● Lowest place on Earth is Mariana Trench and the Dead Sea.

The trench contains

blind fish which no longer need eyes since dark.
● Tsunami caused by shake of the earth
● Beauty consisted of tapeworm eggs and corsets to slim waists (beauty isn’t always
healthy!)
● Coconuts are actually domesticated now, wild coconuts are larger with huge husk.
Why? In order to be buoyant, a smaller husk would just sink
● Primitive does not necessarily mean backwards. Actually had to be smarter since no
backup if something goes wrong.
● Polder
o Dutch word specifically pertaining to Holland/Netherlands
o Means we all have to get along, even if we don’t like each other
o Any events now in the world will affect Americans
▪ Somalian collapse meant American troops sent
▪ Diseases in Africa and Asia spread all across world
▪ As much as people like to separate themselves from world, will
experience our problems (like Greenland chiefs, will just have the
honor of dying last)
o “The Low Countries” that are below sea-level
▪ These areas rely on each other to get water and to make sure not all
the water comes out at once
▪ Patch of land all next to each other like North and South Korea (can’t
nuke neighbor because it will come back to you)
● MNI = minimum number of individuals
● Psychology (studies the behavior of individuals and what causes it which is more
Western)
● Climate:
● Climate Change:
● Culture change: When there is a change in environment (deforestation) and when
there is a change in agency (the choice of changing a lifestyle/ due to freedom of
choice)
● Nationalism: Know about my country
● Heritage: Culture you inherit (Anastasi)
● Ethnicity: Ethnic Culture, which culture you feel attached to
● Independent invention : When a culture comes us with an idea
● Diffusion: when a culture copies another culture. For instance, the earliest writing
came from Mesopotamia (economic reasons) and Egypt (religious/historical reasons)
which was around 5000 years ago. China came up with writing independently and no
one is sure about India. However, Europe and Mayas (when the british would come to
their island and read proclamation – they invented rongo rongo) diffused the concept
of writing from diffusion. This happens due to movement of people or societies are
trading with each other and they learn
Multiple Cultural identities:
● Emic (how individuals see own culture)
● Etic (how outsiders view culture)
o Supposedly providing deeper and less biased view
 o Both emic and etic are valid views on viewing culture
● Core values (most important values not willing to give up; when moving, last thing to
give up)
o Arabs = language/religion/family
o Americans = freedom
o Chinese = family
● Culture adaptations to environment
o A mountainous place will have different languages than a flat
● Ethnocentrism (only one culture can be right; everyone else is wrong)
o Ethno (ethnic/culture) centrism (center)
o In order to prevent, should learn about cultures
o It’s good to be proud of culture (bad example is Greeks)
o Ancient Britain killed Australian aborigines because they only had 9 tools,
unsophisticated society. Then they found out infanticide (done when harsh +
starving) and decided to kill them after they realized society was more
advanced than they thought.
▪ Infanticide’s justification was circular time (they would be born again
in a better time). Otherwise, there was not enough of own blood
(would feed it to the kids) to go around.
● Culture relativism (the ability to understand other cultures. Logic with no judgement is
used)
o (Yugoslavia) has 3 main groups of people (Serbs Croats and Bosnians)
o Bosnians and croats were in power at some time or the other, but Serbians
were not in power. But during colonialism Russians gave arms to Serbs and
thus after Colonialism ended Serbians decided to come in power.
o Serbians (orthodox Christians) decided to do ethnic cleansing and kill all
Bosnian Muslims. All men were round up and killed. Nobody stood up
because a) Serbs were backed up by Russians and b) Anthropologists said
“cannot judge because Europe always has problems” (Example the cultural
relativism is not good all the time)
● Demography (description of the population)
o How old, age expectancy, per capita, literacy…
● How people interact with geography (what people do on the islands)
o On atoll islands, people will be fishermen, on high islands, both farmers and
fishermen, in the desert, people will cover their skin, etc.
● Sociology (studies of society, usually more cities. It is also the study of own culture)
o Surveys are used to collect data
● Carrying capacity of a landscape (how many people/animals can it sustain (area
should be defined))
o This carrying capacity can stretch out to the ocean
o This can also change via culture and linked to the economy in regards to
people
▪ Dubai before had low capacity vs now with a high capacity (because
of trade)
o High islands have more carrying capacity than an atoll island
 Science
1. Observation
2. Hypothesis
3. Test – experiments (should be repeatable, if results are different, a different
hypothesis is needed)
4. Theory – working model of the truth (which can change!)
a. South America and Africa were together at one point
5. Law (could also change)

Anthropology (looks at the study of an entire culture, usually other cultures which is more
world and holistic. Unlike sociology, cannot use surveys because culture that you’re studying
may not understand the language):

● Cultural (like medical)

● Linguistics
● Archeology (study of human history and prehistory through excavation of
physical remains)
● Physical/biological
o Examples of biological being climitization (getting used to it) and
larger rib cages in Bolivia because of larger ho to endure mountains.
o Example also being skin color i.e. the paler you are in Norway, the
more sun you’ll absorb in order to avoid Vitamin D deficiency and
rickets. (If a pale person were to come to a hot country, would burn
because too much sun. Cultural adaptation would be putting on
sunscreen)
Geography (details of the world, where human behavior is also studied):
● Physical (like geology)
● Cultural (people)
Collapse of Empires:
1. Ottoman Empire (1400-WWI)
a. Collapsed because too old and sided with the wrong side
2. Roman Empire (31 BCE-476 CE)
a. Lead poisoning because all water pipes were made out of lead
b. Barbarian (Hun) attacks
c. Economic problems (economy & army was based on slavery) which caused
independence and nationalistic movements later
3. British Empire (1600-WWII)
a. Independence/nationalistic movements
b. WWII (couldn’t afford to keep up empire because of bombing)
4. Soviet Union (1922-1991)
a. Aging politicians (not part of party)
b. Western aggression (broke economy trying to compete with the American
army)
Nauru (late 70s/early 80s)
● At the time was the richest per capita as they became rich on phosphate (high
protein fertilizer) found in bird feces taken from the environment
● Invested poorly in musicals and foreign workers
● Now, it’s 80% unlivable and taking in refugees from Australia and living off
Australian subsidies
● Lost all money + natural resources + no investment of people

Five Themes of Geography

1. Location = position of a place on the Earth’s surface
a. Absolute
i. Longitude and latitude
b. Relative = relative to another location
i. Relative is geographic and not cultural definitions. Examples are:
1. Middle East/Near East = middle/near to Britain
2. Far East=China
3. Old World = Europe/Asia/Middle East/Africa
4. New World = Americas
2. Place = physical & human characteristics (how you see a place). Assigning culture to
it
i. People of the sea vs. mountains will have different cultures
3. Human/Environment Interaction = how humans shape landscape
a. How Do People Depend on the Environment
i. How people act, dress (like covering up to stop sun)
b. How Do People Adapt to the Environment
i. Population Biology
1. Bigger ribcages for people in mountains
ii. Individual Biology
1. If in high area, after a while, body will create more red blood
cells to adapt
iii. Cultural Biology
1. Technology i.e sunscreen, air conditioning
c. How Do We Modify the Environment?
i. Burning coal (was cheaper before) was dumped in the Pacific Ocean
via winds carrying fumes. Coal contains mercury and now in fish
4. Movement
a. Species
i. Europeans came to Australia and had ecological imperialism as
Europeans brought their own animals to “feel like home”. This
introduction of a new species disturbs the ecosystem.
ii. When American military went to Guam, came with their personal
belongings and army equipment. Snakes (such as the garden snake)
and rats also came through items and ate all the eggs and birds of the
island. Now birds are extinct on Guam.
b. People
i. Immigrate (coming in)
 ii. Emigrate (coming out)
iii. People move for livelihood, jobs.
c. Products
i. Trade
d. Ideas
i. Before was through mail, now through the internet
5. Region = areas with unifying characteristics
a. Physical
i. Rainforests and deserts have water in common (abundancy vs
scarcity)
b. Human (cultural)
i. South Asia (India/Pakistan/Sri Lanka) have similar food although
different countries. Hindi/Urdu also sound the same but have a
different alphabet

Q. Why did the New World lose the battle between Old World?
A. Old World built resistance against diseases i.e plague, smallpox, chicken pox (since 33%
died, 66% survived, etc) therefore most Native Americans had no immunity and died.

Q. Where is Greenwich (a way of navigation) zero?

A. Placed in London because of the London Navy (created by them for navigation)

Q. What is the cost of modifying the environment?

A. Amazon Jungle (known as the “lungs of the world”) and oceans (plastic islands now)
provide oxygen, which without, we will suffer.
 Characteristics/Aspects of Culture (“distinctly human”)
1. Culture is Learned
a. Learned behavior (i.e wouldn’t work to inject DNA in animals because they
wouldn’t survive (would need to learn behavior)
b. Humans need to learn “little children, large amount of effort” while oysters
have “many children, little effort”. All oysters need to do is cling to rock
c. Have to get along with society
2. Culture is symbolic
a. Do’s and don’ts for a reason
b. Facial expressions are symbolic (don’t change from place to place) while
shaking heads, languages are not symbolic.
i. Languages, symbols and street signs are also not symbolic
c. Billy, otta, pussa, gatto, chat, mao all mean cat but none sound like cat
(nothing in common)
3. Culture is shared (shared with all members of society)
a. All speaking language and you don’t, you will not fit in (not part of norm)
4. Culture is all encompassing
a. Involves all aspects of society (i.e economics)
5. Culture is integrated
a. All aspects work together (economics works with religion, etc)
6. Culture is adaptive and maladaptive
a. Adaptive
i. Oxygen mask in high places
b. Maladaptive
i. Moai of Easter Island (bad culture practice that should be changed)
c. Culture practice can be maladaptive in long run (fossil fuels have good
energy now but bad climate change)
7. Culture and Nature
a. Different versions of marriage and family
i. Polygamy has polygyny (many women) and polyandry (many men)
1. In Tibet, only small amount of land, children then come from
the same family (one woman, four brothers) so land doesn’t
need to split up
b. Gender roles
c. This isn’t always so clear
Mechanism of culture change
● Environmental change
● Invasion
● Trade
● Agency: an individual’s ability to change the culture. Example: prophets, peoples
inventions, etc
● Independent Innovation/Invention: When someone comes up with something that
was never done before. Example agriculture,
● Example: writing- started in 5000 in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
● Mesopotamia is the land between two rivers. In this land there are a lot of cities that
rise and fall. And each city trades with each other. They started writing for trade.
● Egypt did Heirographics and started writing for history. They wrote to keep people
informed about different Myths and Religion.
● China started writing for fortune telling.
● Maya was not in touch with any civilization thus had to invent its own writing.

● Diffusion: Things adopted from other cultures.

