Table F.2 Stiffness of Beams in The Case of Frames With Fixed Nodes

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(5) When the beams are not subjected to axial forces, their stiffness can be determined in
accordance with tables F.2, F.3, provided that the beams remain in the elastic range under
the action of the calculation moments.
Table F.2 Stiffness of beams in the case of frames with fixed nodes
Case Stiffness K of beams in the case of frames with fixed nodes
I
1 5,0K
L
I
2 75,0K
L
I
3 0,1K
L
Table F.3 Stiffness of beams in the case of frames with movable nodes
Case Stiffness K of beams in the case of frames with movable nodes
I
1
5,1K
L
I
2
75,0K
L
I
3 0,1K
L
K1
Distribution factor 1
Q11 K12
Pole to check KC
K21 K22
Distribution factor 2
K2
Figure F.3. Distribution factors for continuous columns

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Translated by Google
(6) For the structures of buildings in rectangular frames with concrete slabs, with
regular structure topology and uniform loading, the rigidities from table F.4 can be adopted
for the beams.
Table F.4 Stiffness of a beam from a reinforced concrete slab structure
The stiffness K of a beam from a structure with reinforced concrete slabs
Structure with fixed Structure with

Load conditions for gravel nodes moveable nodes
I I
Beams that directly support the reinforced 0,1 0,1
concrete plane L L
I I
Other directly loaded beams 75,0 0,1
L L
I I
Beams subjected only to the action of the 5,0 5,1
moments at the ends L L
(7) If the calculation moment of a beam exceeds the moment of elastic resistance
Wel fy / M0, the beam can be considered hinged at that point.
(8) If the beams are subjected to axial stresses, their stiffness must be corrected accordingly. Stability
functions can be used for this. A simple alternative consists in neglecting the excess stiffness due to
axial stretching and considering the effects of axial compression with the approximate values shown
in tables F.5 and F.6.
Table F.5 Stiffness of beams in the case of frames with fixed nodes
Case Stiffness K of beams in the case of frames with fixed nodes
I N
1. 5,0K 0,11
L NO
I N
2. 75,0K 0,11
L NO
I N
3. 0,1K 4,01
L NO
22
in which: LINE
AND
Table F.6 Stiffness K of beams in the case of frames with movable nodes
Case Stiffness K of beams in the case of frames with movable nodes
I N
1. 5,1K 2,01
L
NO
I N
2. 75,0K 0,11
L
NO
I N
3. 0,1K 4,01
L
NO
in which: LINE 22
AND
(9) The following relationships can be used as an alternative to the values given in the diagrams in figures
F.1 and F.2:
(a) frames with fixed nodes:
l 145,01 265,0
f 21 21
(F.3)
L 364,02 247,0
21 21
(b) frames with movable nodes: ( )
5.0
l 2,01 12,0
f 21 21
(F.4)
L 8,01 21 21 60,0
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F.3. Dissipative bar stiffeners
(10) Figures F.4, F.5 and F.6 show how the stiffeners are placed on the
short, long and intermediate dissipative bars.
a
It is
a-a a a a a
tst
bst
hw
tw
b
a
Figure F.4. Placement of stiffeners on the short dissipative bar
a
d It is d
c c=1,5b c=1,5b c
a-a
bst tst
hw
tw
b a
Figure F.5. Placement of stiffeners at the long dissipative bar
a
d It is d
c c' a' a' a' c' c

a-a
bst tst
hw
tw
b a
Figure F.6. Placement of stiffeners at the intermediate dissipative bar

(11) The distances between stiffeners are: (0)

M link,pl
- in case of short dissipative bar: 6.1e
V
link,pl
h t30a w 5 for = 0,08 rad

In p
h t52a w 5 for = 0,02 rad

In p
M
link,pl
- in the case of the long dissipative bar: 3e
V
link,pl
c = 1,5b
c = min (1,5b, 0,5d)

M M
link,pl link,pl
- in the case of the intermediate dissipative bar: 6.1 3e
IN IN
link,pl link,pl
a' is determined by linear interpolation between the values:

M
link,pl
a’= a dac 6,1e i rad02,0...08,0
V p
link,pl
M M
link,pl link,pl
5,1'a b dac 3e i
p
rad02,0
V V
link,pl link,pl
c’ = min (1,5b, a’)

c = min (1,5b, 0,5d)
In the above relationships, the notations were used:
tw - thickness of the heart of the dissipative bar
b - the size of the base of the dissipative bar
e - the length of the dissipative bar
a, a', c , c, c', d - distances between stiffeners (according to figures F.4, F.5, F.6)
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F.4. Beam-column joints with reduced section
the areaThe
adjacent
reduced-section
to the column,
beam-column
to direct the
joint
formation
is obtained
of the
byplastic
cuttingjoint
the beams
in the reduced-
in (1)
section area of the beam. Figure F.7 shows a way of processing the soles, where the
values a, b, c and R are determined as follows:
0.5bbf to 0.75bbf
0.65db 0.85d
0.1bbf c 0.25bbf
2 2
4cb
R
8c
where:
a is the distance from the front of the post to the reduced area
b
is the length of the reduced area
c
maximum reduction of the beam floor
R race of earth
a b
Figure F.7. Jointing of a beam with reduced section
(2) The cutting of the soles must be carried out through a procedure that ensures a smooth curve, so that there are
no notches or other defects that constitute crack primers. The maximum roughness of the cut surface will be 13 ÿm, and the
connections between the cut and the unmodified sole will be rounded. The edges of the boards in the cut areas will be
sanded.
(3) The strength and ductility of beam-column joints with reduced section will be validated by cyclic experimental
tests, to satisfy the specific requirements defined in 6.6, corresponding to each class of structural ductility. (4)
At least two cyclic tests must be performed on project-specific joints. Alternatively, experimental results from the
specialized literature, obtained on similar elements, can be used. (0)
G
APPENDIX G. DESIGN OF THE PLAQUE OF THE BEAMS IN THE AREA OF THE COLUMNS
COMPOSITE FRAMES
G.1. Generaliti
(1) This annex refers to the design of the slab in the area of steel or composite columns in the
case of frames made of steel beams composite with concrete slabs
armed.
(2) To ensure the bending ductility of the dissipative areas of these

