Network Communication

and
Protocols
SLO # 5
Introduction to Computer
Networks;
SLO # 5.1
define a computer network;

SLO # 5.1.1
Computer Network

A computer network is a group of computer systems and other

computing hardware devices that are linked together through
communication channels to facilitate communication and
resource-sharing among a wide range of users.
Networks are commonly categorized based on their
characteristics.
differentiate among different
types of networks depending
upon coverage area and use;
SLO # 5.1.2
Computer Network

A computer network is a group of computer systems and other

computing hardware devices that are linked together through
communication channels to facilitate communication and
resource-sharing among a wide range of users.
Networks are commonly categorized based on their
characteristics.
a. Nano network

A nanonetwork or nanoscale network is a set of

interconnected nanomachines which can perform only very simple
tasks such as computing, data storing and sensing.
b. Body Area Network (BAN)
A Body Area
Network (BAN) is a
short-range
wireless network com
prised of devices
positioned in, on, and
around the body. It
provides data
communication over
short distances,
limited to ranges of
just a few meters.
c. Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network, or

PAN, is a computer
network that enables
communication
between computer devices near
a person. PANs can be wired,
such as USB or FireWire, or they
can be wireless, such as
infrared, ZigBee, Bluetooth and
ultrawideband, or UWB.
d. Near-me-Area Network (NAN)

A near-me area network (NAN) is a

communication network that
focuses on wireless
communication among devices in
close proximity.
e. Local Area Network (LAN)

A local-area network (LAN) is

a computer network that spans a
relatively small area. Most often, a
LAN is confined to a single room,
building or group of buildings,
however, one LAN can be
connected to other LANs over any
distance via telephone lines and
radio waves.
f. Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) is a

network that exists over a
large-scale geographical area. A
WAN connects different smaller
networks, including local area
networks (LANs) and metro area
networks (MANs). This ensures
that computers and users in one
location can communicate with
computers and users in other
locations.
g. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area
network (MAN) is a network that
interconnects users
with computer resources in a
geographic area or region larger
than that covered by even a
large local area network (LAN) but
smaller than the area covered by a
wide area network (WAN).
h. Internet Area Network (IAN)

Internet area network (IAN) is a network that interconnects users with

computer resources by the internet. No LANs or MANs can be involved.
i. Interplanetary Internet (IPN)

Interplanetary Internet that will

connect us to probes and human
space travelers and allow more
information to be sent back to Earth.
If you've ever wanted to travel into
space the interplanetary Internet will
enable anyone to travel into space --
the way the Internet allows us to visit
foreign lands without leaving our
desks -- and what technologies will
support such an astronomical
communications system.
 describe basic network
components, i.e. sender,
message, medium, protocol,
receiver;
SLO # 5.1.3
Basic network components
Data communication/ basic network components is a process of
transferring data electronically from one place to another. Data can be
transferred by using different medium. The basic components of data
communications are as follows:

• Message
• Sender
• Receiver
• Medium/ communication channel
• Encoder and decoder
Basic network components
Message
The message is the data or information to be communicated. It may
consist of text, number, pictures, sound, video or any a combination of
these.

Sender
Sender is a device that sends message. The message can consist of text,
numbers, pictures etc. it is also called source or transmitter. Normally,
computer is used as sender in information communication systems.
Basic network components
Receiver
Receiver is a device that receives message. It is also called sink. The
receiver can be computer, printer or another computer related device.
The receiver must be capable of accepting the message.

Medium
Medium is the physical path that connects sender and receiver. It is used
to transmit data. The medium can be a copper wire, a fiber optic cable,
microwaves etc. it is also called communication channel.
Basic network components

Encoder and decoder

The encoder is a device that converts digital signals in a form that can pass
through a transmission medium. The decoder is a device that converts the
encoded signals into digital form. The receiver can understand the digital
form of message. Sender and receiver cannot communicate successfully
without encoder and decoder.
discuss the role of the four data
communication devices, i.e.
hub, switch, router and
gateway;
SLO # 5.1.4
HUB

A hub is to sent out a message

from one port to other ports. For
example, if there are three
computers of A, B, C, the message
sent by a hub for computer A, will
also come to the other
computers. But only computer A
will respond and the response will
also go out to every other port on
the hub. Therefore, all the
computers can receive the
message and computers
themselves need to decide
whether to accept the message.
Switch