● Example: Europe gets writing through diffusion from Greeks. And Greeks got it
through diffusion.
 Journey of Man (Movement)
● San Bushmen (purest line)
o Left Africa and became ancestors of today
o Direct descendants of the first people
o High cheekbones, eyes of Asians (today’s people seemed to have come from
them)
● Socotra (purest genes that stem from Yemen/Somalia as first people came from
Arabia)
● !Kung San (tribe living in Southern African not South Africa specifically)
o Speak in clicks (only people that still do so). Clicks were lost in today’s
languages due to the members of tribe who lost clicks and spread throughout
world
● Food foragers (hunters/gathers)
● Dr. Spencer Wells – geneticist (studies DNA)
o Uses the Y chromosome found only from the father for ease of tracing man
o Y does not get reduced every generation
o Can tell difference between lines because some Y’s haven’t changed (some
mutate)
o Genetic markers are changes in the chromosome (i.e mutations)
● DNA contains a nucleus with information from both parents as well as
mitochondrial DNA from the mother (AGCT in DNA)
● Everyone was related to one family which was found in the blood of isolated tribes
● One part of the tribe left the 10,000 in Africa and today’s descendants are from
them
● Advances in language:
o Hunting
o Human Behavior
● From Africa, ancestors went to Australia (they couldn’t sail or walk so how?)
● Only 10% went to Australia and the other 90% went elsewhere i.e the Middle East
o They found them going to Western Europe instead
▪ Central Asia -> Russia -> Beujia (added by the Ice Age) then east to
Alaska
● Ancestors stopped in Central Asia on way to Western Europe which is why it took
so long for them to reach final destination
o They stopped because they found food and hunted them which is an
opportunity that shouldn’t be missed (that way, they adapted to hunting the
new animals as well as the cold weather)
● The coastal population can afford to be dark as they get Vitamin D from fish. More
inland, should be paler in order to absorb more sun.
● Niazf is one genetic marker passed to 1 billion people
● The Chuckchi were a Russian tribe that are descendants of the first Arctic traders
o Their bodies are short as they have small surface areas in order to reduce
heat loss
 o They couldn’t make it any further therefore they had to stay there
o They hunt reindeer as their livelihood
o The Navajo in Arizona have Chuckchi ancestors as well as the Eskimos
● Inuit live in Canada, Alaska, Greenland (the top of the world basically)

Q. How do we know that Africans came first?

A. Australians have marker from Africa but Africa don’t have that mutation

Q. How did they travel?

A. From land bridges during the Ice Age.

Q. Why did the ancestors leave Africa?

A. The Ice Age caused drought in the deserts, causing the animals to migrate. To avoid
starvation, ancestors migrated as well.
 The Tale of Three Islands: Polynesia
(these three islands had no written history before Europeans arrived with steam
boats)
1. Mangaia in the Cook Islands
2. Easter Island (known as a low high island & founded in 1722 on Easter Sunday)
a. Known as a low high island because over time, island begins to sink from
own weight. Chickens were known as high class food on the island.
3. Tikopia Island (outlier because farther west from the rest)
NB-> All these islands are Polynesian Islands because they were founded by Polynesian
people
Archipelago (a group of islands)
o Marquesas -> founders of New Zealand, which was one of the last islands found
o We know they found it because of their linguistics, culture and DNA
o Distinguishing pottery also differentiates the culture
1. Polynesia (many islands (nesia); triangle in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.)
a. Hawaii (kapu, where the t’s are taken to k’s and the b’s to p’s and vice versa,
Samoa (they have taboo, which is used today), Tonga
b. Difficult to get there
c. The people liked to mix with foreigners (since small island)
d. Those who survived the journey were large (in order to survive the cold and
require less food) + taller
i. Also, beauty in the Pacific was women preferred men that were
bigger. These men would marry rich girls and for three years, the
girls would be in a hut and force-fed until 18. At the time of the
wedding, the hut would be lifted (can no longer fit through door) and
the bride would be big and pale.
ii. The Hawaiian Queen was 5’8 and 500 lb. When she heard settlers had
arrived, she and her ladies ran to them out of curiosity and British
thought the Earth was shaking and they ran back to their boats.

Q. Why are there no longer maps in Polynesia?

A. They’re now more advanced and all previous ones have decayed.

2. Melanesia (known as Melanesia because people had darker skin)

a. New Guinea, Taiwan, Indonesia (earliest recording of the word “taboo” is
tambu)
b. Intermarriages were known because found local genes in mitochondrial DNA
of descendants (which is only mother’s)
c. This was the stop before going across the Pacific (Asia-> Taiwan ->
Philippines -> Melanesia)
d. Melanesian maps had rocks, the current (dictated by land masses), home (in
order to get back) and other islands
3. Micronesia
a. Guam
 History of the Islands
• All settled by Polynesian people
• None were previously occupied by humans
• Each island had specific geological conditions
• Settlement history—
• Reliance on wildlife (crops and wildlife then go extinct)
• Reliance on crops (if can’t eat it, burn it)
• Overpopulation (competition for food)
• Warfare (almost always)

● In order to become chief themselves, 6-10 men would build a canoe to find their own
island (there will also not allowed to get married to good women without a status,
finding an island would bring them that status)
o This was done carefully (not at random) as drinking water is the hardest to
come by at sea
o They travelled in a circle in order to go home (and made the circle larger and
larger when nothing was found)
▪ They would look for the color of the water (becomes lighter near
shore), birds (would travel to islands to stop), dolphins (always
towards islands), smell and clouds (they group around mountains)
o Their boats had a crab claw sail as well as a shelter, where they brought
domesticated animals and plants. Chickens were low class, dogs working and
pigs for rich.
o Which boat are you from? Basically which tribe are you from
o When an island was found, would go back, bring wives and family and divide
the island like a pie in order to be “fair”. The center gets mountains and
shore up until the coral.
o Burn layers on island show history
▪ Bottom layer is natural, natural species already on the island
▪ Then burn layer
▪ Then domesticated crops people brought
● Pacific Ocean is difficult to map because large
o The equator line in the Pacific is known as the doldrums (wind does not
blow). If stuck, sailors may have scurvy because of lack of Vitamin C (only
living on hardtack which is bread getting harder and harder over time)
How do we know the history of the islands? Geography takes a holistic picture (cannot be a
pure science!)
1. Archaeology
2. Anthropology
3. History
4. Physics (dating and sourcing of materials) -> sourcing materials needed to see where
trading happened
5. Botany (and paleobotany) -> paleo meaning older
6. Fauna (and paleontology) -> ancient animals
7. Geology -> to see what island consisted of
 8.Linguistics
9.Biology
● Continental island (sitting on subcontinent) -> New Guinea, Ireland
● Volcanic Island (in body of water) -> Hawaii (south is largest, north is smallest),
Iceland creating new islands on coast
o Rips/holes from tectonic plates (moves across weakspot then moves on)
o Created by lava
o Known as high islands when first come up (these attract rain)
o Kashur and Tikopia are an example of a low high island
▪ Tikopia had only 6 tribes and is small
▪ Kashur has no fringing reef so surrounding water is rough
● Atoll island (an island where all that’s left is the coral reef that grew around the
island, which can be in a partial circle). The island is ground up coral where nothing
can grow without the help of seaweed or bird feces. Green is usually fern on the island.
Will probably contain a poor chief (no food)
High islands are not necessarily ideal (Easter Island is an example)
Q. How to make money on an atoll island?
A. Pearl farms (shells in prehistoric times were used as a knife)
● Makatea island (a raised atoll island)
o Can come back up by seismic shifts (very rare type of island)
o Island is basically coral reef that has been pushed back up
o Mangaia is a high land that became atoll and then makatea once Raratonga
sank. The water was pushed up and revealed the island that had been worn
away by waves and now had a very low center. The center had fern that was
old and decaying.
o Coral reef requires sunlight hence, it grows towards it until it’s on the
surface
▪ They’re extremely important as they break the waves, and inside the
water is like a lagoon with gentle waves
● Without it, would need to find coconut trees and tie self to it,
since no coral to break waves
● In this case, the volcano that existed on the island didn’t
disappear, it is now under the water.
● The green on these islands are usually fern, atoll islands are
infertile with only sand. Only way to make soil fertile would be
to use seaweed and bird droppings. However, coconuts can
grow in the sand
● If a typhoon hits, you need to look for coconut trees to tie self
against.
Mangaia
● Birds became flightless as there were no competitors on the island and lots of fish.
They became bigger and bigger until wings were obsolete
o However, birds on the island never understood danger, therefore they went
extinct quickly
o Moa = chicken (native bird of Mangaia)
● Birds and bats were present as native species on the island
 ● Had to also bring plants for rope (bark)
o Houses were made from trees and pandanvs
● Didn’t live on the soil (lived in center instead) in order to avoid wasting fertile soil
o Over farming happened anyways
o This didn’t work during wars so they moved into caves
o Torches were used in caves and can be seen from the soot found on the roof
o Stalactites + stalagmites were found in caves from water
o In cave, the skulls were placed on a manmade shelf. They later became
crystallized because of the water that dropped.
● Known as tough warriors so nobody came from Rarotonga (in fear of being eaten)
o Warriors would also take all they have and chase visitors off
● There were four tribes, the weak tribe accepted “Protestantism” in exchange for
guns and then became the strongest tribe
Q. Why did natives on Managaia bury their relatives in caves?
A. They would get attacked (and relatives would get eaten and their “mana” (life force, if
eaten would steal soul and get power) would be absorbed). This was usually done by
warrior men Also it would be wasting fertile land to bury them.

Easter Island
● Founded by the Dutch
o Properly founded in 600-700 AD
o But by the 1600s, the fish were gone as well, also pollen analysis shows plants
gone
o In 1722, historical data stated (Europeans arrived)
o 1770s other British ships arrived
o 1850s/1860s majority get small pox from being mine workers in Peru and die
(were brought back from Peru for not being very good workers)
● Genetic markers show that ancestors were Polynesian (although theories said
ancestors came from South America)
● Low high island without a fringing reef
o Water is too cold for it to grow (water from Arctic)
o Contained many seabirds as island was in the middle of nowhere and there
was no competition
● Easter Island went through war, new religion, starvation then war when religion
didn’t work
● Easter Island is the only island that has own writing (rongo-rongo)
● Young men on Easter Island decided to make a cult about birds (because high
protein)
o Each tribe would choose a young man, peasant or otherwise to get an egg,
swim back (with egg on head) and the first one back to the starting point
with the egg intact would have their tribe eat first and then the rest
● They made spears due to war and statues in the center of the island for the ancestors
to help (desperate)
o To get the statues to the beach, they used palm trees and rolled. This caused
all the trees to go extinct (unlike other islands).
 ▪ We know the trees existed because pollen in the mud showed Easter
Island had vegetation.
o Ranuraraku was the quarry where statues were first made. Theories
surround how the statues were moved, whether horizontally or vertically.
o Statues (up to 60 feet tall) were meant to be chiefs and “inspire” people
(ancestral worship) also competition between tribes
o When statues wouldn’t work (birds disappeared), they would get angry and
smash them, abandoning the quarry. People starved and then resorted to
cannibalism.
o Today’s statues are reassembled for tourists

Tikopia
● Low high island with a fringing reef
o High island provides good soil and water
o Fringing reef provides fish that are diverse and dense
● There were six tribes, two were eliminated. One tribe cut all the breadfruit trees
(livelihood on the island, like dates) of the other in order to kill them off. Then the 4
chiefs of the island had a meeting for “cooperation or to kill each other”.
o Rules were then made after this meeting
▪ Every year, only one part of the island can fish for shellfish only (in
order to prevent overfishing)
▪ No more feasting (to conserve food)
▪ To control the population, only the oldest can get married. The
daughters can take care of their nieces and nephews while the sons
can do the same or find another island

Parallel Histories
• Settlement of Islands
– Culture
– Crops and agriculture
– Domesticated animals
– Growth in Population
– Trade or breakdown of trade
– warfare

Decisions for Survival

• Mangaia—warfare and more warfare
• Easter Island—warfare and big heads; break with old traditions, new cults founded
• Tikopia—warfare and difficult decisions, but ultimate survival due to cooperation

Lessons for World Today

● Will we fight continuously over resources?
● Will we build big heads (and then push them over when they don’t work)?
● Will we cut back on waste and make strict rules, but cooperate?

Five Point Framework

1. Human Impact on Environment
2. Climate change (made no different in islands)
3. Disappearance of friendly neighbors (no trade)
4. Arrival of hostile neighbors (can argue because tribes became hostile)
5. Response to situation (choices)
a. Can be disastrous or glorious, depending on choices made
 The Tale of Three Islands pt. 2
These islands were southeast of the Pacific. In 800 AD, Polynesian immigrants found these
islands, which underwent a multiplication of its population and the depletion of abundant
resources.
1. Mangareva
2. Pitcairn
a. Tiny high island with little reef
b. Nothing there (even animals couldn’t eat anything and can only sustain for
small group of people)
c. Volcanic soil (not much soil)
i. Basalt (heavy dark stone to make axes with)
ii. Obsidian (volcanic glass with really fine grains for knives)
1. In prehistoric times, was the sharpest thing
2. Was used in eye surgery (so sharp can cut between cells while a
scalpel would mesh cells. This leads to faster healing). Not
commonly used as it can break and chips instead (flakes inside
body)

3. Henderson
a. Makataea island
b. Even more remote that Mangaia (no boats or planes go to island, only yacht
passing by)
c. No trees
d. Formed by moving plates (island is only part of cliff)
e. Sea turtles nested on ground coral beach (eating them was like caviar, a
delicacy to Mangareva). Also had sea birds and shellfish (seasonal?)
i. Sea turtles were traded to Mangareva (delicacy so fine, natives of
Henderson didn’t eat sea turtles)

Q. Why live on Pitcairn?

A. Harvesting stone and trading with Mangareva (had no good stone). They would charge
expensively in exchange for food since Mangareva had none.