beams are required to fulfill two conditions: (0)
- to avoid buckling of the steel component
- to avoid crushing the slab concrete
The first condition limits the area of extended longitudinal reinforcement AS from the actual plate
width and imposes the limitation of the flexibility of the compressed walls of the steel section.
The second condition lowers the area of transverse reinforcement AT that must be placed in the
slab in the immediate vicinity of the column.
G.2. Rules for preventing premature crushing of composite beam slab concrete
G.2.1. The composite beam transmits a negative moment to the marginal (external)
column
G.2.1.1. There is no transversal beam on the facade and no plates in the console in front
of the pillar to the outside. In this case, the maximum moment that can be transferred from the
beam to the column is (1) that of the steel beam. (0)
G.2.1.2. There is no transversal facade beam, but there is a plate in the console.
(1) capable
In this
of the
case
composite
the maximum
beam.moment
The bars
that
in can
the actual
be transferred
slab file will
to the
becolumn
anchored
is the
in the
moment
slab in
the console by loops that surround the post. (0)
G.2.1.3. There is a transverse beam on the facade, but there is no board in the console
to the outside.
(1) When there is a transverse beam, the only way to transfer the moment is the taking over by
this beam of the stretching forces from the reinforcements in the slab.
(2) The reinforcing bars of the slab will be anchored with spikes to the beam connectors
transverse.
(3) The reinforcement area As that will be placed on a file equal to the effective file defined in
table 7.5 will be determined by the relationship:
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FRd3 1,1 As world (G.1)
FRd3 = nPRd (G.2)
where:
n is the number of connectors in the actual size of the board
PRd the capable effort of the connector
(4) Transverse beam of faad required for the applied horizontal forces
connectors must be checked for bending, bending and torsion. (0)
G.2.1.4. There are facade beams and tiles in the console. (1)
In this case G 2.1.2(0) applies
G.2.2. The composite beam transmits a positive moment to the marginal

(external) column
G.2.2.1. There is no transversal facade beam and no panels in the console (1)
The transfer of the moment is possible by the direct transmission of the compression from the
concrete slab to the base of the column.
(2) The maximum force transmitted by the plate is given by the relationship:
FRd1 = bb deff fcd (G.3)
where
deff is in the case of reinforced concrete slabs the total height of the slab and in the case of
composite slabs with corrugated sheet it represents the thickness of the concrete above the
corrugated sheet
bb is the file on which the plate compressions are transmitted to the column
(3) If additional compression take-up devices are provided, welded to the base of the column, bb may increase
in relation to column width bc but not more than the values given in table 7.5.
(4) The concrete in the vicinity of the base of the pillar must be braced with transverse reinforcement
AT. The area of this reinforcement must satisfy the relation:
AT0,25 deff bb(0,15l –bb ) fcd / (0,15l fyd ) (G.4)
(5) This reinforcement will be evenly distributed over a length equal to bb. First bar
shall not be more than 30 mm from the base of the pole.
(6) The transverse reinforcement can also be the reinforcement determined from the bending of the plate.
(0)
G.2.2.2. There is no transverse facade beam, there is a plate in the console (1) The
moment can be transferred in this case by two mechanisms:
Mechanism 1: by compression directly on the pillar. The transfer force through this mechanism will be
given by relation (G.3)
Mechanism 2: through compressed concrete diagonals that act at an angle on the side parts of the pillar.
The inclination of these diagonals is 45o . Outside of
transfer through this mechanism will be given by the relationship:
FRd2=0,7 hc deff fcd (G.5)
where hc is the height of the column section
(2) The transverse reinforcement with the role of AT tensioner must satisfy the relationship:
ATFRd2 / fyd,T (3) (G.6)
The reinforcement area AT will be distributed on a file equal to hc and will be anchored accordingly. The result is
a total length of the reinforcing bars
L=bb+4hc+2 lb (G.7)
where lb is the anchorage length of the bar
(4) The maximum compression force that can be transmitted by the plate will be:
FRd1 + FRd2 = beff deff fcd where beff =0.7hc +bb (G.8)
The positive capable moment of the composite beam will be calculated in this case by considering an effective
plate lime equal to beff(0)
G.2.2.3. There is a transverse facade beam. In this case,
for FRd3 given

the compression
by the relation
from
(G.2)
the slab acts on the facade beam (1), mobilizing the third transfer mechanism io
(2) In order to transmit the maximum compressive force of the plate, the following condition must be met:
(0)
FRd1+ FRd2+ FRd3 beff deff (G.9)
fcd where beff is the effective limit given in table 7.5

At the limit, for a capable moment of the composite beam section, FRd3 and the number of
connectors n can be determined.
G.2.3. Composite beams transmit moments of both signs to the central

(inner) column
G.2.3.1. There is no transverse beam

(1) In this case, the compression transfer from the plate is done by two
mechanisms
Mechanism 1: by compression directly on the pillar. The force FRd1 is given by the relation (G.3)
Mechanism 2: by compressed concrete diagonals acting at an angle on the lateral parts of the column. The
inclination of these diagonals is 45o . The relation for the calculation of the force FRd2 is given by (G.5)
(2) The transverse reinforcement with the role of AT tensioner must satisfy the relation (G.4)
(3) The same amount of reinforcement AT must be arranged in both parts of the column to take into account the
inversion of the direction of the moments.
(4) In this case, the result of concrete compression cannot exceed:

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FRd1 + FRd2 =(0.7hc +bb )deff fcd (G.10)
The resultant of the forces in the plate is the sum of the tensile force in the reinforcing bars in the negative
moment zone FSt and the concrete compression force in the positive moment zone FSc
FSc +FSt=As world +beff deff fcd (G.11)

where:
As is the area of the reinforcement in the effective lime area beff for negative moment
defined according to table 7.5
beff is the effective lime defined for the positive moment in tab. 7.5 (5) If by design it is intended
that the steel of the lower foot of the beam reach the flow without the concrete of the slab being crushed,
the condition must be met:
1,2(FSc+FSt) FRd1+FRd2 (G.12)
If the condition is not met, the compression transmission capacity of the plate can be increased either by
introducing a transverse beam (FRd3), or by increasing the compression force directly on the column by
welding some additional column devices. (0)
G.2.3.2. Exist grind transversal

(1) In the case of the existence of a transverse beam, the third mechanism is manifested
transmission of the compression force FRd3 given by the relation (G.3)
(2) In order for mechanism 2 to work, the transverse reinforcement must be provided with the role
of AT tensioner determined according to G.3.2.2.(2)
(3) The maximum compression force that can be transmitted in this case is:
FRd1+ FRd2+ FRd3=(0.7hc + bb )deff fcd + n PRd (G.13)
where n is the number of connectors in the lime area corresponding to the

greatest moment in absolute value from the node.
(4) If the design follows the flow of the lower foot of the beam, without crushing the concrete of the slab,
the condition must be met:
1,2 (FSc+FSt) FRd1 + FRd2 + FRd3 (G.14)

Machine Translated by Google
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Official Gazette of Romania, Part I, no. 558 bis (vol. I)/3.IX.2013 contains 314 pages. Price: 157 lei ISSN 1453—4495
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PART I
Year 181 (XXV) — No. 558 bis LAWS, DECREES, JUDGMENTS AND OTHER ACTS Tuesday, September 3, 2013
SUMMER
Page
Annex to the Order of the Deputy Prime Minister, Minister

of Regional Development and Public Administration,
no. 2,465/2013 for the approval of the technical
regulation "Seismic design code — Part I — Design
provisions for buildings", reference number P 100-1/2013 ...... 2–607
Volume II
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APPENDIX H (informative). COMMENTS
Contents:
C 2. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS AND CONDITIONS

OF FULFILLMENT
C 3. SEISMIC ACTION
C 4. DESIGN OF BUILDINGS
C 5. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO CONCRETE CONSTRUCTIONS
C 6. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO OEL CONSTRUCTIONS
C 7. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO COMPOSITE BUILDINGS
C 8. SPECIFIC PROVISIONS FOR MASONRY BUILDINGS
C 9. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO WOODEN BUILDINGS
C 10. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO THE COMPONENTS

NON-STRUCTURAL BUILDINGS
C D. NONLINEAR STATIC CALCULATION PROCEDURE (BIOGRAPHICAL) AL

STRUCTURES
C E. VERIFICATION PROCEDURE OF LATERAL DISPLACEMENT A
STRUCTURES
C 2. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS AND CONDITIONS OF FULFILLMENT
C 2.1. Basic requirements
C 2.1(1) P 100-1 belongs to the new generation of seismic design codes, based on the
explicit establishment of the expected seismic performance.
The experience of the Northridge (1994) and Kobe (1995) earthquakes highlighted the
inadequacy of the old design codes that considered the seismic response of structures for
a single limit state.
The foundations of modern seismic design were laid in particular by the series of FEMA
(Federal Emergency Management Agency of the USA) documents that were developed in
the years 1990-2000, declared as the decade of fighting against disasters. The ideas of
performance-based design have been adopted in the vast majority of countries with
advanced seismic engineering (Japan, New Zealand), as well as EU countries, through the
Eurocodes.
Performance-based design involves the pursuit of several performance objectives,

respectively several levels of the seismic performance of buildings, each of which is
associated with a certain level of seismic hazard, defined by an earthquake with a certain
average recurrence interval.
The seismic performance of the buildings can be qualitatively described in terms of safety
offered to the occupants of the building, during and after the seismic event, the cost and
feasibility of consolidation works, the duration of total or partial interruption of the construction
function, the economic-social impact on the community, etc.
These performance characteristics are directly related to the extent of degradation that the
construction suffers.
The FEMA 356 pre-standard provided for 4 basic performance objectives, as shown in
Figure C 2.1.
operational (OP) Occupy immediately Life safety Collapse
All functions are (HEY) (SV) Prevention (PP)
operational The building The structure The construction

remains safe for remains stable and remains standing,
Insignificant
the occupants. retains resistance supporting the
degradi
reserves. gravitational load.
The
necessary The stability
repairs are minor. of non- Any other degradations
structural elements and damages are
is controlled acceptable.
Average earthquake recurrence interval
IMR = 72 ani 225 years 475 years 2475 years
Figure C 2.1.
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Although the seismic design with 4 performance objectives from the FEMA code is
attractive and justified from a principle point of view, its application encounters important
practical difficulties, especially due to the large volume of operations involved and the
difficulty of establishing concrete, sufficiently simple design criteria, associated with the
4 performance objectives.
For these reasons, the EN 1998-1 standard considers only two performance
requirements: the life safety requirement (SV), called in English the "no collapse
requirement", and the limitation of degradation requirement (LD). The last of these does
not overlap with any of the performance objectives in the FEMA code, being closer to
SV and more significant to the behavior of the structure than OI.
This approach was also adopted in P 100-1/2006, with the difference that the hazard
level was significantly lower than in the European standard, in accordance with the
economic possibilities of our country. Thus, the IMR values adopted in P 100-1/2006 for
SV and respectively LD were only 100 years and 30 years, compared to 475 years and
100 years in EN. As part of the code revision action, it was considered necessary to
raise the hazard level. Thus, the adopted values correspond to an earthquake with an
average reference recurrence interval of 225 years for the life safety requirement and
40 years for the degradation limitation requirement.
For simplification, the differentiation of the insurance of constructions of different importance
or of constructions that the owners want to insure more than the minimum provided by the
norms (see 2.2.4), is done not by explicitly considering rarer and stronger earthquakes, but,
indirectly, by amplifying the parameters of the seismic action through the important factors.
C 2.2. Conditions for checking the fulfillment of