A switch is able to handle

the data and knows the
specific addresses to send
the message. It can decide
which computer is the
message intended for and
send the message directly
to the right computer. The
efficiency of switch has
been greatly improved,
thus providing a faster
network speed.
Router
Router is actually a small
computer that can be
programmed to handle
and route the network
traffic. It usually connects
at least two networks
together, such as two
LANs, two WANs or a LAN
and its ISP network.
Routers can calculate the
best route for sending
data and communicate
with each other by
protocols.
Gateway
Any network has a boundary or a limit, so all
communication placed within that network is
conducted using the devices attached to it,
including switches and routers. If a network node
wants to communicate with a node/network that
resides outsides of that network or autonomous
system, the network will require the services of a
gateway, which is familiar with the routing path of
other remote networks.
The gateway (or default gateway) is implemented
at the boundary of a network to manage all the
data communication that is routed internally or
externally from that network.
differentiate between guided
and unguided media and their
types
SLO # 5.1.5
Guided Media Vs Unguided Media
BASIS FOR COMPARISON GUIDED MEDIA UNGUIDED MEDIA
Basic The signal requires a physical The signal is broadcasted

path for transmission. through air or sometimes water.

Alternative name It is called wired communication It is called wireless

or bounded transmission media. communication or unbounded

transmission media.
Direction It provides direction to signal for It does not provide any

travelling. direction.
Types Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable Radio wave, microwave and

and fibre optic cable. infrared.

a. guided media (telephone cable,
twisted pair cable, coaxial cable
and fiber optic cable)
SLO # 5.1.5
Types of Transmission Media
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical
path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel
through which data is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media
is broadly classified into the following types

Telephone Satellite
Cable Communication
Guided Media
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.
Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow
pathway by using physical links.

Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
Guided Media

There are 4 major types of Guided Media:

1. Telephone Cable
2. Twisted Pair Cable
3. Coaxial Cable
4. Fiber Optic Cable
1. Telephone Cable
A telephone cable is a method of
guided transmission for your
telephone line. This means it acts as
a physical path to transmit
electromagnetic waves and carry
information from point to point.
This is done by means of a
conductive material such as copper
wiring. Telephone cables are
sheathed in a protective material
such as PVC in order to protect the
wires from damp and damage.
2. Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated
conductor wires wound about each
other. Generally, several such pairs
are bundled together in a
protective sheath. They are the
most widely used Transmission
Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

a. Unshielded Twisted Pair

b. Shielded Twisted Pair
a. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend
on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
• Least expensive
• Easy to install
• High speed capacity

Disadvantages:
• Susceptible to external interference
• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• Short distance transmission due to attenuation
b. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is
used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
• Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• Eliminates crosstalk
• Comparatively faster

Disadvantages:
• Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
• More expensive
• Bulky
3. Coaxial Cable
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate
insulated protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband
mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into
separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:
• High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive

Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
4. Optical Fiber/ Fiber Optic
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The
core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used
for transmission of large volumes of data.

Advantages:
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Light weight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
b. unguided media (microwave
transmission and satellite
communication);

SLO # 5.1.5
Unguided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No
physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals.

Features:
• Signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
Unguided Media

There are 2 major types of Unguided Media:

1. Microwaves
2. Satellite communication
1. Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission
i.e. the sending and receiving
antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The
distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency
Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are
majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television
distribution.
2. Satellite Communication
Satellite communication, in telecommunications, the use of artificial satellites to provide
communication links between various points on Earth. Satellite communications play a
vital role in the global telecommunications system. Approximately 2,000 artificial
satellites orbiting Earth relay analog and digital signals carrying voice, video, and data to
and from one or many locations worldwide.

Satellite communication has two main components: the ground segment, which consists
of fixed or mobile transmission, reception, and ancillary equipment, and the space
segment, which primarily is the satellite itself. A typical satellite link involves the
transmission or up linking of a signal from an Earth station to a satellite. The satellite
then receives and amplifies the signal and retransmits it back to Earth, where it is
received and reamplified by Earth stations and terminals.
2. Satellite Communication
compare three modes of data
transmission, i.e. simplex,
half-duplex and full-duplex;
SLO # 5.1.6
Modes of Data Transmission
Simplex
In simplex transmission mode, the communication between sender and
receiver occurs in only one direction. The sender can only send the data, and
the receiver can only receive the data. The receiver cannot reply to the
sender.