● When the civil war started on Mangareva, Henderson suffered (there was no need
for a delicacy, only stone from Pitcairn). However, during the civil war, it was too
expensive to send boats to Pitcairn and there was no need for the stone.
o Because of this, the society disappeared on the two islands (there were no
boats to leave). However, from data, it’s known that they lived on the island
for about a century then died (not sure how they got by)

Five Point Framework

1. Human Impact on Environment (if Mangareva didn’t impact environment so badly,
wouldn’t have crashed. Same impact as Mangaia had on their environment)
2. Climate change (made no different in islands)
3. Disappearance of friendly neighbors (main problem of Pitcairn and Henderson
(Mangareva had no time for goods during civil war))
4. Arrival of hostile neighbors
5. Response to situation (choices)
a. When Mangareva made terrible choice, both Henderson and Pitcairn
suffered
 Anasazi
● No real name Anasazi Is the name we call them.
● They live in the South West of US (Arizona, Colarado New Mexico)
● Chaco Canyon : Where Anasazi Lived, these are like city centres. They controlled
trade)
● Paeblo Bonito: Biggest town in Chaco Canyon
o It was a huge town centre, and had a 5 story building.
o The did not grow all their food but relied on their farmers to redistribute the
food and turquoise.
● They were desert people, and were farmers and traders who traded in turqoiuse.
● They started fighting and deserted the land they lived in, they moved to Mesa Verde.
● Mesa Verde: Cliff city cliff houses (Green Mountains) move here as there is rain for
farming.
● Dendrochronology: Tree ring dating
o Tells us about date
o Also about the climate at that time due to the color.
● Pack rat Middens: Mice like animals that collect things for their nest, these things tell
us about the environment by carbon dating.
o They tell us a lot of the climate.
● What are the ways they farmed in?
1. High altitude farming: as we get rain but it is too cold.
2. Water table framing: underground rivers or rain goes down.
a. Problem is that water table dries up.
3. Arroyo farming: (Wadi) Dig channels in the arroyos.
● What happened in 1914-1918?
1. WWI- world war one:
● 5 point framework on the Anasazis?
1. Human impact on env:
a. they are cutting down pine trees to build the city centres.
b. The place was forested before however when they get rid of the pine
but every time there is rain the water floods into the arroyo.
2. Climate change: Droughts lead to:
a. Arroyo farming in trouble as when it rains floods the arroyo
b. Water table dries
c. Farmers do not provide food for the pueblo Bonito as they want to save
food for themselves therefore there is civil war and also cannibalism.
d. Cannibalism:
i. as they found human cells in pots
ii. broken bones
iii. human cells in human poop. (Coprolite)
3. Breakdown of friendly neighbors:
 a. To a certain extent as farmers did not get food from outside to choco
canyon.
4. Response to situation:
a.
● Ethnicity:
● Nationalism:
o Ethnocentric:
● Heritage:

● Ethnocentrism (only one culture can be right; everyone else is wrong)

o Ethno (ethnic/culture) centrism (center)
o In order to prevent, should learn about cultures
o It’s good to be proud of culture (bad example is Greeks)
o Ancient Britain killed Australian aborigines because they only had 9 tools,
unsophisticated society. Then they found out infanticide (done when harsh +
starving) and decided to kill them after they realized society was more
advanced than they thought.
▪ Infanticide’s justification was circular time (they would be born again
in a better time). Otherwise, there was not enough of own blood
(would feed it to the kids) to go around.
● Culture relativism (the ability to understand other cultures. Logic with no judgement is
used)
o (Yugoslavia) has 3 main groups of people (Serbs Croats and Bosnians)
o Bosnians and croats were in power at some time or the other, but Serbians
were not in power. But during colonialism Russians gave arms to Serbs and
thus after Colonialism ended Serbians decided to come in power.
● Serbians (orthodox Christians) decided to do ethnic cleansing and kill all Bosnian
Muslims. All men were round up and killed. Nobody stood up because a) Serbs were
backed up by Russians and b) Anthropologists said “cannot judge because Europe
always has problems” (Example the cultural relativism is not good all the time)

● What are the sciences that are used in the Anasazi’s?

Paeleobotony, Geology(water tables), Dendrochronology, Pack rat mittens
(PaleoOntology)

(The Anasazi civilization Youtube)

● Ancient people of the desert known as Anasazi. Modern day New mexico, …………
● Learned how to find water and built dams.
● Lived in under ground pit houses but soon adapted to tall houses. The pit houses were
used as the schools
● Built choco canyon, a lot of trees were cut down (50k trees) to build choco canyon.
● It was also the center of trade specially turquoise.
● 150 years trade fuiled the choco’s economy.
● Poablo Bonita wonder of the canyon.
● Poablo Bonita had almost 1000 people.

● Many went to Mesa verde north after the the economy of choco canyon fell.
 Maya (Extra question)
Study from the textbook
 Vikings (“raider” in Norse) (6,7,8) Mid2(film)
● Scandanavia,( Denmark, Sweden, Norway ).
● Their ancestors were Norse.
● Ragnar June 793 : Lindisfarne (Holy Island) raid outside their own country

● Vikings build their houses using Sod and turf.

● Vikings hear about France on the river Seine to be very rich. But on their way to
France they attack all the villages.
● France make a deal with the Vikings.
● Rollo (Raghnars brother) marries French princess bocoming a Duke and Christian.
He eventually becomes civilized and defends france when Vikings arrive again. He
soon becomes king.
● Rollo gives a huge place of land to the Vikings called Normandy.
● Vikings also go to Ireland and settle in Dublin.

● Carrying capacity of Denmark, Sweden and Norway was not very high as they did
not have thick soil.

● Ruled only for a short term

● Vikings were raiders, initially Norse were farmers, fishermen and traders
● Only 3% of Norway (poorest of Scandinavia) was farmable (like Mangaia in its
fertility)
● Farmers and fisherman fight with each other as the population starts to grow but
these countries do not have very fertile soil to farm a lot.
● Denmark (richest of Scandinavia) was fertile but very small
● Culture of Vikings is Norse
● Ships known as Viking Longships
● Vikings lived by fear and terror
● Vikings would be buried with ships and items needed for afterlife
● All Viking villages had a leader, but no proper government
● The traded in the summer (seas would freeze in the winter)
● 790-1100 AD
● Health deteriorating so anybody who wanted to take them would have terrible
slaves (Greenland Vikings)

1. How do we Know what we know about the Vikings? (read saga 237 238)
a. History of the people they attacked. English records, French records and
records from Istanbul.
b. Archelogy
c. Sagas: Stories

2. Where did they come from?

 a. Scandinavia (Scandinavian/Norse people) (Denmark, Norway, Sweden
(cannot live north since ice). All known for farming, Sweden and Norway
(especially) known for fishing)
i. Usually hunters and gatherers (sheep had domestication after few
hundred years ago)
b. As population grows, turns to war (and killing)
c. Since they were good with boats, they turned to piracy
i. First island they hit is Lindisfarne (“Holy Island”) in June 793 AD.
Killed everyone except few (to tell story and spread fear). Island only
had Christian monks and gold and silver crosses since people believed
donating to them means they would go to heaven (That’s why it was
called Holy Island). They had no army since anyone attacking them
would be damned.
ii. Vikings were Pagans and believed in Odin and Thor thus they do not
care about going to heaven or hell.
iii. After hearing the story of Lindisfarne, more people in Scandinavia
made boats to steal
iv. Trading started since they only stole gold and silver
v. They also attacked other monasteries
3. Where did they go?
a. Vikings of Denmark
i. Started heading to England after Lindisfarne and from England to
France up the rivers.
1. Once they reached France, the king said to take whatever they
wanted. Vikings demanded silver and gold and an extravagant
amount was collected after two days. Since this much was
collected in two days, what could be given if Paris was
destroyed?
a. Paris was then destroyed and alcohol was taken and
majority left.
2. One Viking (Rollo) did say if the king wanted protection, he
would marry his daughter (who hated him but later fell in
love) in order to become the next king (Duke). In the end, he
defended his wife and betrayed his own Viking men.
ii. They also took Danelaw (east of England)
b. Vikings of Sweden
i. Went south then east to Kiev (capital of Ukraine) and founded many
villages in Russia
ii. Go to the Baltic Sea in the East (Latvia, Estunia, Lithnania).
iii. They found Kiev for trade.
iv. They would take apart the boat when the river ended, carry it until
the next river and reassemble
v. They then settled in Constantinople (Istanbul) and met and became
pragmatic people
1. Became traders with natives and would exchange fur (from up
north) for spices and silver (coins)
 2. Traded in ancient Byzantine coins
3. Buddhist statues were found here (not sure if Vikings went to
China or not)
4. Western parts of China also had archeological remains of
Vikings
c. Vikings of Norway (porest due to not very fertile soil)
i. Went west then North
1. First go to Scotland. Went to Faroe islands, Orkney, Shetland
islands
2. They found Iceland further north west (Mostly men settle
there but they need women.)
ii. Ireland, Greenland and the U.S (went north and south)
1. Single men would go to Ireland to steal wives (since more men
available than women in Norway) and then take wives or
slaves to Iceland (since Norwegian women didn’t want to go
and become farmers’ wives)
iii. Eric the Red
1. Hero in Iceland
2. Argumentative guy (came from Norway, got kicked out by
king)
3. Gets married to fairly rich women, but not satisfied. Fights
with his neighbor.
4. Fought with his neighbor in Iceland for more land and killed
him (his land was of poor quality)
a. He gets exiled from Iceland and cannot go back to
Norway.
b. He then got kicked out and went to Greenland
i. Heard of legends about it
ii. Called it Greenland because nobody would want
to go if they knew it was actually all icy
iv. Greenland (Story that collapsed)
1. Built houses using Sod and Turf.
2. They have very less top soil. And they built houses with it.
3. Vikings were there for 450 years
4. Mostly ate cows and sheep (wool and milk)
a. Pigs didn’t last because it was too cold
5. They always made their clothes from wool
6. They settled mostly in the South (Inuit in the north)
a. Inuit (eskimos) are nomads (travelers) and would go
back and forth to follow seals
b. Polar bears didn’t even live in the center (no food)
7. Human impact on environment:
a. Mostly ate cows and sheep (wool and milk)
b. But sheep and cows ate the 100-year-old small trees.
c. Pigs didn’t last because it was too cold
d. Built houses using Sod and Turf.
 e. They have very less top soil. And they built houses with
it.
f. When it rains it takes away the soil as the sheep and
cows ate the roots.
8. Climate change:
a. It became colder after they came.

9. No more friendly neighbors:

a. They also traded for ivory and fur. Ivory came from
walruses. Also, the middle east stopped trading the
ivory as they want elephant ivory.
b. Difficult to move ships from Greenland as it has become
colder and the ocean starts to freeze or there are a lot of
iceburgs.