requirements C2.2.1. The two categories of requirements are satisfied if the verification
conditions established for the two associated limit states are satisfied: ULS and SLS.
The verifications at the ultimate limit state involve the verification of resistance, stability and
lateral displacement for the design earthquake on site, corresponding to the life safety
performance objective. This limit state takes into account the limit conditions allowed for
structural elements, but also the condition to avoid the collapse of non-structural elements and
equipment with a possible risk to the life and bodily integrity of people.
The verification at the service limit state takes into account the protection of non-structural
elements and equipment for relatively frequent earthquakes.
C 2.2.4 Additional measures
C2.2.4 The provisions of this paragraph present synthetically the measures for correct location
and structural compliance, as well as the essential conditions for the design of the structural
mechanism for the dissipation of seismic energy. In the case of complex constructions or
whose seismic response presents uncertainties, additional theoretical or experimental studies
are recommended, over and above the minimum ones imposed in the basic text of the code.
Bibliography:
ATC (1996). Seismic evaluation and retrofit of concrete buildings. Report ATC 40,
Redwood City, CA.
CEN (2004). EN 1998-1-1: Design of structures for earthquake resistance / Part 1:
General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings, Bruxelles, 250 pp.
FEMA (1997a). NEHRP guidelines for the seismic rehabilitation of buildings, FEMA
273. Washington, D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency.
FEMA (1997b). NEHRP commentary on the guidelines for the seismic rehabilitation
of buildings, FEMA 274. Washington, D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency.
FEMA (2000). Prestandard and commentary for the seismic rehabilitation of buildings,
FEMA 356. Washington, D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency.
FEMA (2003). Prestandard and commentary for the seismic design of buildings,
FEMA 450. Washington, D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency.
FIB (2003). Displacement-based seismic design of reinforced concrete buildings,
Bulletin 25, Lausanne, Elveia, 192 pp.
Ministry of Public Works (1992), P100/92: Regulations for the anti-seismic design of
residential, agro-zootechnical and industrial buildings, INCERC Bucharest, Buletinul
Construciilor, no. 1-2, 1992, 151 p.
Ministry of Transport, Construction and Tourism (2006), P 100-1/2006: Seismic Design
Code. Part I - design provisions for buildings
Newmark, N. M. i Hall, W.J. (1982). Earthquake spectra and design, Earthquake
Engineering Research Institute, Berkeley, CA, USA.
Paulay, T. i Priestley, M.J.N. (1992), Seismic Design of Concrete and Masonry
Buildings, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 744 p.
Postelnicu, T. and Zamfirescu, D. (2000). Towards performance – based seismic
design. Bulletin of the Technical University of Civil Engineering, Bucharest, no.
1/2000, pp. 19-29.
Postelnicu, T. i Zamfirescu, D. (2001). Towards displacement - based methods in
Romanian seismic design code. Earthquake Hazard and Countermeasures for
Existing Fragile Buildings, Eds. D. Lungu & T.Saito, Bucureti, pp. 169-142.
SEAOC (1995), Vision 2000 a Framework for Performance-Based Engineering,
Structural Engineers Association of California, Sacramento, CA.
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C 3. SEISMIC ACTION
C 3.1. Representation of seismic action for design

For the design of constructions for seismic action, the level of seismic hazard indicated
in code P 100-1 is a minimum level for design. The peak value of the horizontal
acceleration of ground movement, ag, called the ground acceleration for design,
corresponds to an average recurrence interval IMR = 225 years (which corresponds
to a seismic event whose magnitude has a 20% probability of occurrence in 50 years) .
For construction design, the country's territory is divided into several seismic hazard
zones, characterized by a land acceleration value for design that is constant within
each zone.
The zoning map of the ground acceleration for design ag from P 100-1 is used for
the design at the ultimate limit state.
For the areas where the seismic hazard is dominated by the Vrancea subcrustal
source (Moldova, Câmpia Român, Dobrogea), the zoning map of the ground
acceleration for design is based on a seismic hazard analysis in which the catalog of
Vrancea earthquakes from the 20th century was used (for which macroseismic
information is determined with the highest accuracy) and a set of 80 accelerograms
recorded in 1977, 1986 and 1990 under conditions that can be considered as free
field. The distribution of accelerograms on events and seismic networks is presented in Table C 3.1.
Table C 3.1. Distribution of accelerograms used in seismic hazard analysis

Reeaua seismic Romania Republic of Moldova Bulgaria Total
earthquake TRY1) INFP2) GEOTEC3) IGG4)
4 March 1977 30 Aug. 1

