most complex to
describe completely). For these lessons, we will be
using temperature measurements in Kelvin, K.

The Kelvin scale starts at Absolute 0, which

is -273.15°C. To convert Celsius to Kelvin,
add 273.15.

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How do they all relate?

Some relationships of gases may be easy to

predict. Some are more subtle.
Now that we understand the factors that affect the
behavior of gases, we will study how those factors
interact.

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How do they all relate?

Some relationships of gases may be easy to

predict. Some are more subtle.
Now that we understand the factors that affect the
behavior of gases, we will study how those factors
interact.

Let’s go!

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THE GAS LAWS
THE GAS LAWS

1. Boyle’s Law
2. Charles’s Law
3. Gay-Lussac’s Law
4. Avogadro’s Law
1. Boyle’s Law

 describes the relationship

between pressure (P) and volume
(v) of gases.
Boyle’s Law

…The pressure of a fixed

amount of gas at a constant
temperature is inversely
proportional to the volume of
the gas…

volume
pressure
P1 V 1 = P 2 V 2 Robert Boyle
(1627-1691)
Boyle’s Law animation
A bicycle pump is a
good example of
Boyle’s law.

As the volume of the air

trapped in the pump is
reduced, its pressure
goes up, and air is
forced into the tire.
EXERCISE 2
A sample of chlorine gas occupies a volume of 946 mL at a
pressure of 726 mmHg. What is the pressure of the gas (in
mmHg) if the volume is reduced at constant temperature to 154
mL?
SOLUTION:

P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 P1 = 726 mmHg P2 = ?
V1 = 946 mL V2 = 154 mL

P1 x V1 726 mmHg x 946 mL

P2 = = = 4460 mmHg #
V2 154 mL
2. Charles’ Law,

 This lesson introduces Charles’

Law, which describes the
relationship between volume (V)
and temperature (T) of gases.
 Charles’s Law
…The volume of a fixed amount
of gas maintained at constant
pressure is directly
proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas…

V1/T1 = V2/T2

temperature
volume
Jacques Charles
(1746-1823).

P1/T1 = P2/T2
(Gay-Lussac’s Law)
Charles’s Law animation
EXERCISE 3
A 1-L steel tank is fitted with a safety valve that opens if the
internal pressure exceeds 1.00x103 torr. It is filled with helium at
230C and 0.991atm and placed in boiling water at exactly
1000C. Will the safety valve open?
SOLUTION
P1 = 0.991atm P1 P2
=
T1 = 230C
= 296 K T1 T2
P2 = unknown
T2 373K
T2 = 100oC = 373 K P2 = P1 = 753 torr
T1 296K

760torr = 949 torr#

0.991atm = 753torr
1atm
3. Avogadro’s Law

 This lesson introduces Avogadro’s

Law, which describes the
relationship between volume (V)
and moles (n) of the gases.
Avogadro’s Law
… At constant pressure and
temperature, the volume of a
gas is directly proportional to
the number of moles of the gas
present…

twice as many
molecules
 Constant temperature
Constant pressure

V a number of moles (n) V = constant x n V1/n1 = V2/n2

EXERCISE 4
A scale model of a blimp rises when it is filled with helium to a
volume of 55dm3. When 1.10mol of He is added to the blimp,
the volume is 26.2dm3. How many more grams of He must be
added to make it rise? Assume constant T and P.
SOLUTION
n1 = 1.10mol P1V1 P2V2
=
V1 = 26.2dm3 n1 T1 n2T2
n2 = unknown P and T are constant
V2 = 55.0dm3
V1 V2 n2 = n 1
V2
n1
= n2 V1
 55.0dm3
n2 = 1.10mol = 2.31mol MW He= 4.003g
26.2dm3