10. Arrival of hostile neighbors:

a. Inuits came down as it got colder. Inuits fight with the
Vikings but inuits are well fed and are greater in
number.
11. Response to situation:
a. Inuits fight with the Vikings but inuits are well fed and
are greater in number (ethnocentric)
12. Communal
a. You couldn’t go by yourself and hope to make a living
b. Community needed for trade and seal hunting
c. Belonging to farm also part of social identity
13. Violence
a. Mass graves with skulls bearing wounds from sharp
instruments (i.e. axe or sword)
14. Hierarchal
a. Can see in diet of rich vs poor farms (rich had more
beef while poor had more seal)
b. Larger houses, bigger hay barns
15. Conservative
a. Didn’t change ways (tools and carvings were still same,
didn’t learn from Inuit)
b. Done because thought variations in economy would be
dangerous rather than beneficial
v. Leif Ericson
1. Son of Eric the Red
2. Goes back to Norway & Europe and trades walrus tusks and
polar bear fur
a. Tusks used as chess pieces (since made from ivory)
b. Becomes Christian to trade with Norway (did trade also
with Southern Europe)
 3. Goes the U.S and Canada and finds trees, which were used for
boats
a. Sold those to Norway and Iceland
4. Leif’s sister convinces Leif to go out. They go west i.e. Canada.
5. They see that Canada is rich in 1000. They find Newfoundland.
6. Nobody believes Leif that he goes to Canada, and it was only a
Saga.
7. After another 960years i.e. 1960 they find an archeological site.
8. L’anse aux Meadows (Cave of Meadows)
a. Site founded for Vikings (the houses are shaped like
Vikings’ houses, iron smelting)
b. The people who are already there were called Skraeling
“Savages”.
c.
d. Known as Vinland (lots of grapes)
e. Colony only lasted 10 -20 years
i. They had an ethnocentric attitude towards
Native Americans (that were killed to check if
they were humans). They also built a huge wall
and settlement around them
ii. They then went back to Greenland
4. What happens to them?
a. Vinland/L’anse Aux Meadows
i. Human Impact on Environment
1. They cut trees but they were only there for 10 years so not
much impact
ii. Climate change (no impact)
iii. “Disappearance” of friendly neighbors
1. Friendly neighbors can be assumed to be trade partners as
they were trading with Norway who could’ve helped them.
2. However, Norway would’ve had to travel and they couldn’t
send more soldiers in time
iv. Arrival of hostile neighbors
1. Native Americans (Skraelings). Vikings kill native American to
check if they are humans. Thus, Native Americans attack
them.
v. Response to situation (choice)
1. Could’ve survived if not for ethnocentric attitude
b. Greenland
i. Human Impact on Environment
1. Thin soil (goats ate all nature’s grass as they pulled from the
roots)
a. Soil would then blow away and thinner soil would be
available next year
ii. Climate change
 1. Mini ice age (gets colder, everything gets harder, Vikings still
in wool)
a. This made trade and fishing hard
iii. “Disappearance” of friendly neighbors
1. Can’t trade because it’s cold
2. Elephant ivory is more popular now than walrus ivory
(nothing to sell now)
3. Could no longer go by boat because no money and no trees to
build one (bought from Norway)
iv. Arrival of hostile neighbors
1. Inuit find Vikings in South (weakened) but Vikings still called
them savages
a. Inuit started taking things (i.e. their cows)
v. Response to situation (choice)
1. Could’ve survived if not for ethnocentric attitude
a. Should’ve learned from the Inuit (lots of food to eat)

Q. Why didn’t the Vikings of Sweden attack Constantinople?

A. They were outnumbered and outweaponed.

Q. How do we know about the Vikings?

A. Several things:
1. Archeology
2. Paleobotony
3. Palentology
4. Physics (can date)
5. Soil studies
6. Language
7. Written History (because they attacked people who could write)
a. Sources from England, France, Russia
8. Entomology (study of insects)
a. Can tell which area of the house it was
9. Sagas (oral history stories)
a. Told until written down (some may have been exaggerated)
b. Mostly kept in Iceland and Norway
 Q) What happens to the Greenlanders and how do we know about
them? (Video) mid2
● They flourished for almost 5 centuries and then suddenly disappear (year 1500).
● The first settlement of Greenland to disappear was from the west coast.

● Middlelader disease: later part of the settlement period.

● Ice cores: What was happening to the climate. Climate was fine when the Viking
colony arrived. Weather then got gradually colder. Heavy deuterium does not
evaporate as fast as normal water. Dr Barolo found that there was a lot / less
deteurium in the environment. Therefore Greenland was hit by a mini ice age.
● Teeth: Isotope Analysis: Finding about the teeth tells us the climate and weather
about how the person was living. And the food and water he ate or drank. Also it tells
us if they drank water from ponds or from ice.
● Mud cores:
● Isotope analysis:
● Entymology: Fossils of insects fell dramatically in the last few years of the settlement.
● Flies concept:
● Over grazing & erosion: They used up a lot of hay to feed their animals. And
eventually they did not have enough to feed their life stock. If their animals die they
die.
● Erosion: Erosion shows that they overgrazed as the top soil was blown away. E
● Flies context: Fossilized flies tells us that meat eating flies were found in living room
and bed rooms. That means that occupants had died in the beds.
● Greenland……
Work with multi disciplinarians to learn about……Work with climatologist, entymologist, soil
cores erosion and etc….
 The Lost Vikings
o Greenland (largest island)
o Statues show lost Viking civilization
o They suddenly disappeared in the 1500s
o West Coast had the first colony to disappear
o Iver Barderson was the one who went to Greenland and found nobody
o Norse layer contained charcoal/bone remains
o Until 15 cm below recent surfaces
⮚ Sagas illustrate the building of an empire
⮚ L’anse Aux Meadows aka NewfoundLand
⮚ America and Greenland are the colonies that failed
⮚ Eric the Red settled in Easter settlement of Greenland
⮚ The same style of houses from Norway were brought to Greenland
⮚ They lived in small isolate farms and would amuse each other by poetry, stories and
carving toys
⮚ Lived with animals with cold (animals had no place to exercise and lost use of legs
and were carried out in the spring)
⮚ Had to import most of stuff for lifestyle
o Timber (houses)
o Iron (nails)
⮚ In return, they exported walrus ivory which was the only source in the Middle Ages
⮚ They built churches and sent to the Pope in order to get a bishop (a polar bear was
sent to him)
⮚ Icelanders came to Greenland and history disappeared after report of
intermarriages between them
⮚ Theories of death
o Died of plague (and colony wiped out)
o Kidnapped by priests
o Intermarried with Inuit
o Perished in war with Inuit
▪ Tells of battle lost by settlers (i.e. 18 Vikings lost lives)
⮚ Human bones found near church graveyards and medieval clothing
⮚ Viking life expectancy fell in the last years due to a dramatic drop in living
conditions and health (to about 30 years)
o They got middle ear disease that could develop into pneumonia
o Especially common for young adult females of child bearing age and infants,
as they were more susceptible to disease
⮚ Elkaf is the Viking hunting dog, where starvation led Vikings to eat it
⮚ In the last year of the Viking colony, famine occurred
⮚ Cold fly moved to bedroom to feed on occupants that are dead while the warm was
in the larder (died later on when cold fly moved)
⮚ Core of ice from icesheet
o 3000 meters thick (to bedrock)
 o Can see what was happening to climate at any given time
o 50 different measures of how environment was like (frozen atmosphere)
o First settled, climate was exceptionally find
o Less falls back to earth as snow because of deuterium
o Weather is good when first settled (better in summer than in Iceland or
Norway)
▪ Got worse
▪ Abnormally little deuterium (climate got colder)
⮚ Ice in center of Greenland showed change of cold
⮚ Teeth can show change in climate on coast (from water especially from lakes)
o Tooth enamel specifically
o Heated to 1400C and resulting gas in spectrometer to measure
⮚ Lower temperatures decrease the growth of grass and animals
o Beetles showed the numbers decreasing because they ate fodder. hay
production decreased
o Either they were short of hay (overexploiting) or overgrazing (this caused
erosion as well)
o All for the sake of winter
⮚ Most of fish bones found (like cod)
o Iceland
o Greenland didn’t turn to sea like Iceland
o Inuit were in Greenland less than Vikings but still knew how to adapt
▪ Vikings still wore hooded capes with long tails
▪ Had a shortage of food while Inuit had more food than required
▪ They were boiling and scraping the marrow due to lack of food
⮚ Inuit didn’t coexist
⮚ Vikings didn’t adapt practice
⮚ Church may have preached avoidance since they were not Christians
⮚ They didn’t adapt they just tried harder (and failed)
⮚ No skeletons were found in Viking houses (only in graves)
o Maybe went somewhere (Norway or America) or died at sea
 Rwanda (Chapter 10)
Thomas Malthus
● Population problems such as those of East Africa are often referred to as
"Malthusian," because in 1798 the English economist and demographer
Thomas Malthus published a famous book in which he argued that human
population growth would tend to outrun the growth of food production.
That's because (Malthus reasoned) population growth proceeds
exponentially, while food production increases only arithmetically.
● But modern Rwanda illustrates a case where Malthus's worst-case
scenario does seem to have been right. More generally, both Malthus's
supporters and his detractors could agree that population and
environmental problems created by non-sustainable resource use will
ultimately get solved in one way or another: if not by pleasant means of
our own choice, then by unpleasant and unchosen means, such as the ones
that Malthus initially envisioned
5Point framework
● those other factors included Rwanda's history of Tutsi domination of
Hutu, Tutsi large-scale killings of Hutu in Burundi and small-scale ones in
Rwanda, Tutsi invasions of Rwanda, Rwanda's economic crisis and its
exacerbation by drought and world factors (especially by falling coffee
prices and World Bank austerity measures), hundreds of thousands of
desperate young Rwandan men displaced as refugees into settlement
camps and ripe for recruitment by militias, and competition among
Rwanda's rival political groups willing to stoop to anything to retain
power. Population pressure joined with those other factors
● Malthus’s population theory is one of the reason why the population
resided into genocide. Other factros are mentioned above.
Kanama
● Population grows so much that population cannot move out.
● What is clear is that the death rate in an area where the population
consisted almost entirely of Hutu was at least half of the death rate in areas
where Hutu were killing Tutsi plus other Hutu.
● All but one of the known victims at Kanama fell into one of six categories.
First, the single Tutsi at Kanama, a widowed woman, was killed. Whether
that had much to do with her being Tutsi is unclear, because she furnished
so many other motives for killing: she had inherited much land, she had
been involved in many land disputes, she was the widow of a polygamous
Hutu husband (hence viewed as a competitor of his other wives and their
families), and her deceased husband had already been forced off his land
by his half-brothers.
.

