SENSORS
Khushi Manipal,India
Electronics subsystem
TeamKarting Manipal
I. CRANKSHAFT POSITION SENSOR
A. Principle
Hall effect
B. Location
Crankshaft
C. Working
• Magnetic Reluctance Sensor: The magnetic
reluctance sensor operates based on changes in
the magnetic field as the teeth or notches on a
toothed wheel attached to the crankshaft pass by
a magnetic pickup. This sensor consists of a coil
or winding of wire wound around a magnetic
core. As the teeth or notches approach the
magnetic pickup, the magnetic field strength
changes, inducing a voltage in the coil. The
voltage signal is then converted into a digital
signal and sent to the ECM for processing.
• Hall Effect Sensor: The Hall effect sensor uses
the Hall effect phenomenon to detect changes in
magnetic fields. It consists of a semiconductor
material through which a constant current
flows. When a magnetic field is present, the
movement of the electrons within the
semiconductor material is affected, resulting in
a change in voltage across the sensor. The Hall
effect sensor is typically placed in close
proximity to a toothed wheel or a magnet
attached to the crankshaft. As the teeth or
magnetic poles pass by the sensor, the voltage
output changes. This voltage signal is then
processed by the ECM to determine the
crankshaft's position and speed.
• Optical Sensor: The optical sensor employs a
light source and a light-sensitive receiver to
detect the movement of teeth or slots on a
toothed wheel or a disc attached to the
crankshaft. The toothed wheel or disc has
alternating transparent and opaque areas. The
light source emits a beam of light that passes
through or is interrupted by the transparent and
opaque areas as the wheel or disc rotates. The
light-sensitive receiver detects the changes in
light intensity and converts them into electrical
signals. These signals are sent to the ECM,
which interprets them to determine the
crankshaft's position and speed.
D. Wires
The Crankshaft sensor comes with three wires:
• Reference voltage wire: wire receives the power
from the ECU with a voltage of 5V (or 12V).
• Signal wire: goes from the sensor to the ECU.
• Ground
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II. CAMSHAFT POSITION SENSOR
A. Principle
Hall effect
B. Location
Camshaft
C. Working
• Hall Effect Sensor: A Hall effect camshaft
position sensor operates based on the Hall effect
phenomenon, which involves the interaction
between a magnetic field and a semiconductor
material. The sensor consists of a permanent
magnet, a Hall effect sensor element
(semiconductor), and a reluctor wheel attached
to the camshaft. As the reluctor wheel rotates
with the camshaft, it contains notches or teeth
that pass by the Hall effect sensor element. The
permanent magnet generates a magnetic field,
and when a notch or tooth approaches the Hall
effect sensor, it alters the magnetic field
strength around the sensor. The presence or
absence of a notch or tooth changes the
electrical characteristics of the semiconductor
material in the Hall effect sensor. This change
in the magnetic field induces a voltage in the
Hall effect sensor, which is detected as a signal
by the ECM. The ECM processes the signal
from the Hall effect sensor to determine the
position and speed of the camshaft. It uses this
information to synchronize fuel injection,
ignition timing, and other engine control
functions accurately.
• Magnetic Reluctance Sensor: A magnetic
reluctance camshaft position sensor relies on
changes in the magnetic field due to variations
in the distance between the sensor and a
rotating target wheel attached to the camshaft.
The sensor consists of a coil or winding of wire
wound around a magnetic core. The target
wheel contains teeth or notches that pass near
the magnetic reluctance sensor as the camshaft
rotates. The teeth or notches alter the magnetic
field around the sensor, resulting in changes in
the inductance of the coil. These changes in
inductance induce a voltage in the coil, which is
detected as a signal by the ECM. The ECM
processes the signal to determine the position
and speed of the camshaft and adjusts the
engine control parameters accordingly.
D. Wires
The Camshaft sensor comes with three wires:
• Reference voltage wire: wire receives the power
from the ECU with a voltage of 5V (or 12V).
• Signal wire: goes from the sensor to the ECU.
 • Ground : goes to ECM
III. COOLANT TEMPERATURE SENSOR
A. Principle
Thermistor(As temperature increases resistance decreases)
B. Location
Next to a thermostat or inside it
C. Working
A coolant sensor, or car temperature sensor, is similar to
a thermistor; it is based on the working principle that a
change in electrical resistance will be the direct product of a
change in the temperature of a wire carrying current.
