Electrical Machines - Induction Machines - Standardization 14/11/2021, 4:58 AM

FUNDAMENTALS SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES INDUCTION MACHINES

OTHER MACHINES

FUNDAMENTALS STANDARDIZATION PARAMETERS STARTING

SPEED CONTROL GENERATION

STANDARDS AND LEGISLATION

INFLUENCE OF ROTOR DESIGN ON PERFORMANCE

When evaluating the torque speed cuve it is clear
that the rotor circuit resistance has significant impact
on pull-out slip, the speed at which maximum torque
occurs. Figure 1 illustrates two cases, with low rotor
resistance on the left and high rotor resistance on
the right.It can be seen from the plots that a high
rotor resistance will provide a high starting torque,
leading to rapid acceleration of the mechanical TORQUE SPEED CURVES FOR CASES WITH
system. This can desirable since during starting the LOW AND HIGH ROTOR RESISTANCE
stator current is significantly above the rated current.
Short acceleration times reduce the stress on the
power system caused by high currents.
While high starting torques are desirable, high rotor
resistance results in a relatively high slip during
normal running operation. As torque is porportional
to rotor joule losses divided by slip, high resistance
causes increased losses and reduced efficiency
during normal operation.
The above points cause a problem. For most applications it is desirable to have:
high starting torque
high efficiency at rated speed
However, designs with high starting torque will have low efficiency at rated speed and designs with high
efficiency will have low starting torque. In order to resolve these confilicting requirements, two steps must
be considered:
1. Careful consideration of the application requirements
2. Designs of motors with variable rotor resistance.

Application Requirements
Many motor applications will not need both high start torque and high rated efficiency. Alternately, the
requirement for either high start torque or efficiency may be so significant that it over-rides other
requirements. Consider two examples:
1. Fan Load

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Fans and rotary pumps typically have a torque requirement that varies as either the square or cube of
mechanical speed. When driving a fan, the motor must provide rated torque at rated speed, but at
lower speeds the torque demand is significantly lower. A fan application will therefore not usually
require significant starting torque, efficiency during steady operation at rated speed is the over-riding
concern.
2. Variable-torque high-inertia loads
This type of load typically includes mechanical punches and reciprocating rod pumps used in oil
production. In the case of a reciprocating pump, the mechanical laod varies with time, some of the time
the motor is working against gravity to lift oil out of the ground, at other times, it is working with gravity
as the rod falls. The speed range of this system is significant, requiring very high torques at low
speeds. When the motor is at high speed (as the rod falls) the torque (and efficiency) requirement is
minimal. In this case high torque at low speed is the over-riding requirement.

Varirable Rotor Resistance

Although it is common to think of low frequency Since the frequency of the stator magnetic field seen
conductors as having a constant resistance, the by the rotor conductors is a function of slip, the
resistance of all ac conductors is a function actively conducting region of the rotor bars will be a
frequency. Induced currents in conductors act to function of slip. Hence, the effective rotor resistance
oppose the originating magnetic field. As a result, will be a function of slip. Table 1 plots skin depth for
the depth of penetration of the magnetic field into the aluminum, σ = 2.9 × 107, in a machine with a 60Hz
conductor will vary with frequency. (The magnitude supply.
of the induced voltage is a function of rate of change The table illustrates a number of important points:
of flux, and therfore a function of frequency)
1. No matter how deep a rotor bar, only the top
Skin Depth 12mm conducts at standstill
2. Medium-large machines with bars deeper than
The skin depth of a conductor is defined as the
12mm will have varying rotor resistance
depth at which the magnitude of a magnetic field has
3. Smaller machines with bars less than 12mm
fallen to 1/e of the magnitude of the surface. We can
deep will have effectively constant rotor
approximate this as the depth at which currents are
resistance
actually flowing in the conductor. Skin depth is given
As an example, a machine with a rectangular bar 72
by
mm deep will have a resistance 6 times smaller at
low slips than it will at starting.
‾‾‾‾‾
1 ‾
√ πσμf
δ= Slip Slip Frequency (hz) δ (mm)
0.025 1.5 76.3
0.05 3.0 54.0
where 0.083 5.0 42.8
δ is skin depth 0.167 10.0 29.6
μ is the permeability of the conducting material ( 0.333 20.0 20.6
μ0 for non magnetic metals) 0.50 30.0 17.1
σ is the conductivity of the conducting material 0.667 40.0 14.8
f is the frequency of the magnetic field as seen 0.833 50.0 13.2
by the conductor 1.0 60.0 12.0
TABLE 1. SKIN DEPTH AS A FUNCTION OF SLIP

NEMA Motor Design Classes

Since different applications need different
characteristics from induction motors, the National
Electical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), a US
organization, has specified different classes of
induction motor, with different characteristics. Typical
torque speed-curves for classes A-D are sketched in