⮚ Central Africa: South of Uganda, Kenya to the East and around Lake Victoria
o Was a very fertile country
⮚ In 1994 there was Genocide which killed around 800K people.
o Genocide: Killing of mass number of people specially to eliminate a certain
religion, race or by demography.
⮚ Thomas Malthus
o Demographer and economist
o Modern day Malthuist theory is Rwanda Genocide
o Wrote a book in 1798 about “a population will always grow larger than its
food supply”
▪ Both true and false
● True because at some point, you’ll run out of land (and
massacres will occur like Rwanda). Population grows
geometrically (exponential) while food grows arithmetically so
true for long term.
● In Rwanda, trees were cut down to plant, otherwise, they
couldn’t get married. Men and women living at home
increased in 1993 because couldn’t divide land or find other
lands (so densely populated)
● False because the carrying capacity can change for short term.
⮚ Rwanda starts in the year 1800. Is the centre of Africa. At that time they had their
own king. There are three groups in Rwanda.
⮚ Germans took over Rwanda (who didn't do anything) as they were formed very late
and needed some colonies (They lose Rwanda in 1919) and then Belgium took colony
after WWI (1918) (The League of nation gave it to the Belgians).
o Belgians left the king in charge as they did not have enough men to send to
Rwanda. They just wanted money to come from Rwanda.
o Was made of cheifdoms and were very rich
o Belgium also took over DR Congo (a.k.a known as Zaire) and Congo which
became the private property of the king to generate elephant tusks, slaves
and rubber
▪ This is taken away from the king after barbaric behavior (cutting
hands of child slaves)
▪ Rubber plantations (for tires) were available in DR Congo
⮚ Three “ethnic”/class groups (Hutu and Tutsi could switch if were rich or poor
enough. Intermarriages also occurred)
o Hutu
▪ Divided into moderates and extremists
 ▪ “Peasant” farmers
▪ Make 85% of the population
▪ Darker and shorter
o Tutsi
▪ Cattle owners and used to be in military (Pastoralists)
▪ Make 15% of the population
▪ Taller and thinner
▪ King and nobles came from Tutsis as greater wealth came from cattle.
▪ When facing persecution, some went to Uganda and Tanzania (British
colonies) and due to excellent army attitude, became citizens.
However, population was facing enough problems and under
pressure, the citizenship was taken away and they had to go back to
Rwanda
● Known as Tutsi refugees
o Twa
▪ Food forgers “Hunter Gatherers”.
▪ Peaceful, living in jungle
▪ Make 1% of the population
⮚ Race Vs Ethnicity
o Race: Inherited physical characteristics that work on a continuum.
o Ethnicity: It is a culture that you learn from when you are born.
⮚ In 1933, they made ID cards. The problem with these ID cards was that it had the
ethnic group mentioned and once you are a certain ID card you could not change.
You also inherited your father’s ethnic group.
⮚ In the 1930s, ID cards were created due to Belgium’s wanting to control the
population
o They brought guns and administration
o Before it was casts after ID it was a race.
o These contained the ethnic groups and this froze intermarriages for a while
o This was done by measuring heads and noses to determine their “ethnicity”
▪ Tutsi were then made royalty since Tutsi looked more like Europeans
so therefore, they must be smarter than Hutu
● They were made sure to be loyal to Belgians, they received
arms and education and controlled the population. Belgians
didn’t have resources and they didn’t want a revolution by
educating all.
▪ Tutsis were cow owners while Hutu were hired to take care of cows
⮚ In 1961, Rwanda gained independence because it was hard for Belgium to maintain
the colonies after the war
⮚ Claimed independence 1962.
o Democracy happens and the Hutu wins (decided to take all the land and
cattle)
o Hutu start killing Tutsi (mini massacre to take land)
▪ Either killed or fled to neighboring countries
▪ Tutsi who could afford it would send families abroad
⮚ RPF (Rwanda Patriotic Front)
 o Made of Tutsi refugees and moderate Hutus that went to Uganda and
Tanzania
o Paul Kagami was their leader and now president of Rwanda
o They tried to get back to Rwanda when their citizenship was revoked (given
because good soldiers in Uganda but taken away because of population
issues)
▪ When they tried to get back in, it caused civil wars (around 1990s)
⮚ In 1973, Habiyarimana becomes the new President from the Hutu (He is a
Moderate)
o This occurred in a bloodless coup
o He wants to stop fighting and stealing of land
o However, his wife is an extremist and starts bring extremists to palace
o In the 1980s, the borders were locked due to economic crises and famine and
refugees couldn’t come back
o RPF invaded and caused more hate towards Tutsi (not just RPF)
o Newspapers mocked Tutsi (in comics), warning came out as Tutsis were
impure and were dehumanized
▪ Radio also served as propaganda (was the only way to communicate)
▪ There was a list of Tutsi to be murdered before the massacre occurred
o Peace treaty for Tutsi to stop killing and give some power to Tutsis
▪ UN sent in as well to enforce
▪ The UN knew there was a list of Tutsis to be killed as well as the
weapon warehouses were from an informant but the UN told them it
was “none of your business” to peace corp)
o Burundi and Rwanda presidents were in Tanzania for a meeting, and flew on
a plane back to Rwanda together
o Plane was shot down when flown over military base (April 6, 1994 ) and
all die (no one knows who killed him)
o All blamed “Tutsi refugees” who killed the president, when in reality, might
have been Hutu extremists (exploitation for massacre)
o Hutu were stockpiling guns and machetes (possibly preparing for the
anticipated assassination?)
o Next 100 days, all massacre neighbors (moderate Hutu and Tutsi as well as
the Twa)
▪ Inter Hamwe (Are Hutu) they did not have jobs ( so there job was to
massacre Women and children with knives as they do not have guns)
▪ Children were previously taught that there was a difference between
Hutu and Tutsi
▪ “Enemy of Rwanda is Tutsi”
▪ Prime Minister and two kids were massacred as moderate Hutu
(children were not spared)
● Ten Belgium soldiers belonging to UN (she called them) were
also killed and beaten upon arrival
▪ Machetes and guns were distributed to Hutu and Tutsi tried to escape
but borders blocked by militia and Hutu
 ● Had to show ID cards
▪ 800,000 deaths occurred (333 per hour)
▪ Sought refuge in the Marombi Technical School and the bodies still
remain as a reminder today (graphic memorial)
▪ Those who ran would be cut with a machete, grenades were thrown
▪ Killing was conducted on an industrial scale, by neighbors, etc.
▪ All the land would be destroyed so the only way to survive would be to
hide under corpses
▪ The UN cut down 90% of troops and didn’t do anything to stop
(because troops were already in Yugoslavia)
● UN genocide convention says the UN country must interfere.
● Rwanda Hutu representative said nothing was wrong when
asked about the situation at the UN (which also aided in the
withdrawn soldiers)
● When the situation got serious, the UN delayed deployment
because didn’t know who would pay
o The U.S was scared that what happened to them in
Somalia would happen again. Also, they had troops in
Yugoslavia
▪ In Kanama, all Hutu except one Tutsi widow are all massacred
● Shows this really isn’t “ethnic” killing
● Twa were also massacred because of push for land
o French were the only people to step in and side with the Hutu. Why?
▪ To keep Rwanda a French speaking area (if the RPF took over, may
be English since Uganda was under the British)
▪ English happened anyways because needed for international trade
▪ 25,000 troops were sent and Rwanda welcomed them as “French
Hutu”
▪ By the time they came, RPF was already in capital
▪ Massacre didn’t really change Tutsi population percentage since RPF
Tutsis came back
o Interhamwe: are a group of people who kill tutsis as they killed their
president.
o They go to Goma in DRC.
o Hutu rushed into Congo (DRC: Democratic Republic of Congo) as refugees
after the RPF took over (end of 100 days)
▪ When RPF controlled most of Rwanda, the massacre wasn’t slowed
down, rather the more the Hutu lost, the more they wanted to kill
▪ They were on the border and RPF insisted for DR Congo to kick them
out. When they didn’t, RPF invaded DR Congo and retreated after
interference of UN (however, DR Congo has been unstable since)
● Camps were set up and world sent them food
▪ Kagame (was a Tutsi in the RPF, now president of Rwanda)
● Wants to create knowledge based society (in order to educate
the population so they can trade)
o Their resource now is people
 o The reason why they attacked each other is not only for population pressure
but also for coffee. Before they only used to grow swosistence crops.
⮚ Chacha: is a……….
⮚ Causes of genocide
o Oppression
o Large scale killing of Hutu by Tutsi in Burundi and small scale in Rwanda
o Tutsi invasion in Rwanda
o Rwanda’s economic crisis (falling coffee prices)
o Desperate Rwandans in refugee camps recruited by militia
o Population pressure (Kanama as an example)
o Can argue propaganda? Brainwashing at a young age
o Geographical factors include lack of resources and population
o Rwanda had non-renewable resources (food) because land was collapsing in
Rwanda
o The reason why they attacked each other is not only for population pressure
but also for coffee. Before they only used to grow swosistence crops.

Movie Rwanda
● 800k people were killed in a matter of 100 days. And regular citizens were hired as
executors who used regular knives to execute.
● The fall:
 Climate Change/Oceans
⮚ Nurdle (small pellet of plastic which serves as raw material in the manufacture of
plastic products)
o This is produced after plastic photodegrades
▪ Photodegrades means it decomposes via the sun to molecular balls
⮚ The Great Pacific Garbage Patch has 80% made of plastic
o Countries only own 20 miles off their shore and therefore, technically nobody
is responsible for the patch
o This is a reminder of the Tragedy of the Commons
▪ In the Middle ages, commons were the grassy area in front of houses
(common patch). Each house also had its personal garden
▪ The commons were needed for the residents in order to allow their
sheep to graze
▪ However, people would clean their personal gardens rather than the
commons (my neighbor will do it today, I’ll do it later)
▪ When overgrazing occurred, fingers would be pointed to others and
not themselves causing fights, also a collapse in resources
▪ In conclusion, the “commons” are all our heritage and must be
preserved by all. All have rights and responsibility to take care of it.
⮚ Ocean/Climate Change problems:
o Most of world’s protein comes from ocean (1 billion people rely on it) and
ocean is needed for air (50% of Earth’s oxygen comes from it) via algae
o Mercury in the Pacific Ocean (like in tuna and other deep fish)
o Acidity of the ocean increased by 26%
o Coastal areas will drown
o Increasing 2 degrees Celsius of the total world temperature will cause
disasters
o Fires burning in Portugal because it’s too hot
o Winds are changing, causing stronger hurricanes
o Ocean warming is causing coral reefs to die and wind patterns to change and
greenhouse effect
o Glaciers are important because they are a source of pure freshwater
⮚ Anthropocene (humans are controlling most of the world)
⮚ Ocean acidity (pollution causing acidity)
⮚ Old growth forests (many different types of trees, all grown together)
 Guns, Germs & Steel (Failure to Anticipate & Perceive)
● Shape of Continent (general geography) affects which societies succeed or fail
o Geography was in favor of the Europeans because they got everything from
Asians and Middle East
● Francesco Pizzaro was leader of the first Spaniards whose climbed the Andes and
reached the Inca Empire
o Came with horses, never seen before.
▪ Used for thousands of years in Europe to control land and be mobile
● A lead technique in military combat use (“fancy footwork”).
Also by riding bulls.
▪ This made the Incas think they were gods (part man, part beast) since
nobody rode animals before
o Also used Jacobus, a crude gun but to Inca, would be frightening
▪ Took a while to reload
▪ Gunpowder came from China
▪ Cannons came from Arabs
o Steel production was better than guns
▪ They used rapiers, known as the swords for gentlemen, a “dress
sword”.
● This was their way of claiming ancestry from Middle Ages
● 1530s
o Inca Empire (headquarters in modern day Peru)
o Went from modern day Ecuador to Chile (all along Andes because mountain
served as a barrier; up and down empire instead of side to side)
o Only way to get message across would be by running (no horseback yet,
Europeans brought that when they invaded)
● Fertile crescent (Middle East; crops came from that area and spread into Africa and
Europe, causing civilization)
o Animals aren’t native to Europe; native to Middle East
o This is only due to the geography, couldn’t be as successful as Europeans in
crops
● When Atahualpa (emperor of the Incas, known as “Son of the Sun”) heard about
Spaniards, he didn’t decide to kill them.
o Instead, he decided to play a psychological game with them. He sent presents
in order to lure them into a trap.
o Unlike brethren, didn’t think they were gods. Instead, thought they were
subhuman for wearing wool and “pots on head” but didn’t use those “pots”
for cooking (thought this was crazy)
● November 15, 1532
o The Spaniards entered the valley and found 80,000 men in full battle order.
▪ “Saw nothing like it”
o They went to Atahualpa and wanted to intimidate him with their horse.
 ▪ He pretended like nobody was in the room, the horse came so close
that its breath was on his face and moved his hair but he didn’t move.
He finally said “it was time to pay (with their lives)”
● November 16, 1532
o Kahermanka was the town for both Spaniards and Incas to meet
▪ Incas came unarmed (they were celebrating by dancing and singing)
● Atahualpa thought that if he defeated them with no force, it
would show his people that he was “beyond gods”
o Priest tried to convert them, Atahualpa had no idea what book was or
writing; he disrespected it and Spaniards that were hidden, started attacking
▪ In order for Incas to survive with numbers, all they had to do was
stand firm (instead they ran away and horses would go amongst them,
Spaniards attacking them)
▪ They thought guns were incarnates of their god of thunder
o Kidnapped Atahualpa (tactic from war books)
▪ Learned from Hernan Cortez when he conquered Aztecs
● If you kidnap the king, people will do anything for them
▪ Didn’t kill him because Christians only killed in the “heat of battle”
● He stayed alive for a while, learned Spanish and played chess
with captors
● He held court in prison, as long as he told his people to accept
Spanish rule
▪ Ransomed for gold then strangled when received payment (melted
treasure of silver and gold to make payment; total was 20 tons)
● This was done to crush total resistance
● They then conquered the rest of the empire
o Europeans also had small pox, measles and plague
▪ Went through Inca Empire, making easier for conquest
▪ Attacked Mexico and taken to Spain then England (reached Inca
Empire through Spaniards)
▪ In terms of Native Americans, 95% died when it was taken to North
Africa
▪ Domestic animals provided germs (smallpox, measles) but contact
with them decreased risk
● Happened in Europe during Middle Ages, with exposure came
genetic resistance which was passed on to their children. Arabs
weren’t as at risk because they went through the first cycle of
plague via fleas and obtained immunity.
● Incas didn’t have this resistance
● Incas also didn’t live next to their animals (llamas in this case)
so there was no exchange between them (unlike for example,
Pizzaro who lived with his pigs (was a swine herder))
● With conquering, brought domestic animals (which came from
EuroAsia and North Africa) and diseases
● Another way of doing this was via trade
 o Blankets were traded with the Native Americans
(smallpox transferred on them because taken from
victims and given to others). Killed whole tribes
o Australians had some immunity because of their
trading with the Chinese

⮚ Writing was present in Europe in order to report farming transactions

o Spread with paper (from China), ink and printing press
o Aztecs had symbol writings but didn’t spread to Incas because too narrow
(easy to travel West to East)
▪ Easy to travel because same vegetation, day length while North to
South had different climates, vegetation which made it difficult. They
therefore became isolated from anything from North America
▪ Incas has wood with string and tied knots for memory (but not
writing)
Q. Why did the Spaniards use steel but the Incas bronze?
A. Trial and error happened outside Europe (in fertile crescent) but Europeans needed
lighter, stronger swords.