The coolant temperature sensor typically contains a
temperature-sensitive element, such as a thermistor or a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) resistor. These
elements exhibit a change in electrical resistance as the
temperature varies. As the temperature increases, the
electrical resistance decreases. The coolant temperature
sensor is connected in a circuit, typically in a voltage divider
configuration. The sensor forms a part of the voltage divider
circuit, along with a fixed resistor. The voltage divider
circuit divides the supply voltage, providing a variable
voltage output based on the resistance of the coolant
temperature sensor. As the coolant temperature changes, the
resistance of the sensing element also changes accordingly.
This, in turn, affects the voltage division in the circuit. The
output voltage from the sensor circuit will vary depending
on the coolant temperature. Higher temperatures will result
in a lower voltage output, while lower temperatures will
yield a higher voltage output. The voltage output from the
coolant temperature sensor is then interpreted by the engine
control unit (ECU). The ECU uses calibration data and a
lookup table to convert the voltage into a corresponding
temperature value. This allows the ECU to accurately
determine the coolant temperature. The ECU uses the
coolant temperature data to make decisions regarding fuel
injection, ignition timing, and other engine functions.
D. Wires
Modern or “digital” crankshaft position sensors have three
wires. Two wires provide power and ground that is typically
5-volts. The third wire is a signal wire. The signal wire will
switch between 0 and 5 volts. The switching should be
square with no slope.    When the throttle is closed, the sensor output
IV. FUEL PRESSURE SENSOR
A. Principle
Piezoresistive effect
B. Location
near the center of the fuel rail
C. Working
The function of the fuel rail pressure sensor stops the fuel
from getting wasted by staying inside the fuel line. In
general, the fuel rail pressure sensor works using checking
the internal pressure of the rail. It consists of a sensing
element often made of piezoresistive material(the materials
resistance changes as it undergoes mechanical deformation)
which is exposed to fuel pressure and a transducer that
converts the mechanical deformation into an electrical
signal. Fuel flowing through the system exerts pressure on
the sensing element of the sensor and this applied pressure
causes it to deform and resulting in a change in its
resistance. The change in resistance is directly proportional
to applied pressure. This change in resistance is measured by
transducer and it converts the resistive change into electrical
signal such as voltage or current which is then sent to ECU.
ECU compares this data to desired fuel pressure and based
on that it adjusts functioning of fuel system.
D. Wires
• Reference voltage wire: wire receives the power
from the ECU with a voltage of 5V (or 12V).
• Signal wire: goes from the sensor to the ECU.
• Ground
V. THROTTLE POSITION SENSOR
A. Principle
Hall effect and Potentiometer
B. Location
Throttle Body
C. Types
1. Hall Throttle position sensor: It is mainly
composed of Hall elements and magnets, with
magnets being mounted on the throttle axis and
can be rotated around the Hall element.  When
the throttle opening is changed, the magnet
rotates, thereby changing the relative position
between the Hall element. The Hall circuit
converts the change in the magnetic flux into an
electrical signal and outputs it to the ECM in the
form of the throttle position signal.The throttle
position sensor has two sensor circuits: VTA1
and VTA2, each emission a signal. VTA1 is used
to detect throttle opening, and VTA2 is used to
detect VTA1 failures. The sensor signal voltage is
proportional to the throttle opening and is varied
between 0 to 5V and transmitted to the ECM
terminals VTA1 and VTA2.
voltage is lowered; when the throttle is opened,
the sensor output voltage rises. ECM calculates
the throttle opening according to these signals
and controls the throttle effector to respond to the
driver input. 
2. Potentiometer throttle position sensor : TPS
consists of a variable resistor or a potentiometer
that is connected to the throttle shaft. As the driver
presses on the accelerator pedal, the throttle valve
opens or closes. Inside a TPS there is a
potentiometer.The wiper of the potentiometer is
connected to the throttle shaft so that its position
changes with movement of the throttle. This
movement creates a voltage divider circuit which
 produces output voltage. The TPS sends this
voltage signal to the ECM which varies with the
position of the throttle valve. The ECM uses this
signal to adjust the air-fuel mixture.
