MODULE 4:

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INTERPRETATION

Introduction:
One of the most important uses of data analysis is that it helps in keeping human bias away from
research conclusion with the help of proper statistical treatment. With the help of data analysis a
researcher can filter both qualitative and quantitative data for an assignment writing projects. Thus, it
can be said that data analysis is of utmost importance for both the research and the researcher. For
any research, data analysis is very important as it provides an explanation of various concepts, theories,
frameworks and methods used. It eventually helps in arriving at conclusions and proving the
hypothesis. Furthermore, it is also important to consider the different ways of presenting the data.
Presenting the data includes the pictorial representation of the data by using graphs, charts, maps and
other methods. These methods help in adding the visual aspect to data which makes it much more
comfortable and easy to understand.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

A. Collect data using appropriate instruments;
B. Present and interpret data in tabular and graphical forms; and
C. Use statistical techniques to analyze data – study of differences and relationships
limited for bivariate analysis

CONCEPT EXPLANATION:

STEPS IN QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Having identified the measurement scale or level of your data means you are now ready to analyze
the data in this manner (Badke 2012; Letherby 2013; Mc Bride 2013):

STEP 1: Preparing the data

Keep in mind that no data organization means no sound data analysis. Hence, pepare the data
for analysis by first doing these two preparatory sub steps:

1. Coding System
 Coding is the process/operation by which the data/responses are organized into
classes/categories and numerals or other symbols are given to each item according to
the class in which it falls.
 Coding involves two impotant operations: (1) deciding the categories to be used and (2)
allocating individual answers to them.
 These categories should be appropriate to the research problem, exhaustive of the data,
mutually exclusive and uni-directional.
 Since the coding eliminates much of information in the raw data, it is important that
researchers design category sets carefully in order to utilize the available data more fully.

Examples:

VARIABLE CODE
1. Gender 1 – male
2 – female
 2. Educational attainment 2 – elementary
4 – high school
6 – college
9 – MA level
12 – Ph.D. level
3. Strand A – ABM
B – STEM
C – HUMSS
D – TVL
2. Data Tabulation
 Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it in compact form for
further analysis. Therefore, preparing tables is a very important step.
 Tabulation may be by hand, mechanical or electronic. The choice is made largely on the
basis of the size and type of study, alternative costs, time pressures, and the availability
of computers, and computer programmes.
 Tables may be divided into:
1. Frequency tables
2. Response tables
3. Contingency tables
4. Uni-variate tables
5. Bi-variate tables
6. Statistival tables
7. Time series tables
 Generally, a research table has the following parts:
a. Table number
b. Title of the table
c. Caption
d. Stub (row he ading)
e. Body
f. Head note
g. Foot note
 As a general rule, the following criteria are necessary in the preparation of tables:
 Title of table: The table should be first given a brief, simple, and clear title which
may express the basis of classification.
 Columns and rows: Ecah table should be prepared in just adequate number of
columns and rows.
 Captions and stubs: The columns and rows should be given simple and clear
captions and stubs.
 Ruling: Columns and rows should be divided by means of thin or thick rulings.
 Arrangement of items: Comparable figures should be arranged side by side and
should be accrding to the poblem.
 Deviations: These should be arranged in the cloumn near the original data so that
their presence may easily be noted.
 Size of columns: This should be according to the requirement.
 Special emphasis: This can be done by writing important data in bold special
letters.
 Unit of measurement: The unit should be noted below the lines.
 Approximation: This should also be noted below the title.
 Footnotes: These may be given below the table.
 Total: Totals of each column and grand total should be in one line.
 Source: Source of data must be given. For primary data, write primary data.

