1

INTRODUCTION

Calculus is a mathematical theory which is based primarily on the

concept of a limit.

Limit can be described as a value approached by a variable quantity that

is changes in some prescribed manner.

Derivative can be associated with the problem of determining the

instantaneous rate of change of position of a moving body.

Integral can be associated with the problem of determining a definition for

the area of a plane geometric figure when some of its boundaries are
curved.

Constant is a quantity that maintains fixed value throughout a particular

problem.

Numerical or Absolute constants such as 2,√5, and π, retain the same

values in all problems.

Arbitrary constants remain constant in a particular problem but may

assume different values in other problems.

Variable is a quantity that may assume various values in the course of a

problem, and the set of values that it assumes is called the domain and
range of the variable.

Differential Calculus is the study of finding the derivative of a given

function.
 2

Chapter 1

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Basic Principles

Relation is a set of ordered pairs of real number.

Domain is a set of all first coordinates of the ordered pairs.

Range is a set of all second coordinates of the ordered pairs

Illustration

A  {1, 4  ,  2, 3 ,  3, 7 }
A is a relation.

1, 2, 3 are the domain of the relation.

4, 3, and 7 are the range of the relation

Example:

Find the domain and range of the relation B  { 0, 2  ,  2, 0  ,  3, 4  , 1, 7 }

Solution:

D  {0, 2,3,1}

R  {2, 0, 4, 7}

Function is a relation such that has no two ordered pairs have the same
first coordinate.

Illustration

B  { 0,1 , 1, 2  ,  2,3}

B is a relation that is a function

 3

D are 0, 1, and 2. Take note no two distinct ordered pairs have the same
first coordinate.

If f is a function and if  x, y   f then we can write this as y  f  x  , where

y is the second coordinate of the ordered pairs whose first coordinate is x.
We can also write the ordered pair  x, y  as  x, f  x   . We read f  x  as
“f of x” or “f at x”.

Illustration

Find the range g  { x, y  | y  2 x  1, x  0,1, 2,3}

When x = 0

y  2x 1
y  2 0 1
y  1

When x=1

y  2x 1
y  2 1  1
y 1

When x=2

y  2x 1
y  2  2  1
y3

When x=3

y  2x 1
y  2  3  1
y5

Therefore, R   0,1,3, 5 .

g  { 0,1 , 1,1 ,  2,3 ,  3,5 }

 4

TWO METHODS OF DEFINING A RELATION OR A FUNCTION

1. Roster method or Listing of elements – the elements of set is listed.

2. Rule Method – can be described in the rule form, where the domain
is already specified.

Illustration 1:

C  {1,1 ,  2, 2  ,  3, 3 ,  4, 4 }

in rule form,

C  { x, y  | y  x, x  1, 2, 3, 4}

Illustration 2:

A  {1, 2  ,  2,3 ,  3, 4  ,  4,5 }

in rule form,

A  { x, y  | y  x  1, x  1, 2,3, 4}

Illustration 3:

B  { 0, 2 1,5  ,  2,8  ,  3,11}

in rule form,

B  { x, y  | y  3 x  2, x  0,1, 2,3}
 5

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 1

A. Determine whether the following relations are functions. On the

blank before each number, write F if the relation is a function and
NF if not.

_____ 1. A  {1, 4  ,  2, 7  ,  2, 4  ,  3, 7 }

_____ 2. B  { o, 2  ,  p,3 ,  q, 4  ,  r,5 }

_____ 3. C  { x, y  | y  3 x  2, x  1, 2, 0}

_____ 4. D  { 0,1 , 1, 2  ,  1, 2  ,  2,3 ,  2, 3}

_____ 5.

x 3 0 3 12

y -1 0 1 2

_____ 6. y  x 2  1

_____ 7. x  3

_____ 8. y  3

_____ 9. y  x  1

_____ 10. y  x
 6

GRAPHS AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

The graph of a function, or generally an equation is the totality of points

whose coordinate satisfy the given function or equation. The graph is
done by plotting the coordinates in the rectangular coordinate system.