D. Wires
 Signal wire: This wire carries the voltage
signal from the TPS to the engine control
module (ECM) or electronic control unit
(ECU). It provides information about the
throttle position to the ECM/ECU,
allowing it to adjust fuel delivery and
engine performance accordingly.
 Ground wire: This wire provides the
electrical ground connection for the TPS.
It completes the circuit and ensures proper
functioning of the sensor.
 Reference voltage wire: This wire
supplies the reference voltage to the TPS.
The ECM/ECU sends a specific voltage
level to the TPS, which the sensor uses as
a baseline to measure throttle position
changes.
VI. INTAKE AIR TEMPERATURE SENSOR
A. Principle
Temperature is inversely proportional to resistance
(Thermistor)
B. Location
Intake manifold
C. Working
The working principle behind an intake air sensor, also
known as an intake air temperature sensor (IAT sensor),
is to measure the temperature of the air entering the
engine's intake system. The intake air sensor typically
consists of a thermistor or temperature-sensitive
resistor. The thermistor's electrical resistance changes in
response to temperature variations. The IAT sensor is
usually located in the intake manifold or air intake duct,
where it can accurately measure the temperature of the
incoming air. When the engine is cold, the intake air is
colder, and the resistance of the IAT sensor is higher.
As the engine warms up and the intake air temperature
rises, the resistance of the sensor decreases. The ECU or
engine management system reads the resistance value
from the IAT sensor through an electrical connection.
Based on this information, the ECU can calculate the
density of the intake air, which is directly influenced by
its temperature. The ECU uses this data to adjust the
air-fuel mixture.
D. Wires
An intake air temperature sensor or IAT sensor has the
following two wires.
 5-Volt Reference Wire : A positive current is
supplied from the ECU to the IAT sensor and
goes back through the ground wire. A 5-volt is
sent to the intake air temperature sensor
through a 5-volt reference wire.
 Ground Wire: the resistor opposes the current
according to the temperature, the higher the
temperature, the lower the resistance, and vice
versa. And the remaining current from the IAT
sensor goes back to the ECU through
the ground wire.
VII. LAMBDA SENSOR
A. Principle
Redox Reaction
B. Location
Exhaust system
C. WOEKING:
The lambda sensor or oxygen sensor working principle is
based on ionization, which leads to producing their own
voltage. The exhaust gas in the manifold of the exhaust
contains oxygen molecules that hit the sensing element after
flowing through the holes in the steel shell. Meanwhile, the
outside atmospheric air is made to flow through the gaps
between the cables at the end of the sensor. The heater core
inside the lambda sensor heats the atmospheric air outside of
the exhaust manifold. This heated air enables the ions
(electric charge) to produce voltage.So, when the exhaust
emission flows through the lambda sensor inside the exhaust
pipe, the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere will be
high compared to the remaining oxygen molecules present
in the exhaust emission.This difference in concentration of
the oxygen ions in the exhaust gas and the atmospheric air
produces ions from higher concentrations to lower
concentrations. These oxygen ions’ movement generates
voltage difference and causes to build in the voltage in the
sensing element.
D. Types
1. Wideband lambda sensor:
 Heater Control: This wire, often colored
white, supplies power to the heater
element within the sensor. The heater
helps to bring the sensor up to operating
temperature quickly.
 Heater Ground: The heater ground wire,
usually colored black, provides the ground
connection for the heater element.
 Signal +: The signal wire, often colored
gray or black, carries the output voltage
signal from the sensor. It provides
information about the air-fuel ratio to the
engine control unit (ECU) or engine
management system.
 Signal Ground: The signal ground wire,
typically colored white with a black stripe,
provides the ground connection for the
signal wire.
2. Narrow band lambda sensor:
 Signal: The signal wire, usually colored
white, carries the output voltage signal
 from the sensor. This signal voltage is
used by the engine control unit (ECU) or
engine management system to make
adjustments to the air-fuel mixture. REFERENCES
 Ground: The ground wire, often colored [1] https://automobiletech11.in/camshaft-position-sensor/#:~:text=Three
%20wires%20are%20used%20in,for%20the%20timing%20of%20th
black, provides the ground connection for
the sensor.
[2.] https://autoditex.com/page/lambda-sensor-o2-sensor-21-1.html