So, 4.003g He x 2.31mol

= 9.25 g He
mol He

So, grams of He must be added is

= 9.25 g – 1.1 mol 1 mol = 4.003g He
mol He
= 9.25 g – 4.40 g 1.1 mol = 4.40 g

= 4.85g He #
 PV = nRT

PV 1 atm x 22.414 L 0.0821 atm*L

R= = =
nT 1 mol x 273.15 K mol*K

nRT
PV = nRT or V =
P

fixed n and T fixed n and P fixed P and T

Boyle’s Law Charles’s Law Avogadro’s Law

Constant R V = Constant R X n
V= V =Constant R X T
P
EXERCISE 5
1. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is a colorless, odorless, very
unreactive gas. Calculate the pressure (in atm) exerted by
1.82 moles of the gas in a steel vessel of volume 5.43 L at
69.5oC.
Answer: 9.42 atm

1. An inflated helium balloon with a volume of 0.55 L at sea

level (1.0 atm) is allowed to rise to a height of 6.5 km, where
the pressure is about 0.40 atm. Assuming that the temperature
remains constant, what is the final volume of the balloon?
Answer: 1.375 L
1. Argon is an inert gas used in lightbulbs to retard the vaporization
of the tungsten filament. A certain lightbulb containing argon at
1.20 atm and 18oC is heated to 85oC at constant volume.
Calculate its final pressure (in atm).
Answer: 1.48 atm

4. A small bubble rises from the bottom of a lake, where the

temperature and pressure are 8oC and 6.4 atm, to the water’s
surface, where the temperature is 25oC and the pressure is 1.0 atm.
Calculate the final volume (in mL) of the bubble if its initial volume was
2.1 mL.
Answer: 14.25 mL

5. Calculate the volume (in liters) occupied by 7.40 g of NH3 at STP?

Answer: 9.75 L
DENSITY & MOLAR MASS CALCULATIONS

density = m/V Low

density
n = m/M

PV = nRT PV = (m/M)RT

m/V = M x P/RT

High
density
 mass PV
n= =
M RT

mRT m
M= d=
PV V

dRT
M= P

The density of a gas is directly proportional to its molar

mass
EXERCISE 6
Find the density (in g/L) of CO2 and the number of molecules at
STP (0oC and 1 atm).
SOLUTION:
MxP
d = mass/volume PV = nRT V = nRT/P d=
RT
44.01 g/mol x 1atm
d= = 1.96 g/L#
atm*L
0.0821 x 273.15 K
mol*K

1.96 mol CO2 6.022x1023 molecules

No. of molc. =
g L 44.01 g CO2 mol

= 2.68x1022 molecules CO2/L#

EXERCISE 7
1. Calculate the density of carbon dioxide (CO2) in grams per
liter (g/L) at 0.900 atm and 55oC.

2. A chemist has synthesized a greenish-yellow gaseous

compound of chlorine and oxygen and finds that its density is
7.71 g/L at 36oC and 2.88 atm. Calculate the molar mass of
the compound.
GAS STOICHIOMETRY
❑ When the reactants and/or products are gases, we
can also use the relationships between amounts
(moles, n) and volume (V) to solve the problems.

Amount of Amount of
reactant Moles of Moles of product
(grams or reactant product (grams or
volume) volume)

Stoichiometric calculations involving gases

Example:
Calculate the volume of O2 (in liters) required for the complete
combustion of 7.64 L acetylene (C2H2) measured at the same
temperature and pressure.
2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Solution:
Avogadro’s law, n α V at the same T and P
From eq. we have 5 mol O2  2 mol C2H2, therefore, we can also
write 5 L O2  2 L C2H2.
The volume of O2 that will react with 7.64 L C2H2 is given by

Stoichiometry calculation based on coefficients

EXERCISE 8
CH4 burns in O2, producing CO2 and H2O(g). A 1.22 L CH4 cylinder, at 15°C,
registers a pressure of 328 kPa.
a) What volume of O2 at SATP (24.8 L/mol) will be required to react
completely with all of the CH4?
SOLUTION:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

P = 328 kPa, V = 1.22 L, T = 288 K

(328 kPa)(1.22 L)
PV = nRT n CH4 = = 0.167 mol CH4
(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(288 K)

2 mol O2
mol O2 = 0.167 mol CH4 x = 0.334 mol O2
1 mol CH4
SATP (24.8 L/mol) Volume of O 2 = 0.334 mol x 24.8 L/mol = 8.28 L#
b) How many grams of H2O(g) are produced?