Simplex transmission can be thought of as a one-way road in which the traffic

travels only in one direction—no vehicle coming from the opposite direction
is allowed to drive through. To take a keyboard / monitor relationship as an
example, the keyboard can only send the input to the monitor, and the
monitor can only receive the input and display it on the screen. The monitor
cannot reply, or send any feedback, to the keyboard.
Modes of Data Transmission
Half Duplex
The communication between sender and receiver occurs in both directions in
half duplex transmission, but only one at a time. The sender and receiver can
both send and receive the information, but only one is allowed to send at any
given time. Half duplex is still considered a one-way road, in which a vehicle
traveling in the opposite direction of the traffic has to wait till the road is
empty before it can pass through.

For example, in walkie-talkies, the speakers at both ends can speak, but they
have to speak one by one. They cannot speak simultaneously.
Modes of Data Transmission

Full Duplex
In full duplex transmission mode, the communication between sender and
receiver can occur simultaneously. The sender and receiver can both transmit
and receive at the same time. Full duplex transmission mode is like a two-way
road, in which traffic can flow in both directions at the same time.

For example, in a telephone conversation, two people communicate, and both

are free to speak and listen at the same time.
Comparison
Basis for Comparison Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

Direction of Unidirectional Two-directional, one Two-directional,

Communication at a time simultaneously
Send / Receive Sender can only Sender can send and Sender can send and
send data receive data, but receive data
one a time simultaneously
Performance Worst performing Better than Simplex Best performing
mode of mode of
transmission transmission
Example Keyboard and Walkie-talkie Telephone
monitor
differentiate between two types of
transmission, i.e. serial and parallel;
SLO # 5.1.7
Serial Transmission

Serial Transmission, data is sent bit by bit from one computer to another in
bi-direction where each bit has its clock pulse rate. bits are transferred having
a start and stop bit (usually known as a Parity bit), i.e. 0 and 1 respectively.
Parallel Transmission

Parallel Transmission, various bits are sent together simultaneously with a

single clock pulse. It is a fast way to transmit as it uses many input/output
lines for transferring the data.
Comparison
BASIS FOR COMPARISON SERIAL TRANSMISSION PARALLEL TRANSMISSION

Meaning Data flows in bi-direction, bit by bit Multiple lines are used to send data,
i.e. 8 bits or 1 byte at a time

Cost Economical Expensive

Bits transferred at 1 1 bit 8 bits or 1 byte
clock pulse
Speed Slow Fast
Applications Used for long-distance communication. Short distance.
E.g., Computer to computer E.g., computer to a printer

Number of Only one N number of communication channels

communication channel are needed
required
Need of converters Required to convert the signals Not required
according to the need.
differentiate between synchronous
and asynchronous transmission of
data;
SLO # 5.1.8
Synchronous transmission
In synchronous transmission, data moves in a completely paired approach, in the form of
chunks or frames. Synchronization between the source and target is required so that the
source knows where the new byte begins, since there are no spaces included between the
data.
Synchronous transmission is effective, dependable, and often utilized for transmitting a
large amount of data. It offers real-time communication between linked devices.
Characteristics of Synchronous Transmission
• There are no spaces in between characters being sent.
• Timing is provided by modems or other devices at the end of the transmission.

Examples of Synchronous Transmission

* Chatrooms * Video conferencing
* Telephonic conversations * Face-to-face interactions
Asynchronous transmission
In asynchronous transmission, data moves in a half-paired approach, 1 byte or 1 character at
a time. It sends the data in a constant current of bytes. The size of a character transmitted is
8 bits, with a parity bit added both at the beginning and at the end, making it a total of 10
bits. It doesn’t need a clock for integration—rather, it utilizes the parity bits to tell the
receiver how to translate the data.
It is straightforward, quick, cost-effective, and doesn’t need 2-way communication to
function.