- - - -
1
1986 May 30, 1990 24 8 3 2 -

37
23 10 2 2 5 42
Total 48 18 5 4 5 80
1)INCERC, National Institute for Research and Development in Construction and Construction Economy, Bucharest
2) INFP, National Institute for Earth Physics , Bucharest-Mgurele
3) GEOTEC, Institute of Geotechnical and Geological Studies, Bucharest
4) IGG, Institute of Geophysics and Geology, Chiinu
The catalog of Vranca earthquakes that was the basis of the recurrence analysis of the
magnitudes used a recurrence model that takes into account the minimum moment
magnitude (the lower threshold of interest) Mw,min = 6.3 and the credible (possible)
maximum moment magnitude for the subcrustal source Vrancea.
The set of 80 accelerograms that was the basis of the analysis of the attenuation of the
maximum ground acceleration for the Vranca subcrustal earthquakes provided the
maximum acceleration between the two horizontal components recorded in each
station. The attenuation relation includes a term that explicitly takes into account the
influence of the depth of seismic events from the Vrancea source. A Mollas-Yamazaki
attenuation model was used, and the coefficients of the attenuation relationship were
determined by multiregression. The obtained model is similar to models developed in
the USA and Japan for subcrustal sources.
For the construction of the zoning map in the other regions of the country, historical
macroseismic data were analyzed. For large areas of the territory of Romania, there are
still no seismic records available that allow a zoning on an instrumental basis. Even in the
case of the Banat area, the existing instrumental data are relatively insufficient in terms of
number, range of magnitudes and geographical disposition.
The land acceleration zoning map for design, ag, from P 100-1 for IMR=225 years
represents a transitory solution, following that, in the future, for all categories of buildings,
use the zoning map corresponding to an average recurrence interval of IMR=475 years
(10% probability of exhaustion in 50 years). This hazard level is that recommended by
both EN 1998-1 and US design codes.
The elastic response spectrum for the absolute site accelerations, Se(T), is obtained by
the product of the normalized elastic response spectrum (T) and the design ground
acceleration .
The forms of the normalized spectra (T) were obtained based on the statistical analysis of
the elastic response spectra calculated from the sets of accelerograms generated by the
Vrancea source in 1977, 1986 and 1990 and grouped by spectral composition (frequency)
classes. For the Banat area, records of earthquakes from surface sources in the area were
used. The forms of the normalized spectra are defined in the EN 1998-1 format by control
periods (col) of the response spectra (TB, TC and TD) and by the maximum dynamic
amplification 0.
The values of the control periods (col) of the response spectra were calculated using the
definitions and relationships in Annex A, paragraph A.1 of P 100-1.
The local ground conditions in the construction site are described by the values of the
control period (col) TC of the elastic response spectrum in the site. These values
synthetically characterize the frequency composition of seismic waves.
The analysis of TC control period (col) values in the seismic stations with records in
Romania, combined with general elements regarding the geology of Romania, led to the
zoning map of the territory in terms of TC control period (col) from the current edition of P
100 -1.
The control period (col) TC is used as the main descriptor of local ground conditions and
the frequency content of seismic motions. This approach is an alternative to the system
used by the current generation of international regulations that use a classification of local
land conditions based on the geophysical characteristics of the land in the location at least
30m from the land surface.
These characteristics are defined qualitatively by stratigraphy and quantitatively by
properties of the terrain layers in the site, the most important of which is the weighted
average velocity of shear waves. In Annex A, paragraph A.3 of P 100-1, the main terrain
classes of EN 1998-1 and the weighted average shear wave speeds corresponding to
them are presented (simplified).
When necessary, the elastic response spectrum for displacements for the horizontal
components of ground motion, SDe(T) , is obtained by directly transforming the elastic
response spectrum for acceleration Se(T). These transformations are conservative.
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8
For the vertical component of ground movement, spectral forms (T) presented
in in P
100-1, the control periods (col) obtained in a simplified manner are used as follows: TBv
= 0.1TCv, TCv = 0.45TC, TDv = TD. The maximum dynamic amplification factor of the
vertical acceleration of the ground by structures is 0v = 2.75, and the peak
acceleration value
of the of the
vertical
component is considered simplified as avg = 0.7 ag.
All the elastic response spectra for the horizontal components and for the vertical
component of the ground movement and their associated values indicated in P 100-1
are for the critical damping fraction = 0.05.
The ground acceleration zoning map for design and the control period zoning map (col)
are dependent on the available database used in the analyses. That is why these charts
must be considered as evolutionary, depending on the level of instrumental seismic
knowledge in Romania, both regarding the superficial geology and the accelerograms
recorded during future earthquakes, in as many other locations as possible, so that the
charts and spectral shapes can be improved based on instrumental records.
C 3.1.1. Alternative descriptions of seismic action
In the dynamic calculation of structures, accelerograms are used, which can be of several types:
artificial, recorded and simulated.
The artificial accelerograms are generated based on the elastic response spectrum for the absolute
accelerations that must be used in the location in question, according to the provisions of paragraph
3.1 of P 100-1. The minimum, but mandatory requirements that must be respected in the generation
of this type of accelerograms are indicated in paragraph 3.1.2 of P 100-1.
The recorded accelerograms (paragraph 3.1.3 of P 100-1) must be compatible with the seismic
conditions characteristic of the location (type of seismic source, rupture mechanism, position in
relation to the outbreak, local terrain conditions, etc.), with the value of the terrain acceleration for on-
site design , etc.
Final comment
The worldwide trend is that of increasing the safety level of new constructions, special in terms of
height, architectural conformation, urban dimensions, importance for the investor/owner or for society,
this increase being carried out mainly by taking into account a level higher than the current hazard
level of the design seismic action.
Bibliografie:
CEN (2004). EN 1998-1-1: Design of structures for earthquake resistance / Part 1: General rules,
seismic actions and rules for buildings, Bruxelles, 250 pp.
C 4. DESIGN OF BUILDINGS
C 4.1 Generalities
C 4.1 The P 100-1 code is completely harmonized, conceptually and formally, with the SR EN
1998-1 standard, which represents the Romanian version of the European standard EN
1998-1. This code takes the basic elements of the standard, but maintains a series of detailed
provisions from the previous Romanian norms which, in the opinion of the drafters, have
proven their validity and usefulness in the practice of seismic design.
P 100-1 takes the models, calculation methods, terminology, symbols and chapter structure
from the SR EN 1998-1 standard, so that the harmonization of the two normative documents
is ensured by itself. In relation to the previous edition from 2006, the new edition benefits from
a more favorable application context. Currently,,aintended
good part
forofthe
thedesign
package
of structures
of structural
made
codes
of
concrete, steel, masonry, etc., is harmonized with European norms, including from the point
of view of format and terminology.
C 4.3 Conditions regarding the location of constructions