SOLUTION:

Mass H2O =0.167 mol CH4 x 2 mol H2O x 18.02 g H2O = 6.02 g H2O #
1 mol CH4 1 mol H2O

c) What volume of CO2 (at STP = 22.4 L/mol) is produced if only 2.15 g of
the CH4 was burned?

SOLUTION:

Volume of CO2 = 0.134 mol x 22.4 L/mol = 3.00 L#

EXERCISE 9
Sodium azide (NaN3) is used in some automobile air bags. The
impact of a collision triggers the decomposition of NaN3 as
follows:
2NaN3(s) 2Na(s) + 3N2(g)

The nitrogen gas produced quickly inflates the bag between the
driver and the windshield and dashboard. Calculate the volume
of N2 generated at 80oC and 823 mmHg by the decomposition
of 60.0 g of NaN3.
DALTON’S LAW

…The total pressure of a

mixture of gases is just the
sum of the pressures that
each gas would exert if it
were present alone…

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 +….
John Dalton
1766-1844
 2 H2O2 (l) 2 H2O (g) + O2 (g)
0.32 atm 0.16 atm

What is the total pressure in the flask?

Ptotal = PH2O + PO2 = 0.48 atm

Dalton’s Law:
Total P is sum of PARTIAL pressures.
❑ The mole fraction (X) is a ratio of the number of
moles of one component to the number of moles of
all components present.

❑ In general, the mole fraction of component i in a

mixture is given by
n1 n1
X1 = =
n1 + n2 + n3 +... ntotal

❑ Express the partial pressure as

P1 = X1PT
EXERCISE 10
In a study of O2 uptake by muscle at high altitude, a physiologist
prepares an atmosphere consisting of 79 mole % N2, 17 mole %
16O and 4.0 mole % 18O . The pressure of the mixture is 0.75
2, 2
atm to simulate high altitude. Calculate the mole fraction and
partial pressure of 18O2 in the mixture.
SOLUTION:

x 18O
2 =
4.0 mol % 18O2
= 0.040
100
P18 = X 18O x Ptotal = 0.040 x 0.75 atm = 0.03 atm #
O2 2
EXERCISE 11
A mixture of gases contains 4.46 moles of neon (Ne),
0.74 mole mole of argon (Ar) and 2.15 moles of
xenon (Xe). Calculate the partial pressures of the
gases if the total pressure is 2.00 atm at a certain
temperature.
GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION & EFFUSION

Gas
Diffusion

Phenomena based
on gases motion.
Gas
Effusion
EFFUSION:
The process by which a gas
escapes from its container
through a tiny hole into an
evacuated space

DIFFUSION:
The process of gas movement
of one gas through another
 …the rate of effusion of a
gas is inversely proportional
to the square root of its
molar mass…

GRAHAM’S LAW OF Rate of effusion a

1
EFFUSION √M

Rate
A = √ MB
Rate
B √MA
EXERCISE 12
Calculate the ratio of the effusion rates of helium
and methane (CH4).
SOLUTION:

M of CH4 = 16.04 g/mol M of He = 4.003 g/mol

rate
He √ 16.04
= = 2.002 #
rate 4.003
CH4
 KINETIC THEORY

❑ Kinetic theory of the gases explain the physical behavior of

the gases.
5 assumptions:
a) Gas consist of tiny particles of negligible volume
b) Intermolecular forces of attraction do not exist between
gas particles
c) Gas are in continuous random motion
d) The gases particles are perfectly elastic
e) The average kinetic energy of gas α absolute temperature
1. Gas consist of tiny particles of negligible volume
❑ Gas separated in a great distance resulting a lot of empty

spaces
❑ volume of an individual gas particle is so small compared to

the volume of its container

❑ Compressible

❑ gas particles are considered to have mass, but no volume

2. Intermolecular forces of attraction do not exist between gas

particles
❑ Travels straight line, not influence by other gas particles
3. Gas are in continuous random motion
❑ Constant motion

❑ Frequently collide with each other or with the container walls

4. The gases particles are perfectly elastic

❑ No loss of kinetic energy and total kinetic energy is constant

❑ Average distance travelled between consecutive collisions is

called mean free path.

❑ Pressure of the gas caused by collisions (between gas and

walls). Decrease the volume Increase the forces of collisions

cause increasing of pressure ~ Boyle’s law
5. The average kinetic energy of gas α absolute temperature
❑ Individuals particles in a gas have different kinetic energies

❑ The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional

to absolute temperature (A result of Thermodynamics). At a

given temperature (constant T) the molecules of all gases
have the same average kinetic energy
❑ If the temperature of a gas is doubled, the average kinetic

energy of its molecules is doubled

Molecular Speed
❑ Although the molecules in a sample of gas have an average

kinetic energy (and therefore an average speed) the individual

molecules move at various speeds, i.e. they exhibit a distribution
of speeds
❑ At the same temperature, lighter gases move on average faster

than heavier gases.

Root Mean Square Speed (RMS)

 How fast does a molecule move, on the average, at any

temperature ?

 One way to estimate molecular speed is to calculate the root

mean square speed (urms), which is an average molecular
speed.
DEVIATION FROM IDEAL GAS BEHAVIOR

The behavior of several

real gases with increasing
external pressure.
The effect of intermolecular attractions on measured gas pressure
The effect of molecular volume on measured gas volume
Van Der Waals Equation
 In 1873, Johannes van der Waals realized the
limitations of the ideal gas law and proposed an
equation that accounts for the behavior of real
gases.

adjusts P up adjusts V down

a and b are van der Waals constants.

a = (atm . L2 / mol2)
b = ( L / mol)
Values of the van der Waals Constants for Some Common Gases

atm*L2 L
a b
Gas mol2 mol

He 0.034 0.0237
Ne 0.211 0.0171
Ar 1.35 0.0322
Kr 2.32 0.0398
Xe 4.19 0.0511
H2 0.244 0.0266
N2 1.39 0.0391
O2 1.36 0.0318
Cl2 6.49 0.0562
CH4 2.25 0.0428
CO 1.45 0.0395
CO2 3.59 0.0427
NH3 4.17 0.0371
H 2O 5.46 0.0305
EXERCISE 13
Use the van der Waals equation to calculate the pressure
exerted by 100.0 mol of oxygen gas in 22.41 L at 0°C.
SOLUTION:
V = 22.41 L a (O2) = 1.36 L2 atm/mol2
T = (0.0 + 273) = 273K b (O2) = 0.0318 L /mol

nRT n2a
p= − 2
(V − nb) V
100mol * 0.0821Latm / molK * 273K (100mol ) 2 *1.36 L2 atm / mol 2
p= −
22.41L − (100mol * 0.0318 L / mol ) (22.41L) 2
2241.33Latm 13600 L2 atm
p= −
19.23L 502.21L2
p = 116.55atm − 27.08atm
p = 89.47 atm#
EXERCISE 14
Given that 3.50 moles of NH3 occupy 5.20 L at 47oC,
calculate the pressure of the gas (in atm) using
(a) the ideal gas equation and
(b) the van der Waals equation.

Answers:
(a) pV= nRT (17.68 atm)
(b) the van der Waals equation (16.25atm)
THE END