Example:
Total sample size: 24

Table 1. Satisfaction of attendees during the 2016 Summer Arts Seminar-

Workshop

Gender Male: 11 (46%)

 Female: 13 (54%)
Strand ABM: 9 (37%)
STEM: 6 (25%)
HUMSS: 4 (17%)
TVL: 5 (20%)
School UCV: 3 (12%)
USL: 4 (17%)
SPUP: 3 (12%)
ISAP: 5 (20%)
F.L. VARGAS: 4 (17%)
JOHN WESLEY: 5 (20%)
Attended in 2016 Summer Arts YES: 18 (75%)
Seminar-Workshop NO: 6 (25%)
Role in the 2016 Seminar-Workshop Speaker: 4 (17%)
on Arts Organizer: 3 (12%)
Demonstrator: 5 (20%)
Participant: 12 (50%)
Satisfaction with the demostration and Strongly agree: 11 (46%)
practice exercises Agree: 5 (20%)
Neutral: 2 (8%)
Disagree: 4 (14%)
Strongly disagree: 2 (8%)
STEP 2: Analyzing the Data
Data coding and tabulation are the two important things you have to do in preparing the data
for analyis. Before immersing yourself into studying every component of the data, decide on what kind
of quantitative analysis you have to use, whether simple descriptive statistical techniques or advance
analytical methods. Thus, the following give further explanations about two quantitative data analysis
techniques. (De Mey 2013; Litchtman 2013; Picardie 2014)

1. Descriptive Statistical Technique

 This quantitative data analysis technique provides a summary of the orderly or sequential
data obtained from the sample through the data-gathering instrument used.
 The results of the analysis reveal the following aspects of an item in a set of data (Morgan
2014; Punch 2014; Walsh 2010).

A. Frequency Distribution
- Gives you the frequency of distribution and percentage of the occurence of an item in a
set of data.
- It gives you the number of responses given repeatedly for one question.
Example:
Question: Do you find the Senators’ attendance in 2015 legislative
sessions unpleasant?
Measurement Frequency Percent
Code
Scale Distribution Distribution
Strongly agree 1 14 58%
Agree 2 3 12%
Neutral 3 2 8%
Disagree 4 1 4%
Strongly
5 4 17%
disagree

B. Measure of Central Tendency

- Indicates the different positions or values of the items, such that in a category of data,
find an item or items serving as the:
1. Mean – average of all the items or scores
Example: 3 + 8 + 9 + 2+ 3 + 10 + 3 = 38
38 ÷ 7 = 5.43 (Mean)
2. Median – the score in the middle of the set of items that cuts or divides the set into
two groups.
  Note that if the total number of raw scores is an even number, get the sum of
the two middle most terms in the set of data then divide the sum into two.
Example: 3, 8, 9, 2, 3, 10, 3 (arrange from least to greatest or vice
versa)
2, 3, 3, 3, 8, 9, 10 3 is the median
3. Mode – refers to the item or score in the data set that has the most repeated
appearance in the set.
Example: 3, 8, 9, 2, 3, 10, 3 3 is the mode

C. Standard Deviation
- Shows the extent of the difference of the data from the mean.
- Describes how scattered the data are with respect to the mean of the given data.
- An examination of this gap between the mean and the data gives you an idea about the
extent of the similarities and differences between the respondents.
- In computing the standard deviation, use the formula:
∑(𝑋−𝑋̅ )2
𝜎=√ Where: X =raw score
𝑁−1
𝑋̅ = mean
N = number of raw scores
Example:
X 𝑿−𝑿 ̅ ̅ )𝟐
(𝑿 − 𝑿
3 -2.2 4.84
7 1.8 3.24
4 1.2 1.44
8 2.8 7.84
2 -3.2 10.24
1 -4.2 17.64
5 -0.2 0.04
6 0.8 0.64
9 3.8 14.44
7 1.8 3.24
𝑋̅ = 5.2
̅ )2 = 63.6
∑(𝑋 − 𝑋
∑(𝑋 − 𝑋̅)2 63.6
𝜎=√ =√ = √7.067 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟔
𝑁−1 10 − 1

2. Advanced Quantitative Analytical Methods

An analysis of quantitative data that involves the use of more complex statistical methods.
Some of the advanced methods of quantitative data analysis are the following (Argyrous 2011;
Levin and Fox 2014; Godwin 2014)

A. Correlation
- Uses statistical analysis to yield results that describe the relationship of two varibales.
- The results, however, are incapable of establishing causal relationships.

B. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

- The results of this statistical analysis are used to determine if the difference in the
means or the averages of two categories of data are statistically significant.
Example: If the mean of the grades of a student attending tutorial lessons is
significantly different from the mean of the grades of a student not attending tutorial
lessons.