Characteristics of Asynchronous Transmission

• Each character is headed by a beginning bit and concluded with one or more end bits.
• There may be gaps or spaces in between characters.
Examples of Asynchronous Transmission
* Emails * Forums * Letters
Comparison
Point of Comparison Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

Definition Transmits data in the form Transmits 1 byte or

of chunks or frames character at a time
Speed of Transmission Quick Slow
Cost Expensive Cost-effective
Time Interval Constant Random
Gaps between the data? Yes No
Examples Chat Rooms, Telephonic Email, Forums, Letters
Conversations, Video
Conferencing
compare the types of network
topologies, (i.e. star, ring, bus, mesh
and tree) with the help of diagrams;
SLO # 5.1.9
Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement,

connecting various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

Types of topologies:
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Tree
5. Mesh
Bus topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is
called Linear Bus topology.
Bus topology
Advantages of Bus Topology
• It is cost effective.
• Cable required is least compared to
other network topology.
• Used in small networks.
• It is easy to understand.
• Easy to expand joining two cables
together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
• Cables fails then whole network fails.
• If network traffic is heavy or nodes are
more the performance of the network
decreases.
• Cable has a limited length.
• It is slower than the ring topology.
Ring topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected
to another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two
neighbors for each device.
Ring topology
Advantages of Ring Topology
• Transmitting network is not affected
by high traffic or by adding more
nodes, as only the nodes having
tokens can transmit data.
• Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• Troubleshooting is difficult in ring
topology.
• Adding or deleting the computers
disturbs the network activity.
• Failure of one computer disturbs the
whole network.
Star topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub
through a cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are
connected to the central node.
Star topology
Advantages of Star Topology
• Fast performance with few nodes and
low network traffic.
• Hub can be upgraded easily.
• Easy to troubleshoot.
• Easy to setup and modify.
• Only that node is affected which has
failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Cost of installation is high.
• Expensive to use.
• If the hub fails then the whole
network is stopped because all the
nodes depend on the hub.
• Performance is based on the hub that
is it depends on its capacity.
Tree topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It
is also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the
hierarchy.
Tree topology

Advantages of Tree Topology Disadvantages of Tree Topology

• Extension of bus and star topologies. • Heavily cabled.
• Expansion of nodes is possible and • Costly.
easy. • If more nodes are added maintenance
• Easily managed and maintained. is difficult.
• Error detection is easily done. • Central hub fails, network fails.
Mesh topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network
nodes are connected to each other.
Mesh topology
Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Each connection can carry its own
data load.
• It is robust.
• Fault is diagnosed easily.
• Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• Installation and configuration is
difficult.
• Cabling cost is more.
• Bulk wiring is required.
OSI Model;

SLO # 5.2
 differentiate among seven
layers of Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model;
SLO # 5.2.1
OSI Model

Layer 7 - Application
The Application Layer is the one at the top - it’s what most users see. In the OSI model, this
is the layer that is the “closest to the end user”. Applications that work at Layer 7 are the
ones that users interact with directly. A web browser (Google Chrome, Firefox, Safari, etc.)
or other app - Skype, Outlook, Office - are examples of Layer 7 applications.

Layer 6 - Presentation
The Presentation Layer represents the area that is independent of data representation at
the application layer - in general, it represents the preparation or translation of application
format to network format, or from network formatting to application format. In other
words, the layer “presents” data for the application or the network. A good example of this
is encryption and decryption of data for secure transmission - this happens at Layer 6.
OSI Model

Layer 5 - Session
When two devices, computers or servers need to “speak” with one another, a session
needs to be created, and this is done at the Session Layer. Functions at this layer involve
setup, coordination (how long should a system wait for a response, for example) and
termination between the applications at each end of the session.

Layer 4 – Transport
The Transport Layer deals with the coordination of the data transfer between end systems
and hosts. How much data to send, at what rate, where it goes, etc. The best known
example of the Transport Layer is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is built on
top of the Internet Protocol (IP), commonly known as TCP/IP. TCP and UDP port numbers
work at Layer 4, while IP addresses work at Layer 3, the Network Layer.
OSI Model

Layer 3 - Network
Here at the Network Layer is where you’ll find most of the router functionality that most
networking professionals care about and love. In its most basic sense, this layer is
responsible for packet forwarding, including routing through different routers. You might
know that your Boston computer wants to connect to a server in California, but there are
millions of different paths to take. Routers at this layer help do this efficiently.