Q. Why did Pizzaro (with his 168 men) able to defeat 7000 of the Incas? Note that Pizzaro’s
men weren’t professional soldiers; they were retired soldiers and mercenaries
What part did geography play in power politics of world today?
Why did Europeans conquer New World (and not the other way around?)
A. They had strategy (books from previous conquests and knew how to conquer similar
populations) which was better than being king of the world (like Atahualpa). They also had
technology and its weaponry (i.e. learned from battle with weakened from civil wars and
internal corruption Islamic Empire, they fought in general for 700 years). They were
“accidental conquerors”; only due to their geographic location did they acquire guns germs
and steel

Q. Why didn’t the Greenland Vikings undergo any diseases?

A. The Vikings were in Greenland before the plague, were isolated in Greenland and didn’t
go through the Middle East to be in contact with the plague.
 Why do Some Societies Make Disastrous Decisions?
1. Failure to Anticipate (a future problem)
a. Global warming (which may be too late to fix later on)
b. Deforestation
c. Alien species in Australia
i. Weeds are an example (no species or weather conditions that controls
them, will not die off)
ii. Rabbits in Australia (foxes don’t control because not present)
1. They ate everything and killed off the native species
2. Failure to perceive (a problem)
a. Haiti (clearing forest/deforestation)
b. Landscape amnesia (can’t remember how it was like 10-20 years ago)
i. You always thought the landscape was like this because ancestors cut
down everything
c. Americans ignoring existence of Native Americans (thought nobody lived in
America before Europeans came)
d. Chad thinking that they were always poor when it’s not the case
3. Rationalizing Bad Behavior (Selfish Behavior)
a. Tragedy of the Commons
b. Poor nations dumping trash into the ocean saying the rich will clean it up
c. Cheating nation but family doing well so rationalizing that behavior
4. Disastrous Values
a. British making Australia look like Britain (gardens in desert doesn’t work)
b. Wasting resources for status
i. Nauru, instead of investing, started competing with each other
 Domestication
● Tel Abu Hurayrah
❖ Located in Syria/Jordan
❖ Earliest source of silo
❖ 7000 years ago, has wheat and barely (earliest accounts are present there and
it left a trace)
❖ Wheat and barely were dumped in a hole plastered with lime (from stone) to
grow and preserve
▪ It’s still there today
● Began 15,000 years ago and animals started showing genetic changes 10,000 years
ago (also started spreading)
● Humans crave sugar (fruit), salt (fish) and fat (sucked out of bone marrow)
o These three used to be the hardest things to get
⮚ Food foraging (hunting & gathering)
❖ Nomads (moving around)
❖ Small population
▪ Have to stay away for three years when a baby is born in order to
control the population (otherwise, if rule is broken and famine occurs,
the “illegitimate” child is the first to go, even if younger “legitimate”
children were born after it from other families)
❖ Varied Diet
▪ The !Kung San eat 67 different types of food
❖ Skilled based society
❖ Movement
❖ Egalitarian
▪ Equal (all related to each other, only headman)
● If the headman dies, the next one is the next strongest leader
(not necessarily the son)
▪ Achieved status
❖ Sharing
▪ Food would rot otherwise if not consumed in first 24 hours (no
storage)
● Would light a certain fire to let community know that they had
a good catch and to come and eat
● This allowed people from outside to come which will help mix
genes (rather than repeatedly marrying cousins since society is
mostly family)
❖ Jack of all trades
▪ If husband dies, widow has to hunt big game to provide
❖ Healthier life until drought happened
▪ Only worked for 4-6 hours a day (only providing for the day)
❖ Skirmishes
▪ Nothing serious because nothing to steal (no heavy items to carry
around)
 ▪ Maybe fight over dowry
❖ Wealth in skills
▪ Might carry hides to show history
▪ Wealth came from knowledge on what was edible, poisonous, medical
plants, how to hunt
❖ Simpler society
▪ Small and traveling
❖ Better status for women
▪ Equal status society
❖ No land ownership
❖ Hunting is 5% (usually small game) while gathering is 95%
▪ Hard to catch big game and rare
● Men did this (women had to stay close to home to nurse
children)
❖ Dogs were domesticated for hunting and protection (from wolves)
▪ They would round up the animal and bark (scaring animal) to bring
closer to hunter
❖ Governments don’t like nomads
▪ They can’t pay taxes, have no nationalities and cross borders freely
❖ !Kung San, Australian Aboriginals, Inuit fishermen
▪ !Kung San may throw thorny bush around houses to sleep without
lions attacking
● Otherwise, why else would they do it? People won’t attack
them because they have nothing
▪ Children start working at the age of four
● Start helping out, carrying things when they move
⮚ Food producing (farming)
❖ Settled
❖ Large Population
▪ More labor to clear more land
▪ This led to large villages for agriculture, development of cities
o Narrower staircases used as defense here
▪ Most of the gold would be stored on top of the
hill for protection
o Development of modern societies come out of this
❖ 2-3 crops
▪ Usually different types of grain (wheat, barely)
▪ You can’t have 67 different types of food as a farmer
❖ Monotonous exercise
▪ Same movement again and again
o One shoulder bigger than the other because pulling
o Women had strong forearms (but rest of the body was normal)
because continuously grinding food
▪ Had good teeth though (no cavities because no sugar yet)
❖ Stratified Society
 ▪ King would pass down crown to sons (because he had all the storage,
couldn’t give it to a commoner)
❖ Hoarding
▪ Neighbors weren’t known like in food foraging society
▪ Could store food, just in case had a bad year, would bury it and dig
up later
o If had 20 years worth of buried food, can sell those crops for
jewelry and other luxury goods even hired men to protect food
▪ This land would be given to descendants
o Inherited status
❖ Specialist “crafts”
▪ If was skilled at pottery, would trade for food
❖ Complex
▪ Large population and settled
▪ Can waste food because of status
▪ Spent 12-18 hours working a day because food could be kept as
storage
❖ Warfare
▪ People stored food and luxury goods
▪ When winning a war, you can now take over the army and become
new conquerors
❖ Domestication
▪ Because settled
❖ Wealth in luxury goods
❖ Once became food producer can’t go back
▪ Because now you’re settled and you’ll lose the knowledge what to eat
(if poisonous or not)
❖ Only way to go up in food producer class is to marry up (woman) or become
a warrior (fighting way up as man)
▪ No way to reach top pyramid of kings
▪ King
o Skilled workers
▪ Farmer’s labor
❖ Worse for women
▪ Slave, stay home and have children
▪ Can’t have skilled work like food forager because men take positions
❖ Have land ownership
▪ Clearing and putting crops, you don’t want anybody to steal after all
the hard work
❖ Horticulture (basic farming, no plow animals or irrigation, just digging
yourself)
▪ 50% of these would be taxes to the king
▪ Not much surplus, unlike agriculture
❖ Agriculture
▪ “Slash and burn”
 o Burning jungle, machete to stubs and in a year, the soil will
come back and crops grown. Repeat
o Wasteful practice
▪ Intensive agriculture
o One plot to grow again and again
o Eventually soil will become like sand (nutrients taken by
plants)
▪ Decaying plants, animal dung, modern phosphates will
bring nutrients back into the soil
o Salinization because irrigation water will cause soil to be salty
❖ Made the jump to from forager to producer because nice area found
▪ Always plants and animals like Nile, no need to move around
⮚ Pastoralists (moving with animals (nomadic))
❖ Not growing food for them, so moving to provide for them
▪ They’re in between food foragers and food producers
● They act like nomadic food foragers but they’re food
producers
❖ Zagres mountains become Hajar mountains in UAE
▪ Ancestors of the sheep and goat come from here (Iran)
❖ Bakhtiari in Iran, Nuer
⮚ Domestication (a change in the behavior between people, plants and animals)
❖ Changing wild animals into household animals
❖ Causes genetic change (choose what characteristics, breed those and
eat/discard the others)
▪ Basically selective breeding
❖ Tends to be a symbiotic relationship (both sides get something out of it
although not truly equal)
▪ Humans get animals, animals get food and shelter
▪ Plants get water, weeds and other competitive plants are taken out
❖ Can’t domesticate every animal
▪ Horses vs zebras, they have different personalities
● Zebras can’t be because have a fighter personality (to escape
predators)
❖ Geography affects domestication
▪ Good personality, big, can provide items
❖ Cats chose to be domesticated
▪ Not like dogs, who were chosen to be domesticated by people
Q. Were animals or plants domesticated first?
A. Probably animals because of the nomadic behavior (can’t take animals with you)
▪ Sheep needed should be fat, produce a lot of milk and wool and dumb
(aka sheep that can’t survive in the wild)
Kill-Off Pattern
Males are killed early on because they have no
milk, meat is not tender (tend to be more
muscular) and if too many males are present, will
have problems (i.e male bulls fighting)
Some must survive in order to continue domestication (if only have one male and he dies,
then you have an entire herd of females. Would have to go to another tribe, take their male
and would charge handsomely for it)

Some females are killed in the beginning

because they may be lame or blind (won’t live
well).
Most are killed later when they can’t breed
anymore and give no more milk

o Fodder
● Meat and barley grown for self
● Hay for the animals
o Cows started domestication in both Sudan and India
● Records show both at the same time
o Lions were never domesticated because they’re carnivores (will probably eat you)
● Also more diseases come from eating carnivores
● That’s why pigs have diseases (omnivores)
o One hump camels came first (specifically in Sharjah) then two hump
● Desert domestication
▪ Once this was done, had to build a wall in the desert to prevent
enemies from attacking (used to come only from sea but now since
camels are domesticated, can used them to attack directly in the
desert)
o Independent, innovation, invention
● Middle East, Mexico, China came up with agriculture and domestication
o Diffusion (copying ideas)
● Europe
o Tobacco came from the New World
● Originally used for rituals
 Haiti
▪ Hispaniola
o 1492 christofer colombus sales the ocean blue.
o One island, colonized by two different countries
▪ Taino (Native American people on island)
● 0.5 million were on island and it was heavily forested
▪ Eldarado as they see gold on Taino people. And want to find the
Spanish gold.
o Later they find a lot of gold in Peru (America) and take it from the people.
o In 1520 Espaigniola sugar that was a lucrative crop taken from new …
grown in Hispaniola …………. (find below page)
▪ Haiti by the French
● Overpopulated
● Poorest country in Americas and Caribbean
▪ Dominican Republic by the Spanish
● 28% still forested
● heavily populated
● Richer (surviving and doing okay)
● Become middle management in the US
● Most money spent at borders, because people from Haiti try to
come in
▪ Both countries killed all of the native people on the island when first
colonized
▪ The borders can be seen physically
Haiti cut down all its trees (deforestation and problems caused
by it) and living in extreme poverty
o Has 36 tons of topsoil and trash, only 1% of trees
remain
o Eating dirt cookies
▪ Water, sugar, vegetable shortening
▪ Fills stomach
▪ Sole source of income and food for most
▪ Only children (no adults eat it)
▪ Shows government corruption and waste
o Fish getting pushed further and further from the shore
▪ There are dead fish, copper inside fish
● Disease is worrisome from eating fish but
food trumps sickness
o Mudslides happen, too many disasters
▪ Soil goes into the sea (washed away) and kills
people
o Cutting down trees is their only way to survive
▪ Burned into charcoal and then used for heat (gas
stoves too expensive
 o Money and a stable government are needed
● Dominican Republic didn’t and it’s doing fine
⮚ In 1492, Spanish stopped and found gold (Christopher Columbus) that was useless
to native people because they couldn’t eat it
o Forced to work for Spanish and ended up being infected by Eurasian
diseases and dying
⮚ Colombus found that the earth is round from the Islamic empire. But he needed
maps and thus there was espionage.
⮚ Isabella and Ferdinand get married. It was the end f Islamic empire. Isabella inherit
land……….
⮚ Spanish inquisition ………..
⮚ Ferdinand does not want to fund Christopher Colombus. But Isabella sells her
jewelry to give colombus 3 ships.