C4.3 The realization of a robust foundation system, in order to realize the controlled and
advantageous transfer of loads of different natures to the ground, is decisively influenced by
its mechanical characteristics and by the hydrological conditions on the site.
For this reason, the choice of locations, when they are not imposed, especially for important
or large constructions, must be done with all care.
Locations with a risk of slipping, tripping, liquefaction, etc. should be avoided as a priority. in
case of an earthquake. For this purpose, an important role belongs to the geotechnical survey
and, eventually, the technical geological survey on the site.
It should also be emphasized that the realization of safe foundation systems on unfavorable
locations requires material efforts and additional costs, which can substantially increase the
price of the work as a whole.
C 4.4 The overall composition of the constructions
C 4.4.1 Basic aspects of the design concept C4.4.1 In

this section, the essential principles for a correct composition of constructions in areas with
significant seismicity are identified.
Compliance with these principles allows both favorable behavior and safe control of the
seismic response of the structure, even with simpler calculation means.
C4.4.1.1 Although it is obvious, the condition of the safe, direct and short route of the loads to
the foundation ground was not explicitly foreseen in the design rules until the mid-90s of the
last century.
Any missing or weak link in this route - for example, the lack of connection between the planes
and the wall, or a party support that is too short - can lead to local or generalized breaks. Any
lengthening, with detours, of this route produces greater efforts and, as a result, higher costs.
C4.4.1.2 Redundancy is a very necessary characteristic of seismic structures.

This allows that when some elements reach its endurance capacity,
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the increase in lateral force should be distributed to other elements of the system, provided
that the deformation capacity is not exceeded in the plasticized elements.
C4.4.1.3 The quality of the structure's seismic response is essentially influenced by its
orderly configuration, or not. From this point of view, the two-way symmetry of the building,
but of the structure itself, represents the most important condition. Asymmetries induce
substantial torsional oscillations and stress concentrations.
Also, the vertical discontinuities of the structure, as shown in C4.4.1.1, produce deviations
of the load path, but also gross changes in the rigidity and lateral resistance at certain levels.
When such irregularity characteristics are unavoidable, the structural design must take into
account the special vibration characteristics that intervene, the spatial character of the force
transfer and the stress concentrations in the areas of sudden change of some structural
characteristics.
In any case, the structural engineer must show concern for obtaining a regular structure,
right from the first design phases, in the discussions with the designer of the function, the
architect. Correctly solving the structure initially can save time and money, without
significantly affecting the function or appearance of the building.
C4.4.1.4 The direction of action of the earthquake is random, generating efforts in all
directions. For this reason, the structure must have sufficient rigidity in any direction. This
can be done, more simply, by ensuring the necessary rigidity in two orthogonal directions in
the plane.
Today it is recognized everywhere that the essential parameter in the characterization of the
seismic response, both in satisfying the requirements of life safety and those of limiting
degradation, is the lateral displacement.
For this reason, the design assurance of sufficient lateral stiffness is paramount in seismic
design. This condition is particularly important for the areas located in the Romanian Plain,
as a result of the high specific travel requirements imposed by the Vranca earthquakes in
this region.
C4.4.1.5 The seismic response of constructions with major torsional vibrations is an
unfavorable one, with significant increases in lateral displacements, with related negative
effects on the state of degradation of structural and non-structural elements. On the other
hand, the degree of confidence in the results of the structural calculation, in other words the
control of the seismic response by calculation, is much lower than in the case of symmetrical
structures.
Through the appropriate arrangement of the vertical structural elements, first of all the
elements with high rigidity, the walls and braced frames, the eccentricities of the masses in
relation to the center of the stiffeners and that of the lateral resistances must be reduced to
a maximum.
The optimization of the seismic response from this point of view is maximum when the
coupling of torsional and translational modes is practically eliminated or substantially reduced.
Even in the case of spatially symmetric structures, accidental torsional oscillations occur.
Their control can be achieved by the peripheral arrangement (to make the torque arm) of
bracing elements with sufficient rigidity for lateral movements.
The specified minimum number (2 x 2) ensures, with a high probability, that for each
direction at least one pair of rigid elements works in the "elastic" domain.
C4.4.1.6 In structures subject to the action of lateral seismic forces, planes have an
essential role to ensure a favorable seismic response.
Realizing the planes as very rigid and resistant horizontal diaphragms for the forces in their
plane also allows a safe control of the expected seismic response through appropriate
calculation methods.
The planes between structural zones with stiffnesses and strengths very different in size
and distribution in the plane can be subjected to very large forces. This is often the case of
transfer plans between infrastructure and superstructure. Taking over the efforts
corresponding to the function of the horizontal diaphragm requires the provision in the plan
of some reinforcements with the role of connectors, collectors, tie rods, suitably sized (see 4.4.4).
C4.4.1.7 The foundations must transfer the efforts developed at the base of the structure,
made of reinforced concrete or steel, to the foundation ground made of a much weaker
material, lacking tensile strength and with a compressive strength of hundreds or thousands
of times smaller than that of the superstructure material. In the case of seismically stressed
structures, the forces that must be transmitted to the ground correspond to the structural
mechanism of energy dissipation, which involves the plastification at the base of the vertical
structural elements.
This function of the foundations implies substantial development in plan, in relation to the
dimensions of the superstructure elements, and consistent dimensions for taking over the
efforts resulting from this role.
There are several ways of solving foundations that fall between two limits (Figure C 4.1):
- a limit variant is the one in which each of the vertical elements belonging to
the structure captures its own foundation; the foundation can be direct, of the
massive type as in the case of the wall in Figure C 4.1, a, when the foundation
surface can be developed as necessary and the balance can only be
achieved by pressure on the base of the foundation, or deep, through piles,
caissons etc., if the bearing surface is limited and the balancing of the forces
at the level of the sole makes it necessary to develop stretching forces (Figure
C 4.1, b).
- the other limit variant is presented in Figure C 4.1, cid, where a common
foundation is provided for all the vertical elements of the structure; an
infrastructure of the type of a reinforced concrete block can result, rigid and
resistant enough to ensure linear deformations of the land at the level of
contact with the foundation. The infrastructure can be a massive scraper or a
cassette scraper. In this latter case, the rigid box can be made at the level of
the basement (basements) of the building, employing the perimeter walls,
the interior walls of the basement, the scraper and the slabs of the basements
(Figure C 4.1, c). Another solution is the one in Figure C 4.1, d, with a general
eraser and pleats (possibly barrettes) with the ability to take both tension and
compression efforts. The thickness and reinforcement of the wiper are
dimensioned to take over the efforts resulting from the transfer function of this element.
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12
a) b)
c) d)
Figure C 4.1.
Between the two limit variants are the intermediate solutions with rigid and resistant foundation slabs (beams)
arranged in one direction or in two directions, as the case may be.
The design of a correct foundation system is of the greatest importance for ensuring a favorable seismic
behavior of the construction and for the economy of the overall solution. For this reason, in some situations it
is possible that the requirements for the realization of a foundation influence the composition of the
superstructure.
C4.4.1.8 Seismic forces are inertia forces (masses), so their values and, implicitly, the efforts in the structure
are directly dependent on the mass of the construction.
The provisions of 4.4.1.8 seek to reduce the efforts produced by seismic forces through 3 categories of
measures:
- measures that allow mass reduction by using lighter or more efficient structural and non-structural
materials (eg high-strength concrete);
- measures for uniform positioning of masses to avoid twisting effects