The Vertical Line Test

If the graph of a relation is known, a vertical line test tells whether the
relation is a function. If the vertical line intersects the graph of the
relation in more than one point, then these represent points of the
relation with same x-coordinate but different y-coordinate. Hence, this
does not conform to the definition of a function.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

Linear Function – the degree of the polynomial function is one, written

as ax  by  c  0 . The graph of this function is a line.

Quadratic Function – the degree of the polynomial function is two,

written as y  ax 2  bx  c. The graph of this function is a parabola
opening upward if a>0, and downward if a<0.

Cubic Function – the degree of the polynomial function is three. The

graph of this function is symmetric with respect to its origin.

Constant Function – the degree of the polynomial is zero, y  a . The

graph of this function is a horizontal line.

Rational Function – a function expressed as the quotient of two

x 1
polynomials. For example, y  the line x=2 is called the vertical
x2
2 y 1
asymptote of the graph. Upon solving for x, yields x  the line
y 1
y=1 is called the horizontal asymptote of the graph.

Absolute Value Function – this function is denoted by y=|x|. The

graph of this function is a V-shape with vertex at origin.
 7

GRAPH OF A FUNCTIONS

1. y=x

2. y=|x|

3. y=x2

4. y=-x
 8

5. y=-|x|

6. y=x3

1
7. y 
x

1
8. y  
x
 9

9. y=sinx

10. y=cosx
 10

Example:

1. y  x
Solution:
Domain: x  0
Range: y  0
Graph:

2. y | x |
Solution:
Domain: All real numbers
Range: y  0
Graph:

3. y=x3
Solution:
Domain: All real numbers
Range: All real numbers
Graph:

4. y  x  2
 11

Solution:
Domain: x  2  0; x  2
Range: y  0
Graph:

x2
5. y 
x 1
Solution:
Domain: x  1
Range:
x2
y
x 1
 x  1 y  x  2
xy  y  x  2
xy  x  y  2
x  y  1  y  2
y2
x ; y 1
y 1
Graph:
 12

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 2

A. Find the domain and range of the following functions.

1. y  x 3  1

2. y  x  4

3. y  16  x 2

4. y  x 2  1
 13

COMPUTATION OF FUNCTIONS

x=independent variable

y=dependent variable

y=f(x)

Example

Let f  x   2 x 3  3 x 2  5 x  2 , find:

1. f 1
2. f  1
3. f  3 
Solution:
f 1  2 1  3 1  5 1  2
3 2
a.
f 1  2  3  5  2
f 1  4

f  1  2  1  3  1  5  1  2

3 2
b.
f  1  2  3  5  2
f  1  2

f  3  2  3  3  3  5  3  2

3 2
c.
f  3  54  27  15  2
f  3  64
 14

OPERATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

Given two functions y1  f  x  and y2  g  x 

Sum of two functions
Difference of two functions
Product of two functions
Quotient of two functions
y1  y2  f  x   g  x    f  g  x
y1  y2  f  x   g  x    f  g  x
y1 y2  f  x   g  x    f  g  x
y1 f  x   f 
    x; g  x   0
y2 g  x   g 

Example:

Given: y1  x 2  4; y2  x  2 `
f  x
Compute for f  x   g  x  ; f  x   g  x  ; f  x   g  x  ; and
g  x
Solution:
a. f  x   g  x   y1  y2   x 2  4    x  2   x 2  x  2

b. f  x   g  x   y1  y2   x 2  4    x  2   x 2  x  6

c. f  x   g  x   y1  y2   x 2  4    x  2   x3  2 x 2  4 x  8

f  xy1  x  4 
2

d.    x2
g  x  y2  x  2 
 15

COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

Let f and g be functions, the composition of f with g is denoted by

f  g (read as “f circle g”) is defined by

 f  g  f  g  x  

where the domain f  g consists of all members of x in the domain of g

which g  x  is domain of f.

Example:

Given: f  x   x 2  2 and g  x   x  1 find

a. f  g  x  

b. g  f  x  

Solution

f  g  x     x  1  2
2
a.

f  g  x    x 2  2 x  1  2

f  g  x    x 2  2 x  3

b. g  f  x     x 2  2   1

g  f  x    x 2  1
 16

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 3

A. Perform the indicated operation.

1. if f  x   x 2  2 , Find f 1 ; f  2 

2x 1
2. if f  x   , find: f 1 ; f  14 
x 1

B. Express the following function by a formula.

1. The radius of the sphere as a function of the volume.

2. The surface area of a cube as a function of the length of an

edge.