Layer 2 – Data Link

The Data Link Layer provides node-to-node data transfer (between two directly connected
nodes), and also handles error correction from the physical layer. Two sublayers exist here
as well - the Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. In
the networking world, most switches operate at Layer 2.
OSI Model

Layer 1 - Physical
At the bottom of our OSI bean dip we have the Physical Layer, which represents the
electrical and physical representation of the system. This can include everything from the
cable type, radio frequency link (as in an 802.11 wireless systems), as well as the layout of
pins, voltages and other physical requirements. When a networking problem occurs, many
networking pros go right to the physical layer to check that all of the cables are properly
connected and that the power plug hasn’t been pulled from the router, switch or
computer, for example.
identify protocols and devices
used on every layer of OSI
model;
SLO # 5.2.2
 Protocols and Devices used on every layer of OSI model
Layer Devices used on layer Protocols used on layer
Physical layer Hubs, Repeaters, Cables, Fibers, Bluetooth, PON, OTN,
Wireless.. DSL, IEEE.802.11, IEEE.802.3, L431 and TIA 449.

Data-link layer Bridges, Modems, Network cards, ARP, CSLIP, HDLC, IEEE.802.3, PPP, X-25, SLIP,
2-layer switches. ATM, SDLS and PLIP.

Network layer Routers, Brouters, 3-layer switches. Internet Protocol (IPv4), Internet Protocol (IPv6),
IPX, AppleTalk, ICMP, IPSec and IGMP.

Transport layer Gateways, Firewalls. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), UDP, SPX,
DCCP and SCTP.

Session layer Gateways, Firewalls, PC’s. PPTP, SAP, L2TP and NetBIOS.

Presentation layer Gateways, Firewalls, PC’s. XDR, TLS, SSL and MIME.

Application layer Gateways, Firewalls, all end devices like HTTP, SMTP, DHCP, FTP, Telnet, SNMP and SMPP.
PC’s, Phones, Servers..
TCP/ IP Protocol Architecture;

SLO # 5.3
define Transmission Control
Protocol/ Internet Protocol
(TCP/ IP) architecture;
SLO # 5.3.1
What is TCP/IP Model?

TCP/IP helps you to determine how a specific computer should be connected

to the internet and how data should be transmitted between them. It helps
you to create a virtual network when multiple computer networks are
connected together.
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It is
specifically designed as a model to offer highly reliable and end-to-end byte
stream over an unreliable internetwork.
describe function of each layer
of TCP/ IP protocol architecture;
SLO # 5.3.2
Layers of TCP/IP Model

The functionality of the TCP/IP model is divided into

four layers, and each includes specific protocols.

TCP/IP is a layered server architecture system in which

each layer is defined according to a specific function to
perform. All these four layers work collaboratively to
transmit the data from one layer to another.

Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
Network Interface TCP/IP Conceptual Layers
Application Layer
Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of OSI model. The
application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-user. It means the OSI application layer
allows users to interact with other software application.
Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a communicating component.
The interpretation of data by the application program is always outside the scope of the OSI model.
Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email, remote login, etc.

The function of the Application Layer are:

• Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners, determining resource
availability, and synchronizing communication.
• It allows users to log on to a remote host
• This layer provides various e-mail services
• This application offers distributed database sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.
Transport Layer
Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport from a process on a source
system machine to a process on a destination system. It is hosted using single or multiple networks, and also
maintains the quality of service functions.
It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer builds on the message which
are received from the application layer. It helps ensure that data units are delivered error-free and in
sequence.
Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error control, and
segmentation or de-segmentation.
The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and sends the next
data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-known example of the transport layer.

The function of the Transport Layer are:

• It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and numbers them to make a
sequence.
• Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on the destination
machine.
• It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it should be retransmitted.
Internet Layer
An internet layer is a second layer of the TCP/IP model. It is also known as a network layer.
The main work of this layer is to send the packets from any network, and any computer still
they reach the destination irrespective of the route they take.
The Internet layer offers the functional and procedural method for transferring variable
length data sequences from one node to another with the help of various networks.
Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable network
layer protocol.