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Fig. 2.
Motor Classes A and D are obtained by designing
the rotor resistance to be either low (class A) or high
(class D). Classes B and C are obtained by
exploiting the effect of skin depth to obtain a variable
resistance rotor circuit. Example rotor conductor
designs for classes A through D are shown in Fig. 3.
Comparing classes A and B, class B has a deeper
bar to exploit skin depth effects. The bar width may
vary in order to enhance this effect. Class C rotors
are typically fabricated with two seperate cages. FIG. 2. SKETCHES OF NEMA CALS A-D TORQUE
Only the outer cage will conduct at starting. There is SPEED CURVES
air between the cages and at the top of the slot (to
reduce leakage flux). Note that cast rotor designs
must have a closed slot design to prevent molten
aluminum from escaping. Class D has a small
conductor, giving a high resistance at all slips. The
class D example shown has an open slot, for a
fabricated rotor design.

FIG. 3. ILLUSTRATION OF ROTOR BAR SHAPES FOR DIFFERENT MOTOR CLASSES

A summary of the performance of the motor classes is provided in the table below
Class A Class B Class C Class D
General Very High Starting
Type General Purpose High Starting Torque
Purpose Torque
100% rated for
100% rated for larger
Start larger motors,
motors, 200% rated, smaller Approx 250% rated > 275% rated
Torque 200% rated,
motors
smaller motors
Start 500%-600%
˜800% rated
Current rated
Pullout Slightly lower than class
200%-300% rated ≥200% rated
Torque A
High, can be as much
Pullout Slip <0.2 <0.2
as 1.0
<0.05, lower than similar must be <0.05, <0.05, higher than class High, typically 0.07 to
Rated Slip
sized class B usually <0.03 B 0.11, can be up to 0.17
High inertia
Fans, Blowers, Pumps, Compressors, pumps,
Applications As for Class A applications, e.g.
Machine Tools conveyors
mechanical punches
High starting inrush current Replacemesnt Applications that require Very high inertia
causes power system for Class A due high start torques. Note applications. e.g. in a
problems, it can cause the to lower start that the pullup and pull- punch or reciprocal
supply voltage to sag and current. The out torque can both be pump where the slip
Notes standard off-the may vary between 0
requires special starting lower than the start

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techniques. More efficient shelf torque. Less efficienct and 0.50 Much less
than same sized class B commodity than class B efficient than other
motor. designs
TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF MOTOR DESIGN CLASS CHARACTERISTICS

HISTORY, EFFICIENCY & STANDARDS

History
The induction motor was demonstrated and desctibed in a paper published by Gallileo Ferraris in Turin,
Italy, in 1888. At the same time in N. America, the principle was patented by Nikola Tesla, also in 1888. By
1895 three-phase induction motors similar to today's designs were available. Since then induction motors
have become smaller and more efficient. These improvements are not necessarily compatible with each
other and have occurred for different reasons.
Smaller machines have been developed because it is in the manufacturers interest to do so. A
physically smaller induction machine with the same output capability will have lower material costs and
therefore can be made more profitably.
More efficient machines have been developed because of a combination of end user desire and
legislation. More efficient machines will have lower operating costs and require less generation= which
results in lower greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel power plants.

Energy Efficient Design

The techniques to make a more efficient motor are well understood:
1. Use thicker conductors. Increasing the cross-section of the conductors will result in lower I2R losses.
2. Increase the length of the machine. A longer machine requires a lower torque density, which means a
lower flux density. Lower flux density will result in lower iron losses.
3. Increase the outer diameter of the stator. Increased outer diameter means an increased surface area,
allowing more effective cooling. This in turn means that a smaller, lower power fan can be used
4. Use a low loss lamination steel. Lamination steels can be bought in different grades, with variable
hysteresis losses. Laminations can also be bought in various thicknesses, with thinner laminations
resulting in lower eddy current losses. A thin low-loss lamination will have significantly lower iron loss
than an thicker standard lamination
5. Ensure that the air gap length is constant. If the air gap surfaces are machined to give a constant air
gap, there will be smaller variations in flux density and therefore reduced likelihood of concentrations of
iron losses. (Eddy current losses are a function of flux density squared.)
Factors limiting the use of higher efficiency motors
The first limit on uptake of premium efficiency motors is cost. Reviewing the above options to improve
efficiency, 1-3 require more material to be put into the motor, increasing material costs. Option 4 requires
more expensive laminations (thinner laminations and low loss steel are both more expensive). In addition, if
thinner laminations are used, more laminations are required for a given length of machine, resulting in
higher manufacturing costs (more lamination punches per machine, increased wear on punches, more
difficult handling). Option 5 adds an additional step to the manufacturing process, again increasing
manufacturing costs.
It can be seen that all the obvious options to improve motor efficiency result in more expensive machines.
To maintain profitability, manufacturers must therefore increase the purchase price of a machine if it is more
efficient.
From an end user point of view, the increased initial purchase price of a more efficient motor is more than
offset by reduced lifetime operating costs. A premium efficiency motor will typically pay for itself in electricity
savings in about 4 years (assuming constant operation). Typical motor lifetimes are around 20 years, so
from a lifetime perspective, premium efficiency motors are a sound financial choice.
If premium efficiency motors are such a sound choice, the question must be asked why people don't buy