3. The altitude of the right triangle as a function of the base, if the

hypotenuse is given

4. The surface area of a cube as a function of the volume of the

cube.

5. The height of a cylindrical can as a function of the diameter of

18π sq.m. sheet metal are used.
 17

LIMITS OF A FUNCTIONS

Limits such as this can be expressed formally as f  x  approaches the

limit value L as x approaches the constant a.

lim f  x   L
x a

if for any  0 however small, there exist a,   0 such that

| f  x   L | whenever 0 | x  a | 

x 1 0
lim  may or may not have a limit
x 1 x2  1 0

x 1 x 1 1 1 1
But lim  lim  lim  
x 1 x 1
2 x 1  x  1 x  1 x 1 x 1 11 2

Consider the function defined by:

x2  x  2
f  x  x-1>0,x=1
x 1

f  x 
 x  2  x  1 is undefined when x =1
x 1

f  x  x  2 ; x  1

Left hand limit | | x  a-

Right hand limit | | x a+

 18

THEOREM ON LIMITS

Theorem 1

The limit of a constant as x approaches a is the constant.

lim c  c , lim x  a
xa x a

Theorem 2

The limit of the sum of two or more functions is equal to the sum of
their limits.

lim[ f  x   g  x ]  lim f  x   lim g  x 

x a x a x a

Theorem 3

The limit of the product of two or more functions is equal to the

product of their limits.

lim[ f  x   g  x ]  lim f  x   lim g  x 

x a x a x a

Theorem 4

The limit of the quotient of two or more functions is equal to the

quotient of their limits, provided that the limit of denominator is not zero.

f  x lim f  x 
lim
xa g  x
 xa

lim g  x 
provided that lim
x a
g  x  0
xa

Corollary: if the limit of the denominator of the quotient is zero and:

a. the limit of the numerator of the quotient is also zero the

quotient may or may not have a limit.
b. the limit of the numerator of the quotient is not zero then the
quotient has no limit.
 19

Example: Find

x3  8
1. lim 9 2. lim  x 2  4 x  1 3. lim
x 5 x 1 x2 x2

x2  4 x3  3x
4. lim 2 5. lim
x2 x  4 x  4 x 0 9 x

Solution

1. lim 9  9
x5

2. lim  x 2  4 x  1
x 1

 lim x 2  lim 4 x  lim 2

x 1 x 1 x 1

 11  4 1  2
7
x3  8
3. lim
x2 x2
 x  2  x2  2 x  4
 lim
x2 x2
 lim  x  2 x  4 
2
x2

  2  2  2  4
2

 444
 12
x2  4
4. lim 2
x 2 x  4 x  4

 lim
 x  2  x  2 
x  2  x  2  x  2 

 lim
 x  2
x 2  x  2 

22

22
4
 no limit
0
x3  3x 0  0
5. lim  0
x 0 9 x 9
 20

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 4

x3  7 x  6
1. lim 3
x 3 2 x  11x 2  12 x  9

 x  1 x  2  x  3
2. lim
x 3  2 x  1 x  3 x  3

x 3  27
3. lim
x 3 x3

s 3  27
4. lim
s 3 s  3
 21

EVALUATING LIMITS

Right Hand Limit (RHL)

lim f  x   Ra  means as
x a 
x approaches a from the right.
Left Hand Limit (LHL)

lim f  x   Ra  means as
x a 
x approaches a from the left.