Layer-management protocols that belong to the network layer are:

• Routing protocols
• Multicast group management
• Network-layer address assignment.
Network Interface Layer

Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is also called
a network access layer. It helps you to defines details of how data should be sent using the
network.
It also includes how bits should optically be signaled by hardware devices which directly
interfaces with a network medium, like coaxial, optical, coaxial, fiber, or twisted-pair
cables.
A network layer is a combination of the data line and defined in the article of OSI reference
model. This layer defines how the data should be sent physically through the network. This
layer is responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same
network.
compare the TCP/ IP model with
the OSI model;
SLO # 5.3.3
OSI Model TCP/IP model
It is developed by ISO (International Standard Organization) It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
Agency Network).
OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection. TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
OSI uses the network layer to define routing standards and TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
protocols.

OSI model use two separate layers physical and data link to TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
define the functionality of the bottom layers.

OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.

In the OSI model, the data link layer and physical are
separate layers.
Session and presentation layers are not a part of the TCP
model.
It is defined after the advent of the Internet.
In TCP, physical and data link are both combined as a single
host-to-network layer.
There is no session and presentation layer in TCP model.
It is defined before the advent of the internet.

The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. Minimum header size is 20 bytes.
 differentiate between circuits
switching and packet switching
with examples;
SLO # 5.3.4
Circuit switching and Packet switching

Circuit switching and packet switching are the two switching methods that are
used to connect the multiple communicating devices with one another. Circuit
Switching was particularly designed for voice communication and it was less
suitable for data transmission. So, a better solution evolved for data
transmission called Packet switching.

The main difference between circuit switching and packet switching is

that Circuit Switching is connection oriented whereas, Packet
Switching is connectionless.
Comparison
BASIS FOR COMPARISON CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Orientation Connection oriented.
Purpose Initially designed for Voice
communication.
Flexibility Inflexible, because once a path is
set all parts of a transmission
follows the same path.
Order Message is received in the order,
sent from the source.
Technology/Approach Circuit switching can be achieved
using two technologies, either
Space Division Switching or
Time-Division Switching.
Layers Circuit Switching is implemented at Packet Switching is implemented at
Physical Layer.
PACKET SWITCHING
Connectionless.
Initially designed for Data Transmission.
Flexible, because a route is created for
each packet to travel to the destination.
Packets of a message are received out
of order and assembled at the
destination.
Packet Switching has two approaches
Datagram Approach and Virtual Circuit
Approach.
Network Layer.
differentiate between Internet
Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and
Internet Protocol version 6
(IPv6);
SLO # 5.3.5
What is IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)?

IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol
(IP) used to identify devices on a network through an addressing system. The
Internet Protocol is designed for use in interconnected systems of
packet-switched computer communication networks.

IPv4 is the most widely deployed Internet protocol used to connect devices to
the Internet. IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing for a total of 2^32
addresses (just over 4 billion addresses). With the growth of the Internet it is
expected that the number of unused IPv4 addresses will eventually run out
because every device -- including computers, smartphones and game
consoles -- that connects to the Internet requires an address.
What is IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)?
What is IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)?
IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6) is the latest internet protocol designed to
replace IPv4 due to the network shortage of addresses. It was first defined by
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in 1996. IPv6 addresses are 128 bits
(16 bytes) long, as opposed to 32 bits. With IPv4, there was only about 4.2
billion addresses available, with IPv6 there 2 to the power of 128, which if laid
out in numbers ends up looking like this:
340,282,366,920,938,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.

The following is an example of an IPv6 address for

www.google.com: 2607:f8b0:4005:804::200e.
What is IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)?
 Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6
• IPv4 is 32-Bit IP address.
• IPv4 is a numeric addressing
method.
• IPv4 binary bits are separated by a
dot(.).
• IPv4 supports broadcast.
• IPv4 offers five different classes of
IP Address. Class A to E.
• Example of IPv4 is 12.244.233.165
• IPv6 is a 128-Bit IP address.
• IPv6 is an alphanumeric addressing
method.
• IPv6 binary bits are separated by a
colon(:).
• IPv6 doesn’t support broadcast.
• lPv6 allows storing an unlimited
number of IP Address.
• Example of IPv6 is
2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:00
42:7879
identify the class of an IPv4
address on the basis of IP
range;

SLO # 5.3.6
Range of IPv4 address on the basis of IP range

Class Address range

Class A 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254
Class B 128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254
Class C 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254
Class D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Class E 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254