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premium efficiency motors. (They typically don't). A number of reasons can be found:
Most motor purchases are not made by the end user. They are made by "OEM"s: other equipment
manufacturers. OEM's don't pay the operating costs of the motor and must keep their costs down to
maintain their profitability.
New equipment is purchased from capital budgets. This is typically independent of any future operating
budget. Capital costs must usually be minimized during the development of a new facility and are
typically funded by one-time fixed budgets. Once a facility is built, the operating costs are funded from
another budget.
Large users generate their own electricity. In a regulated electricity market, large users do not
particularly care how much electricity they use, as long as it is lower than their generating capacity.
With the advent of de-regulated markets and the possibility of selling excess generating capacity back
to the grid, this is less of an issue.
A second limit on the development of premium efficiency motors has been standards. All motors in the
small-medium (up to several hundred Hp) size range must be made to meet industrial standards. This limits
the ability of manufacturers to be innovative with new motors. e.g. the maximum length and outside
diameter are specified in the standard, so cannot be increased beyond a certain point to improve efficiency.
In addition, standards specify minimum efficiency levels that must be met. Since all motors that meet the
standard are viewed as equivalent, manufacturer A has no incentive to exceed the standard, as this would
make its motors more expensive than those from manufacturer B who just meets the standard. In order to
remain in business, the manufacturer must aim to meet the standards at minimum unit cost, which typically
means just meeting the standard.

Increasing Market Penetration

There are number of sectors in society that are attempting to increase the use of premium efficiency
motors. The most influential in this area are governments, utilities and environmentally conscious
consumers.
Governments are concerned about reducing energy usage primarily because of commitments to reduce
greenhouse gases and other pollutants produced by fossil fuel power plants. In addition, a more efficiency
industry will, in the long term, be more globally competitive.
An increasing number of consumers are demanding "greener" products. This significant market segment
has the purchasing power to influence the development of more efficient products. This type of consumer is
typically willing to pay more for "greener" products (e.g. hybrid cars, front load washing machines)
Governments have the largest power to influence this area. In order to promote energy efficient products to
end consumers, the "Energy Star" approach has been used, highlighting the benefits of energy efficient
designs. This is particularly effective with consumer goods as the purchaser is usually the end user.
Influencing the industrial use of energy efficient machines has proved more difficult. Governments globally
are turning to legislation to specify minimum efficiencies. This can be acheived by increasing the minimum
efficnincy specifed in standards

Standards
The techniques to make motors more efficient are well known. However, it can be seen that the steps to
make a more efficient machine are not necessarily in the best interest of either the machine manufacturer or
purchaser. It can also be seen that in some instances, Standards could in the past have been said to hinder
the development of new, more efficient designs.
The standard that covers the design, construction and operating limits of induction machines in N. America
is NEMA MG1.
NEMA is the National Electrical Manufacturers Association, a US group which represents electrical
equipment manufacturers. MG-1 is the standard for motors and generators. Canadian motors also follow
MG-1.
NEMA MG-1 sets minimum performance values, (e.g. start, pullup, pullout torque, efficiency) and also
mechanical constraints. Motors are grouped by frame size and all motors of a certain frame must have the
same external dimensions, bolt hole locations etc. The standard also specifies the following classifications
TEFC: Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled
TENV: Totally Enclosed Natural Ventilation

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ODP: Open, Drip-Proof

Explosion-Proof
The benefit of the standard is that the consumer knows what they are buying, independent of the
manufacturer. This allows easy comparison between brands based on cost. e.g. all 5 Hp motors will be the
same physical size and shape and in the event of failure one motor can be replaced by another from a
different manufacturer without the need to redesign the mounting points, bolts etc.

Legislation
At times, Standards have limited the incentive to develop higher efficiency designs. As a result,
Governments have mandated legislated improvements over MG-1 (MG-1 was re-written to reflect the
legislation. Canada was one of the first jurisdictions to legislate for higher efficiency, introducing standard
CSA 390, which mandated a step change in motor efficiency. This was followed in the US by NEPACT
legislation, which duplicated the Canadian efficiency limits, resulting in a common North American standard
on efficiency.

Summary
Standards specify motor design and performance parameters, allowing consumers to make informed
choices about the motors they are buying. At times, the reluctance of industry to improve standards has
required legislators to force changes and impose minimum standards. Due to the relationship between
efficiency and motor cost, this is not usually in the best interest of motor manufacturers. Manufacturers have
recently pro-actively announced extensions to the standard to enable higher efficiency motors in the
marketplace.

© ANDY KNIGHT EMAIL WEBSITE HOME

SCHULICH SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

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