LHL RHL

Example:

Let f be defined by the equation f  x   x4

a. Draw the sketch of the graph f  x 

b. Determine lim f  x  if it exist

x a

c. Determine lim f  x   f  a  if it exist

x a
 22

a.

b. lim f  x   lim x  4  0
x  4 x 4

c. lim f  x   lim x  4 which does not exist since x  4 is not real

x  4 x 4

number.
 23

CONTINUITY

A function f  x  is said to be continuous at x  a if the following conditions

are all satisfied:

i. f  a  exist
ii. lim f  x  exist
xa

iii. lim f  x   f  a 
x a

Example:

x2  1
1. Is f  x   continuous at x=1?
x 1
0
i. f 1  Since condition i. is no longer satisfied, then f  x  is
0
discontinuous at x =1
|x|
2. Is f  x   continuous at x =0?
x
0
i. f  0   Thus, f  x  is discontinuous at x =0
0
3. Is f  x   x continuous at x =0?
i. x when x  0 is 0 0
ii. lim x does not exist since lim x has no limit.
x 0 x 0
 24

INFINITE DISCONTINUITIES

If an infinite function increases without bound as x approaches a , then

the function has infinite discontinuity at x  a .

It may happen that f  x  may become large and positive, or large and
negative so we write:

lim f  x    or lim f  x   
x a x a

Note that the symbol  is not a number but merely a notation for a certain
characteristics or behavior of the graph that it may tend to go up or down
indefinitely.

Example:

3 x3  2 x 2  7
lim
x  5 x 4  x  3

3 x3 2 x 2 7
4
 4  4
 lim x 4 x x
x  5 x x 3
 
x4 x4 x4
3 2 7
 2 4
 lim x x x
x  1 3
5 3  4
x x
000

500
0
 0
5

1
Note: lim 0
x  x

Rule: Divide both numerator and denominator by highest degree of the

variable.
 25

UNBOUNDED LIMITS

1. lim f  x   
xa

2. lim f  x    .
x a

3. lim f  x   
x a

Example:

3
1. g  x  
 x  2
2

3
lim  
 x  2
x2 2

2x
2. f  x 
x 1
2x
lim  
x 1 x 1
2x
lim  
x 1 x  1

2x
lim  
x 1 x  1
 26

FOUR STEP RULES

Increments

If a variable x changes from one fixed value x1 to another x2, the difference
x1-x2 called an increment of x. In general, an increment of x may be
positive or negative and is denoted by symbol x , read as “delta x”.
Similarly, y denotes an increment u, f  x  an increment of f  x  and so
on.

Let y be a continuous, single-valued function of x denoted by

y  f  x

If the independent variable changes from the value x to another value

x  x , the function will change from y to y  y ; thus

y  y  f  x  x 

Subtracting from (1) and (2), we obtained the increment of the function

y  f  x   f  x  x   f  x 

Derivative

If an increment y of a function y  f  x  is divided by x , the quotient

gives the average rate of change of y with respect to x in the interval from
x  x . Symbolically,

y f  x   x   f  x 

x x

y
Find the limit of as x approaches zero
x

The procedure for finding the derivative of a given function may be

summarized in the following four step rule.

1. Substitute x  x for x and y  y in y  f  x 

2. Subtract y  f  x  from the result of 1 to obtain y in terms of x
and x
3. Divide both sides of 2 by x
 27

f  x  x   f  x 
4. Find the lim
x  0 x

dy
Example: Find
dx

1. y  f  x   x 2  2 x  1

i. f  x  x   f  x    x  x   2  x  x   1   x 2  2 x  1
2
 
 x 2  2 x   x     x   2 x  2  x   1  x 2  2 x  1
2

 2 x  x  2  x   x 
2

f  x  x   f  x  x x x
ii.  2x  2  x
x x x x
f  x  x   f  x  dy
iii. lim  lim  2 x  2  x    2x  2
x  0 x x 0 dx
2. f  x  x

 x  x  x 
i. f  x  x   f  x    x  x  x 
 x  x  x

   x
2 2
x  x

 x  x  x 
f  x  x   f  x  x  x  x
ii. 
x  x  x  x x 
f  x  x   f  x  1 dy 1
iii. lim    y'
x  0 x  x  x  x  dx x x

1

2 x
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Exercise 5

Determine all the values of x for which the given function is continuous.
Indicate which theorem you apply.

1. g  x   x2  4

2. f  x   16  x 2

x4
3. h x 
x4

 
3
f  x   x 2 x 2  x
 12
4.

5. f  x   1  x  1  1  x 