general a cldirilor;
- measures to place large masses at the lower levels of the building to reduce overturning moments
from seismic forces.
C 4.4.2 Main and secondary structural elements in absorbing seismic forces
C4.4.2 In the composition of some buildings, structural elements may appear whose role is basically to take
over the vertical loads, their contribution to the lateral structure being
neglected. For example, such situations can occur in structural systems with strong
and flat walls resting on columns with negligible lateral stiffness in relation to that of the
walls. These pillars can be considered as secondary elements, resulting in two
advantages: a simpler calculation model and an economy of concrete and steel, due
to the fact that these elements do not require the ductility measures specific to the
elements participating in taking over the lateral forces, respectively the main elements.
These elements will be dimensioned as non-seismic elements. For example, the
reinforced concrete elements will be designed based on the provisions of SR EN
1992-1-1 for elements not participating in taking over seismic actions.
These measures ensure the secondary elements the minimum ductility capacity
necessary to follow the lateral deformations developed during the action of earthquakes.
C 4.4.3 Conditions for evaluating structural regularity

C4.4.3.1 The seismic response of irregular structures is much more difficult to control
by design than that of regular symmetrical constructions. In situations when the
structural irregularity cannot be avoided due to conditions related to the terrain or
functions, the lower degree of confidence in the design result can be compensated in
two ways.
- by penalizing the structure with increased design seismic forces;
- by choosing more rigorous models and more efficient calculation methods.
Table 4.1 summarizes these types of measures.
C4.4.3.2 The plan regularity conditions given in this section come partly from the old
version P100/92 and partly from SR EN 1998-1. The provisions of (3) aim to avoid indirect
earthquakes, which produce significant force increases produced by the vertical
component of earthquakes.
The provisions of (1), (2) and (5) aim to reduce the general torsional effects. In the
event that constructions with irregular plan shapes cannot be sectioned, models and
behavior scenarios will be used to highlight the additional efforts arising from the
irregularity of the structure.
The rigidity condition in the plane of the planes from (4) is considered satisfied if their
horizontal arrow does not exceed 1/10 of the opening. In the current edition of P 100-1,
an alternative condition was given to 4.4.3.2(5), also existing in the American standards,
which is simpler because the lateral displacements are provided directly by the structural
calculation programs (the meaning of the quantities involved in the verification is given in
Figure C 4.2.). Instead, the verification of the condition implies the prior performance of a
structural calculation, following which the values of q and the values of the design seismic
forces are then established on the same basis.
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Maximum
displacement
Average trips
Figure C 4.2.
C4.4.3.3 The sudden reduction to a certain level of the building's rigidity properties and
resistance to lateral forces leads to the concentration of plastic deformations and, implicitly, the
consumption of seismic energy, at the weak level. Consequently, the degradations of this level
are very extensive, jeopardizing the stability of the construction. The situations of some storied
buildings in Kobe are known where, on the occasion of the 1995 earthquake, such weak floors,
located above strong levels, were completely crushed, disappearing altogether (Figure C 4.3).
Figure C 4.3.
The limit is the situation where a strong structure (for example, a structure with walls) rests on
a much more flexible and weaker structure. Figure C 4.4 exemplifies the behavior of this type
of structure through the case of the Olive View hospital, following the 1971 San Fernando
earthquake.
The rules regarding the gradual reduction of the dimensions of the structural elements and the
distribution of masses over the height of the building, given in 4.4.3.3, are similar to those in EN
1998-1 and FEMA 273.
Figure C 4.4.
The rules regarding the monotony of vertical structures and maintaining a direct and short path of loads to the foundation
ground, given in (6), aim to avoid excessive increases in efforts in vertical elements from levels with structural changes
(for example, in pillars which support the interrupted walls on the ground floor in the construction of Figure C 4.5, a) and
in the diaphragm plane that must carry out the transfer between the vertical elements in the same plane (Figure C 4.5,
b) or between different planes (Figure C 4.5, c).
b)
a) c)
Figure C 4.5.
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C 4.4.4. Conditions for the composition of plans