C. Regression
- Has some similarities with correlation, in that, it also shows the nature of relationship of
variables, but gives more extensive result than that of correlation.
 - Aside from indicating the presence of relationship between two variables, it determines
whether a variable is capable of predicting the strength of the relation between the
treatment (independent variable) and the outcome (dependent variable).
- Just like correlation, regression is incapable of establishing cause-effect relationshipa.
Example: If reviewing with music (treatment variable) is a statistically significant
predictor of the extent of the concept of learning (outcome variable) of a person.

STATISTICAL METHODOLOGIES
Statistics demands much of your time and effort, for it is not merely a matter of collecting and
examining data, but involves analysis, planning, interpreting, and organizing data in relation to the
design of the research study you chose. Statistical methods then are ways of gathering, analyzing, and
interpreting variable or fluctuating numerical data.
1. Descriptive Statistics
 This describes a certain aspect of a data set by making you calculate the measures of
central tendency and standard deviation.
 It tells about the placement or position of one data item in relation to the other data, the
extent of the distribution or spreading out of data.
 This kind of statistics does not tell anything about the population.
2. Inferential Statistics
 Inferential statistics is a branch of statistics that focuses on conclusions, generalizations,
predictions, interpretations, hypotheses, and the like.
 This statistical method is not as simple as the descriptive statistics.
 This does not focus itself only on the features of the category of set, but also on the
characteristics of the sample that are also true for the population from where you have
drawn the sample.
 Your analysis begins with the sample, then, based on your findings about the sample,
you make inferences or assumptions about the population.

TYPES OF STATISTICAL DATA ANALYSIS

The types of statistical analysis of variables in a quantitative research are as
follows:

1. Univariate Analysis - analysis of one variable.

2. Bivariate Analysis - analysis of two variables (independent and
dependent variables).
3. Multivariate Analysis - analysis of multiple relations between multiple
variables.

STATISTICAL METHODS OF BIVARIATE ANALYSIS

Bivariate analysis happens by means of the following methods (Argyrous 2011; Babbie 2013;
Punch 2014):

A. Correlation or Covariation (correlated variation)

 Describes the relationship between two variables and also tests the strength or
significance of their linear relation.
 This is a relationship that makes both variables getting the same score or one getting a
higher score and the other one, a lower score.
 Covariance is the statistical term to measure the extent of the change in the
relationship of two random variables.
 Random variables are data with varied values like those ones in the interval level or
scale (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree) whose values depend
on the arbitrariness or subjectivity of the respondent.

B. Cross Tabulation
 Is also called "crosstab or students-contingency table" that follows the format of a
matrix (plural: matrices) that is made up of lines of numbers, symbols, and other
expressions.
 Similar to one type of graph called table, matrix arranges data in rows and columns. By
displaying the frequency and percentage distribution of data, a crosstab explains the
 reason behind the relationship of two variables and the effect of one variable on the
other variable.
 If the Table compares data on only two variables, such table is called Bivariate Table
Example of a Bivariate Table:
SECONDARY SCHOOLS PARTICIPANTS IN THE 2019 SEMINAR-WORKSHOP ON
ROBOTICS
SCHOOL MALE FEMALE ROW TOTAL

120 101
CNHS 221
(14.8%) (12.2%)

102 93
LNHS 195
(12.6%) (11.3%)

152 120
TCSHS 272
(18.7%) (14.5%)

79 99
ISAP 178
(9.7) (12%)

61 79
UCV 140
(7.5%) (9.5%)

81 58
SPUP 139
(10%) (7%)

59 48
USL 107
(7.2%) (5.8%)

83 98
F.L. VARGAS 181
(10.2%) (11.9%)

69 127
JOHN WESLEY 196
(8.5%) (15.4%)

COLUMN 806 823

1629
TOTAL: (100%) (100%)

MEASURE OF CORRELATION
The following are the statistical tests to measure correlation or covariation.
1. Correlation Coefficient
 This is a measure of the strength and direction of the linear relationship between variables
and likewise gives the extent of dependence between two variables; meaning, the effect of
one variable on the other variable.
 This is determined through the following statistical tests for Correlation Coefficient (Argyrous
2011; Creswell 2014; Levin & Fox 2014):

A. Spearman's rho (Spearman's r, or r)

- The test to measure the dependence of the dependent variable on the independent
variable.
 B. Pearson product-moment correlation (Pearson's r, r or R)
- It measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship of two variables and of
the association between interval and ordinal data.