Sugar
⮚ In 1520s, Spanish start growing sugar and bringing in slaves from Africa, as native
people were dying from germs and couldn’t grow crops
o Sugar is labour intensive. So they get slaves from outside. Thus slaves gets
international.
o Sugar eventually became too expensive to grow so they have gold instead
o French and British started becoming pirates to steal gold from Spanish as
they do not want to mine it.
o Port au Prince was a French set-up base in Haiti
o The rich Spanish people invest in Haiti.
o The local people of Haiti were Taino Indians
o The Spanish find it tough to take the gold from Hispaniola thus they stop
concentrating on it.
o The west 1/3 was taken over by the French and the other part of Hispaniola
by the Spanish (because of how many pirates there were, they had to make a
deal with the French)
▪ Haiti was frances richest colony however now it is really poor.
o
▪ The French decided they wanted sugar instead and decided to get new
slaves every 4 years
● This was cheaper and they didn’t need to feed their current
slaves because they’ll be replaced
● These slaves were worked to death
● Sugar was sold to Europe and the Americas
▪ Haiti was originally the strongest country because the Spanish were
ignoring them, they had sugar trade which made them rich and the
French army which sometimes tried to invade DR but the Spanish
pushed them back
o Toussant Louverture: Not only survives the slave life but also educates
himself. He convinces the people to revolt. Later he gets captured by the
French and died in their prison.
In 1804, successful slave rebellion happened in Haiti
o Now they’re their own country
o This happened many times but they were never successful
▪ Now French reduced army in Haiti to lessen costs, which allowed
them to be successful
o French said nobody can trade with slaves (treaties) even though people
wanted to
▪ “You stole our land and slaves (which are the Haitians)”
● Now you need to pay for yourself (the price you are to us) in
order to trade with others
o This led them to have a huge debt
▪ Americans didn’t want to trade with them because they were growing
their own sugar via slaves
● If they traded with Haiti, the American slaves may get ideas
and rebel
● Cause they were growing sugar so they could sell sugar if the
Haitis stopped growing sugar.
● Americans were good friends with French.
▪ Because nobody traded with them, they ended up doing subsistence
farming
● Growing for self
● Because they were the former slave population, they weren’t
educated and had a poor economy
o This allowed them to be easily controlled and for
dictators to rule
▪ Haiti started doing voodoo
● Mixed with Christianity and old religions (doing sacrifices)
o They were doing black magic in order to get control of
their lives
● Wade Davis also studies how zombies came from Haiti
o Created by poison in fish which lowered heart rate and
people would be buried (and redug) being zombie
“slaves”
 Modern Haiti
Haiti has less than 1% of its force left. Haiti is also over populated.
Haiti: By 1850’s they stopped growing sugar and started subsistence farming

Domanican Republic has 28% left.

They grow Sugar, Tobacco, Coffee and Cacao as they trade with Spanish people.
.

⮚ Francois “Papa Doc” Duvalier

o Complete dictator (controlling population via military)
o Took control in 1957
o Medical Doctor (better educated than Trujillo)
o Took money out of country (i.e aid money) and built a house in Paris and
spent it on his family
o Killed more of countrymen than Trujillo
o He died in 1971
⮚ “Baby Doc” Duvailer
o Takes over in 1971
o Son of “Papa Doc”
o Does same thing as father (stealing from country)
o People tried to have a coup to overthrow him
▪ This just destabilized South America which Americans didn’t want
▪ In 1986, Americans let him go to exile in Paris
● “We’ll let you go but don’t kill people”
o Dies in 2014
⮚ They take money from Haiti and go to france.

⮚ Dictators have left in Haiti:

o A politically unstable environment
o Weak economy
o Population with little to no education
▪ Get jobs as maids in Dominican Republic
o A carrying capacity that is plummeting
▪ Soil is no longer fertile
o Health problems
o Little to no export
▪ Coffee exports have stayed constant while population continues to
grow
o Main energy source is charcoal
▪ Burning trees until taken
▪ Only get about an hour of electricity a day, rest have to depend on
charcoal
 o War-zone like situation
o Still paying debt
▪ World Bank covered French debt but now Haiti owes money to World
Bank
o Little agriculture
▪ With subsistence farming, no surplus is available
o Don’t want people to come in or leave country
o Deforestation (most important point)
▪ When sugar was grown, trees were cut down
▪ When earthquakes happen, Dominican Republic is fine because it
bounces back due to their forests
● In Haiti, they get floods and then cholera
▪ Floods happening because trees not there to soak it in, soil runs into
ocean
● Soil in water will kill off coral reef, polluting fish and red tide
(via eutrophication)
o Nutrients from soil and water, algae blooms over
surface, fish eat this algae and get poisoned

Dominican Republic
Domanican Republic has 28% left.
They grow Sugar, Tobacco, Coffee and Cacao as they trade with Spanish people.

⮚ In 1844, Spanish pulled out of the Dominican Republic

o Spanish were getting weaker
o No resources were left anyways
o No fighting was done unlike Haiti
⮚ Rafael Trujillo
o From 1930s-1960s
o “Dictator”
▪ Not exactly one because he wasn’t bad for the country in a typical
sense
o He was a patriot and starts to develop the economy. Uses top-down
approach.
o Was a superior administrator (develops economy)
o Working for citizens (economic growth, distributing land to peasants)
o Killed opponents
o Begins as top down approach
▪ A ruler dictating things down
o Sets up the economy by setting up clothing manufacturing.
▪ Clothing manufacturing needs a lot of water and labour.
o Ran country like private business
o To prevent rebellion, spent half its budget on army, navy, air force, largest in
Caribbean, even larger than Mexico
 o Realizes the environment is important and begins to focus on environmental
problems
o Lost control of government because of decline in world prices of Dominican
exports and other factors and assassinated in 1961
⮚ In 1966, Joanqun Balaguer takes over
o Looking for long term growth and sustainability
o Environmental President
o Has daughter really into environment and therefore pays attention to it
o Maintaining forests is really important “makes strict laws to protect the
forest”.
o He starts setting up universities and built a middle cast through education.
o Want “water sheds” to build hydroelectric plants
▪ Need to protect forests to have water
o Makes sure there’s a good water supply for drinking and industry
▪ Water needed for factories as Dominican Republic makes lots of
clothes and the dye needs water
o Bans commercial logging and closes all saw mills
▪ This was done although they were making money out of the saw mills
▪ Illegal logging is a crime against security
● Illegal loggers used to go to jail but nobody took the law
seriously until Balaguer caught and executed 5 people
▪ He puts the forest in the military from the agriculture (now the
military has operations to protect the forests)
▪ Those who built in the forests (like his rich friends who built luxury
homes) had it bulldozed
o Fences built around homes should be from live rooted trees
o Wood, if needed, will be bought from South America
o Liquefied natural gas is used for oven
▪ Unlike charcoal used in Haiti
▪ This was affordable to government because hydroelectricity, which
was possible by rivers (were able to save money this way)
o 2 whale sanctuaries and 2 costal national parks (for water) were built
▪ The whale sanctuaries bring in American tourists which brings in
money
o Protects river and bans hunting for ten years
▪ After the ten years, the environment is reassessed to see if can start
again
▪ This is to control the ecosystem
o Protects the wetland and therefore controls the air pollution
▪ Any air pollution that comes, mostly comes from Haiti
o Miners come from the U.S but are taxed highly
▪ This money is given to the people
▪ As the money is used up to clean up the mines later
o Protects agricultural soils
 o Decides to add bottom up approach (democracy) by opening schools,
universities and environmental major in university
▪ There are too many environmentalists; they get hired by South
America as consultants and professors because they speak Spanish
▪ He puts environmental sciences in the environment as cannot afford
all courses.1
▪ Dominican Academy of Sciences is founded by him
o Leaves in 1996
o Dies in 2002
⮚ Dictators have left in Dominican Republic:
o Strong economic system
o Middle class that’s educated
▪ Less children because married in 20s
▪ Haitians get married at 13
▪ Go out and work (earnings sent back to country are significant
fraction of the economy)
o Good fisheries which are exported
o Forests
o Good soil for agriculture
o No toxins, no dumping dyies.
o Built 2 whale sanctuaries for tourism.
o Saved coral reefs
Five Point Framework (can compare because same region, sideways so same climate,
typhoons, etc. Not up and down like Mexico and South America)
⮚ Human impact on the environment
o Haiti:
▪ 1% of forests left, erosion going into ocean
● Mostly caused by French, bringing in slaves and taking
Haitian timber
▪ Massive floods because soil no longer available
▪ Getting cholera from poor sanitation and water born disease
o Dominican Republic:
▪ 28% forests
⮚ Climate Change (making the situation worse in Haiti)
o Haiti:
▪ Strong typhoons, hitting country harder because of deforestation
● Flooding causing disease
o Dominican Republic:
▪ No effect
▪ Mangrove forests are hit by typhoons and bounces back (country has
little to no effect)
⮚ Disappearance of Friendly Neighbors:
o Haiti:
▪ Since politically unstable, friends disappearing (aid getting sucked to
gov)
 ▪ “French in a Spanish speaking world”
● Can’t go out like Dominican Republic and find jobs
▪ If friends, not equal friendship
● It’s more out of pity from aid agencies and NGOs
● Haiti doesn’t give back
o Dominican Republic:
▪ Lost no friends
▪ Actually has friends because speaking Spanish
⮚ Appearance of Hostile Neighbors
o Haiti:
▪ French in the past
o Dominican Republic
▪ Neither
⮚ Choices
o Haiti:
▪ Dictators sucked money, no policies, now suffering
o Dominican Republic:
▪ Dictators changed and saved environment
Q. Why did Haiti make disastrous decisions?
A. Didn’t anticipate deforestation
Failed to perceive problem (landscape amnesia; easy to forgot, always thought
deforestation happened, land was like this. Don’t remember it should look different).
Government also not perceiving problem and living on aid
Rationalizing bad behavior (cutting trees because “if I don’t, my neighbor will”)
Disastrous Values (short term thinking; you know eating poisonous fish with copper, but
living today. Will kill eventually. Voodoo (somebody cursed me)