C. Chi-square
- It is the statistical test for bivariate analysis of nominal variables, specifically, to test the
null hypothesis.
- It tests whether or not a relationship exists between or among variables and tells the
probability that the relationship is caused by chance.
- This cannot in any way show the extent of the association between two variables.

D. T-test
- Evaluates the probability that the mean of the sample reflects the mean of the
population from where the sample was drawn.
- It also tests the difference between two means: the sample mean and the population
mean.
E. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
- Uses t-test to determine the variance or the difference between the predicted number of
the sample and the actual measurement.
- The ANOVA is of various types such as the following:
1. One-way Analysis of Variance
- Study of the effects of the independent variable
2. Analysis of Covariation (ANCOVA)
- Study of two or more dependent variables that are correlated with one another
3. Multiple Analysis of Covariation (MANCOVA)
- Multiple analyses of one or more independent variables and one dependent variable
to see if the independent variables affect one nother.

2. Regression
 Similar to correlation, regression determines the existence of variable relationships, but
does more than this by determining the following:
1. Which between the independent and dependent variable can signal the presence of
another variable?
2. How strong the relationship between the two variables are?
3. when an independent variable is statistically significant as a predictor?

PRESENTATION OF DATA
 What is presentation of data?
- It refers to the organization of informationsuch as measurements, numbers, names,
observations, etc. in a certain way.
- It ca either be in textual, graphical, or tabular manner, depending on the purpose of
presentation and the nature of data to be presented.
- This part of study is very important since the result of the data gathering can be well
appreciated and understood based on how the researcher summarizes and presents the
data gathered.

METHODS OF PRESENTING DATA:

1. Textual Presentation
 This is the technique in a paragraph form.
 In this technique, it does not necessary mean that the presentation consists of words
only but figures can also be used as part of the presentation.
2. Tabular Presentation
 This is another way in presenting data.
 In this technique, the data are summarized using tables.
 There are several ways on how data are presented using tables. These are:

A. Frequency Table/Frequency and Percentage Distribution table

- A frequency or relative frequency is used to summarize categorical, nominal, and
ordinal data.
 - It is also used to summarize continuous data when the data set has been divided
into meaningful groups.
- The number associated with each category is called “frequency”.
- Relative frequency is a number which describes the proportion of observations
falling in a given category. Instead of counts, we report relative frequencies or
percentages.
Example:
The table below shows the distribution of male and female senior high school
students who are enrolled in International School of Asia and the Pacific. The population
is 500 students.

GENDER FREQUENCY
Male 150
Female 350

𝐹
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (%) = × 100%
𝑁
150
𝑀𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (%) = × 100% = 30%
500
350
𝐹𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (%) = × 100% = 70%
500

GENDER FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

Male 150 30%
Female 350 70%

B. Contingency Table
- A contingency table cross tabulates data using two or more categorical variables
to allow for analysis of relationships between the variables.

Example:

Table C: Employee Time at Company (3 years) by Prior Related Experience Rating

Count of Prior Related

Stayed 3 years
Experience Rating
Prior Related Experience GRAND
NO YES
Rating TOTAL
Very good 8 6 14
Good 16 15 31
Fair 8 9 17
Minimal 2 2 4
Grand Total 34 32 66

3. Graphical Presentation
 This technique makes use of graphs/charts.
 There are different types of graphs/charts. These are:

A. Line Graph
- It shows relationship between two or more sets of quantities.
- In this technique, the values are plotted using dots which are called “markers”
to be connected together by line segments.
Example:
Present using a line graph the following data about number of enrollees in five
years at the MCNP.
 Year 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
No. of
900 1,100 1,050 1,500 850
enrollees

No. of enrollees
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
No. of enrollees
600
400
200
0
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

B. Bar Graph
- It is the graphical technique in which each value in the data is represented by
rectangular bars.
- The length of the bars indicates the measure of a certain value while its width
has a fixed size.

Example:
Present using a bar graph the following data about number of enrollees in each of
the strand offered in ISAP Senior High School Department.

STRAND STEM ABM HUMSS H.E. ICT IA

No. of
300 150 350 100 70 50
enrollees

No. of enrollees per strand

IA

ICT

H.E.

HUMSS No. of enrollees per strand

ABM

STEM

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

 C. Pie Graph/chart
- This is the type of graphical presentation to which a circle (or sometimes a
cylinder) is divided into several partitions with each partition characterizing
the categories of the data.

Example:
Present using a pie graph the following data about number of enrollees in
each of the grade level of junior high school department of ISAP.

GRADE GRADE
GRADE 7 GRADE 8 GRADE 9
LEVEL 10
No. of
50 57 63 75
enollees

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF JHS ENROLLEES

20.41%
30.61%
GRADE 7
23.27% GRADE 8

25.71% GRADE 9
GRADE 10

D. XY Scatter Plot or Scatter Graph/Chart

- This type of graph should be used with two variables when both of the
variables are quantitative and continuous.
- Plot pairs of values using the rectangular coordinate system to examine the
relationship between two values.

Example:

WORKER
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6
HOURS
LOT SIZE 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.1

WORKER-HOURS BY LOT SIZE

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4 WORKER-HOURS BY LOT SIZE

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
 MODULE 5:
WRITING SUMMAY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction:
The last chapter of the research paper consists of the summary of findings, conclusions,and
recommendations. Because of its importance, this chapter also forms part of the abstracts of theses
and dissertations.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

A. Write a summary of findings;
B. Draw conclusions from the research findings; and
C. Formulate recommendations based on the conclusion made.

CONCEPT EXPLANATION:

GUIDELINES IN WRITING SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
To write the summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations, a researcher should observe
the following guidelines offered by Calderon and Gonzales (1993) in their book Methods of Research
and Thesis Writing.

What are findings?

- These are the principal outcomes of a research project.
- These usually refer to the totality of outcomes, rather than the conclusions or
recommendations drawn from them.

 GUIDELINES IN WRITING SUMMARY OF FINDINGS:

1. State briefly the main purpose of the study, the population or respondents, the period of the
study, method of research used, the reserach instrument, and the sampling procedure, with
no additional explanations.
2. Group together all the findings, keeping in mind to write all the specific questions in the order
they appear under the statement of the problem with the corresponding answers.
3. Summarize the findings in the form of textual generalizations, that is, meaningful statements
of facual data consisting of words (text), numbers, or statistical measures.
4. Include in the summary only those data which are important or which serves as highlights,
upon which the conclusions must be based.
5. State the findings in the most concise way, without explaining nor elaborating.
6. Do not introduce new data in the summary of findings.

What is a conclusion?
- A conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research shold matter.
- It is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your research problem but a
synthesis of key points.

 GUIDELINES IN WRITING CONCLUSIONS:

1. Base the conclusions upon the findings and write them as inferences, deductions,
abstractions, implications, interpretations, generalizations, or general statements without any
numerals.
 2. Answer the specific questions under the statement of the problem in the manner they are
sequenced.
3. Point out in this section of the research paper the knowledge, insights, and other things
learned factually from the inquiry.
4. Formulate the conclusions concisely such that they contain only the necessary information
resulting from the study.
5. State the conclusions categorically, manifesting no doubts about their reliability and validity.
6. Give reference to the population, area, or subject of the study.
7. Word the conclusions differently such that they do not appear to be mere repetitions of any
statements found in the thesis or research paper.

What is a recommendation?
- A recommendation is a critical suggestion regarding the best course of action in a certain
action.
- It provides a beneficial guide that will not only resolve certain issues, but result in a beneficial
outcome.
- It is based on the results of your research and indicate the specific measures or directions that
can be taken.
- It refers to the specific suggestions that you make with regard to further research on the
topic.

 GUIDELINES IN WRITING RECOMMENDATIONS:

1. Recommend solutions to the problem or problems discovered or discussed in the
investigation.
2. Do not recommend solutions to any problem that has never been discovered nor discussed
in the investigation.
3. Recommend for the continuance of a good practice or for the improvement of a system.
4. Recommend something that is ideal, yet feasible, practical, and attainable.
5. Write recommendations which are logical and valid.
6. Address the recommendations to those persons, entities, agencies, or offices who exercise
authority in the implementation of such recommendations.
7. Recommend to other researchers the conduct of further investigation on the same topic in
other to verify, amplify, or negate the findings of the study.