In case of Australia, had only trading with UK (disastrous value) and racist policies
 China
⮚ Significant in resources
⮚ China deal with top down
⮚ One of the last communist countries
o Not true communism but used to sharing tings
▪ Form of communism works because of family culture (have to listen
to the head of the family)
⮚ Big economy and population
o Like DRC but without the economy
⮚ 1770s the UK had its industrial revolution
⮚ 1840s-1850s the rest of the world did
⮚ 1960s China did
o Now have to catch up via shortcuts
▪ Importing
▪ Polluted environment via factories
⮚ Problems:
1. Air problems (weather so bad, sometimes won’t go outside)
▪ Stopped factories 3 months before and cars for the week of the Beijing
Olympics to temporarily clean the air
▪ Coal burning factories (coal is cheapest fuel)
▪ Cars and those that manufacture cars
2. Water Pollution
▪ Factories
▪ Throwing waste in water and going into sea
▪ Farming
● Using a lot of fertilizer
● Algae blooms (eutrophication) which goes into water
3. Soil Problems
▪ Salinization
● Irrigating again and again in same plot of land without
removing salts
● Too much agriculture (because high population)
4. Wetland
▪ Marshy lands, high biodiversity areas
▪ Good for rice production, trade or factories (because water nearby)
▪ Mangrove forests
● High biodiversity
● Important for tsunamis (stops and protect land)
5. Per capita impact
▪ Larger economy, everyone wants a car, traffic increases and drains
the environment
▪ 20 pounds of plants = 1 pound of meat
● Now 10 farms are needed for one family vs one
● Trying to become more Westernized
6. Grassland degradation (famous for having really good soil)
▪ Used for sheep and cattle
 ● Exports of China
● People want more meat in their diets because status (like
Westerners)
o This is not native to China because their diet is usually
some meat and lots of vegetables
● Destructive because grazing by pulling roots
● Get dust storms and turning into desert (soil blowing away)
7. Desertification and deforestation
▪ Cutting down to make furniture
● Unlike Sweden, not regrowing trees
● This is done to make money quickly
▪ Cessation of river flow (because one big flow now, like Haiti)
▪ Soil erosion
8. Trash accumulation
▪ More trash around (and dangerous)
▪ From factories (poisonous)
▪ Buying American trash like technology
● Goes through phones because trying to salvage minerals
o Good recycling but bad because trash dumped
9. Invasive species
▪ Don’t belong there
▪ Because they decided to grow so fast, brought other species
10. Habitat Loss (especially wildlife)
11. Urbanization
▪ One child policy for cities (not in rural)
▪ Modern and educated, so have children later
▪ Households growing (because becoming more Westernized)
● Used to have all family under one roof
● 2.5 people in a household in 2015 so decreasing
● Single men and women never used to live alone, now they do
o Using loads of resources (used to share cooking fire,
now don’t)
o Growth of cities because population moving into them
o Now each needs electricity
12. Eutrophication
▪ Fertilizer gets into water (like phosphates) and algae grows
13. Overusing aquifers
▪ Underground water (water that seeps underground)
▪ Dangerous to everyone
▪ Can get used up quickly if using too fast (will drain aquifer)
● Losing money because too fast
● Usually replenished over time
● Because top down approach, moves family after it runs out
14. Rich are increasing but resources decreasing
▪ Millions owning places, per capita impact happening
Chinese leaders calculated economic cost and estimated money loss and population
problems
▪ Need to make changes
 Australia
⮚ UK wanted to colonize therefore needed British on ground and to get rid of the UK
population
⮚ Per capita impact increasing
⮚ Country of immigrants
1. Originally from UK (population was too large and lost Americas and dumped
prisoners to Australia)
2. Penile colony (prison colony)
▪ Do hard labor for government then free somewhere in Australia
(can’t go back to UK)
▪ Most of upper management could go back
⮚ Problems:
o Tyranny of distance
▪ Australia controlled by homeland halfway across world (trading,
fashion, lifestyle, etc)
⮚ Five Point Framework
o Human impact on environment (huge)
▪ One of oldest continents in world (not like Polynesia)
▪ Not fertile but could support locals
▪ When British arrived, wanted bread, sheep and cattle
● Ways of proving wealth was through livestock
o Climate Change
▪ Getting hotter and hotter (hole in ozone hit Australia first)
● Skin cancer
o Disappearance of friendly neighbors
▪ UK but Australia closer to Asia
● Tyranny of distance here
● Instead of getting Chinese things, get UK (too expensive and
far away)
● Now beginning to trade with Chinese (raw minerals like steel
are sent from Australia) and Middle East (goat and sheep
meat)
o Enemies
▪ Used to be Japan in WWII (New Guinea had them as enemies)
▪ Now, nobody
▪ Used to be worried about the Asians (different culture, religions)
● Racist, wanted a “white Australia” and would pay people from
UK to live in Australia
o Choices
▪ In past was “mining” resources
● Used mining because non renewable
● Soil exploited for nutrients
● Mining resources like sheep (nature)
o Would eat everything and move
▪ Because big country
▪ Can’t be done anymore so need to make changes
▪ Ecological imperialism
● Looking at land and saying too foreign, want to make home
● British brought rabbits, foxes, sparrows, grass for cows
o Invasive species were introduced
▪ Some don’t last
▪ Some wipe out national population
▪ Had forests in Australia
● Building houses and some trees for Britain but now became
managed
● North and east only (not many forests)
● Were cut down (nutrients were in trees, therefore became
deserts)
o No longer in soil
▪ Change in core values
● Different communities moving in (Lebanese, Greek)
● Used to be British values now Asian (Australian identity)
▪ Hope in region because can choose
● Changing attitude of young Australians
o More sustainable practices (bringing more Asians) and
farming
● Stopping cattle ranching and now moving to kangaroo meat
o This is managed so they don’t become extinct
 One Liner Objections
⮚ “The environment has to be balanced against the economy.”
o Environmental concerns shown as a luxury and that leaving environmental
problems unsolved will save money
o This is false because environmental messes cost huge sums of money in both
short and long run
▪ Cleaning up or preventing saves huge sums in long run (sometimes
short run)
▪ Example is just like our health, cheaper and preferable to avoid
getting sick than trying to cure illness after they developed
▪ Damage caused by pests, value of lost time stuck in traffic, financial
cost of people getting sick or dying from toxins, steep increase in fish
prices due to depletion in fish stocks, value of farmland damaged or
ruined by erosion and salinization.
▪ If assuming value of human life in US $5 million, losing $650 million a
year because of air pollution deaths
▪ Clean Air Act costs money but has yielded estimated net health
savings (benefits in excess of costs) of about $1 trillion a year because
of saved lives and reduced health costs
⮚ “Technology will solve our problems”
o Faith about the future
▪ Based on supposed track record of technology solving more problems
than it created in past
▪ Assuming that will no longer create problems, only solve them
▪ Also assuming that all technology in development now will succeed
and will make an impact soon
o This is false because some technologies succeed and other don’t
▪ If they succeed, takes few decades to develop and phase in widely i.e.
gas heating, cars, airplanes, etc
▪ If they succeed in solving problem created for, regularly create
unanticipated new problems
● Billions of dollars of damages and cleanup costs associated
with major oil spills vs modest cost of safety measure effective
at minimizing risks
▪ Current problems are unintended negative consequences of existing
technology
● Creating difficult new problems faster than solving old ones
▪ Unforeseen harmful side effects of new technological solutions i.e
CFCs in fridges and motor vehicles
● Cars used to be praised for being cleaner and quieter than
horses, but people today can’t imagine how cars would be
praised
● Old fridges were fatal if appliance leaked while homeowner
asleep at night
o CFCs created to be non-toxic and highly stable so no
bad side effects
 o Then discovered that were broken down by intense UV
to yielded highly reactive chlorine atoms that destroy
significant fraction of ozone, letting in ultraviolet rays.
This initially was doubted because of how much money
poured in and genuine doubts by scientific community
o But now too late, already in atmosphere and breaking
down slowly, so will still be a problem for many decades
after end of all production (still producing in China)
⮚ “If we exhaust one resource, we can always switch to some other resource meeting
the same need.”
o Optimists
o False because they ignore unforeseen difficulties and long transition times
▪ Example being electric cars (supposed to help fossil fuel dependency
but where is it?)
▪ SUVs and hybrid cars being developed at the same times, SUVS are
outselling hybrids (not sure how to make sure that technology only
yields environment-friendly effects and products without yielding
unfriendly effects and products)
● Fuel consumption and exhaust production going up rather
than down
▪ i.e. renewable energy like solar power can only be used at locations
with reliable sunlight and conversion time for adoption takes several
decades because institutions and secondary technologies associated
needs to be changed
▪ All of these speculations are for distant future, taking away the issue
that these are needed now
⮚ “There really isn’t a world food problem; there is already enough food; we only
need to solve the transportation problem of distributing that food to places that
need it.”/ “The world’s food problem is already being solved by the Green
Revolution, with its new high-yield varieties of rice and other crops, or else it will be
solved by genetically modified crops.”
o First World have no interest in eating less so Third World can eat more
o First World may occasionally export food to mitigate starvation occurring by
a crisis (like drought or war) in certain Third World countries, but have no
interest in paying on a regular basis (via tax dollars) to feed billions of Third
World citizens
▪ If it did happen, without effective family planning programs, would
have Malthus’s problem (an increase in population proportional to
increase in available food)
o Genetically modified food can’t be used
▪ Population isn’t stationary while developing these
▪ Not eaten directly by humans but used for animal fodder or clothes
and only grown in six countries
● People against eating it
● GM companies make money selling to rich farmers but not
poor
⮚ “As measured by commonsense indicators, such as human lifespan, health and
wealth (in economists’ terms, per-capita gross national product or GNP), conditions
have actually been getting better for many decades.”/”Just look around you: the
grass is still green, there is plenty of food in the supermarkets, clean water still flows
from the taps, and there is absolutely no sign of imminent collapse.”
o This is case in First World and Third World in terms of lifespan
▪ Not sufficient indicator, while 80% of world’s population still live in
poverty, near or below the starvation level
▪ Still lacking affordable medical care and “providing everyone with
health insurance paid by the government” isn’t acceptable. Can see
this today with Obamacare, Trump removed it)
o Spending capital is misrepresented as making money
▪ Only looks like living good life because on unsustainable course that
will crash in near future
● Can see in past societies like Easter Islanders that society’s
steep decline may begins only a decade or two after society
reaches peak numbers, wealth and power
o This is because this means also maximum
environmental impact, where impact outstrips
resources
⮚ “Look at how many times in the past the gloom-and-doom predictions of
fearmongering environmentalists have proved wrong. Why should we believe them
this time?”
o True in the sense like how people predicted five metals’ prices would rise in
the 1980s
o False because shouldn’t only look at environmental predictions that failed,
should also look at ones that were right
▪ Green Revolution will solve world’s hunger problem
▪ Economist view that we could feed the world’s population as it grows
for the next 7 billion years
▪ “Copper can be made from other elements” when it’s an element itself
and can’t create another element
▪ Complaint about false alarms
● But they should be, otherwise environmental warning system
was being too conservative
● Complaint that air isn’t as bad as predicted, but that’s because
countermeasures (like vehicle emission standards, lead-free
gas) were able to be adopted
⮚ “The population crisis is already solving itself, because the rate of increase of the
world’s population is decreasing, such that world population will level off at less
than double its present level.”
o World’s present population is living at a non-sustainable level
▪ Many people malnourished and living on less than $3 a day
o Much larger increase in human impact if Third World’s population succeeds
in attaining First World living standard
⮚ “The world can accommodate human population growth indefinitely. The more
people, the better, because more people mean more inventions and ultimately more
wealth.”
o Countries with the most people and those with the highest affluence (per-
capita real GDP) are not the same (only U.S. is on both lists)
▪ Affluent countries have very low relative population growth rates (1%
per year or less)
o More people and a higher population growth rate mean more poverty, not
more wealth
⮚ “Environmental concerns are a luxury affordable just by affluent First World
yuppies, who have no business telling desperate Third World citizens what they
should be doing.”
o Cannot continue this course in the First World
o First World don’t know the price environmental problems are paying, unlike
Third World, because they lose free timber for houses, soil erosion and
inability to afford clothes, books and school fees for children
▪ Corrupt government has ordered forest to be logged
▪ Signed logging lease because no other way to get money for children
▪ First World is fine continuing lifestyle because problems fall on Third
World
● Can avoid problems of water quality by drinking bottled water
but still have exposure to same problems of food and air
quality
⮚ “If those environmental problems become desperate, it will be at some time far off
in the future, after I die, and I can’t take them seriously.”
o Not true when most problems now will be acute within lifetime of young
adults now alive
o Not fair to do this when should be securing a good life for your children
⮚ “There are big differences between modern societies and those past societies of
Easter Islanders, Maya and Anasazi who collapsed, so that we can’t
straightforwardly apply lessons from the past.”/”What can I, as an individual do,
when the world is really being shaped by unstoppable powerful juggernauts of
governments and big businesses?”
o Can say not relevant because they didn’t have modern technology which lets
us solve problems by inventing new environment-friendly technology. They
had leaders who didn’t learn history and only cared about staying in power
o False because more people alive today, more potent technology that impacts
environment than in past
▪ In past only had stone chisels and human muscle power while we have
bulldozers and they still managed to cause demise of society
▪ Globalization