C4.4.4.1 In 4.4.1.6, the main roles performed by the plane - horizontal diaphragm, in
order to absorb the seismic loads from its plane, were identified.
The practically infinite rigidity of the horizontal diaphragms means that the displacements
of the vertical elements are distributed linearly in the plane, ensuring an efficient
interaction of the components of the structural system. This property of the plane
allows at the same time a safe control of the overall behavior by means of structural
calculation. The rigid body behavior of the plane allows the calculation model to retain
only 3 significant displacements at each level: 2 translations and a rotation. Considering
this role, it is essential that by designing with a higher degree of assurance to avoid
non-linear (plastic) deformations in the plane. For this purpose, when dimensioning the
elements of the plane (for example, reinforcements of reinforced concrete planes with
the role of ropes, connectors, collectors), the forces associated with the plasticization
(energy dissipation) mechanism will be considered. The structural model of the plane
required by the forces applied in its plane can be, as the case may be, that of beam -
wall or beam with lattice ("strut-and-tie" model), recommendable in situations where
large gaps are foreseen in the plane (Figure C 4.6). The model must be chosen so
that the diagonals of the system bypass the gaps.
Figure C 4.6.
C4.4.4.2 The provision from (2) considers situations like the one in Figure C 4.4.
The supports of the plane are actually movable supports because the walls undergo
lateral movements. If the stiffnesses of the walls are unequal, the "strains" of the beam
(plane) are different, affecting the distribution of efforts.
Figure C 4.7.
The provision from (3) considers the situation of a plane like the one represented in Figure C 4.7.
In order to avoid breaking the board in the entrance area, reinforcements such as those shown with
a broken line must be provided.
C4.4.4.3 and C4.4.4.4 The transmission of horizontal forces from the plan plane is exemplified in
Figure C 4.8, a, for the case of a reinforced concrete structural wall together with the related plate
area. In this case, downloading the plan to the wall is done by:
- compression directly on the end of the wall;
- stretched reinforcements "collecting" the forces distributed in the plate mass; -
through slits between the heart of the walls and the board, for which connectors (transverse
reinforcements) are provided, anchored appropriately in the thickness of the board.
To reduce the contact force values, the plate can be flared in the form of a belt (Figure C 4.8, b).
Figure C 4.8.
C 4.4.5 Classes of importance and exposure to earthquakes and factors of importance C4.4.5
Compared to the older editions of the code, in which the classification of constructions was done according
to their importance, in the present edition the classification is made according to the importance and the
effects of the exposure to the action of earthquakes.
The importance of constructions takes into account in particular the function of the building, while the
exposure to earthquakes takes into account in particular the damages of various natures, which can be
caused by the action of strong earthquakes (for example, by the destruction of some toxic gas tanks, or the
loss of lives people from buildings with many occupants). Class I includes constructions whose function/
integrity during the earthquake and after the seismic attack is mandatory for carrying out essential activities
in the area affected by the earthquake.
Class II includes, mainly, buildings that bring together a large number of people, or that house important
values.
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Until the preparation of seismic hazard maps on the national territory and the development
of procedures for verifying the structural performances in earthquakes with different return
periods, the simplest way to differentiate the insurance of buildings, in terms of importance
and seismic exposure, is through the amplification of the design forces with important factors
from table 4.2.
C 4.5 Calculation of structures under seismic action
C 4.5.2 Modeling of structural behavior

C4.5.2 The regular or irregular configuration in plan and/or in elevation of a structure
significantly influences the performance in behavior during strong earthquakes.
If the lateral translation movements of the structure are clearly decoupled, it can be
considered a two-dimensional model with one dynamic degree of freedom of translation at
the level of each plane. If translational and torsional movements are coupled, then it is
necessary to choose a three-dimensional model with at least three dynamic degrees of
freedom (two horizontal translations and a rotation around a vertical axis) for each non-
deformable plane in its plane.
For buildings with flexible plans, models with three dynamic degrees of freedom at each
level are not usable. Significant differences in stiffness between different areas of the plane
can lead to changes in the distribution of lateral seismic forces at the vertical resistance
elements and can also generate torsional effects.
flexibleTo include
planes, the
the effects
spatial generated
dynamic by must
model
include an additional number of mass concentration points, respectively dynamic degrees
of freedom.
If they are significant, the interaction effects between systems resistant to lateral seismic
forces and non-structural elements that do not belong to these systems, for example
partition walls, must be considered in the structural model. If the partition walls are not
evenly distributed in plan and elevation, or effectively participate in the resistance capacities
to lateral forces, torsional irregularities or irregularities specific to flexible floors may appear.
Torsional effects lead to increases in efforts and deformations in the perimeter elements.
An irregular vertical configuration affects the local response at different elevations of the
structure and induces seismic forces different from those evaluated by the equivalent forces
method. The existence of flexible floors leads to changes in the configuration of the overall
deformation, the important displacements being located in the areas corresponding to gross
reductions in stiffness and lateral resistance.
The structural calculation model becomes more comprehensive and more rigorous if the
effects of the terrain-structure interaction on the seismic response are considered, when
they are important.
C4.5.2.1 Variations in the mass and/or stiffness distributions compared to the nominal
distributions considered in the calculation, as well as the possibility of a rotation component
around a vertical axis generated by the spatial variability of the ground movement, can
produce torsional effects. These effects can appear, even in completely symmetrical
"torsionally balanced" structures, where the nominal positions of the center of mass and the
center of stiffness coincide at each level.
In order to limit torsional effects and ensure adequate rigidity and resistance to torsion,
accidental eccentricity is introduced. THIS
eccentricity, equal to 5% of the size of the building perpendicular to the direction of the seismic
action, is measured against the nominal position of the center of mass at each level.
All accidental eccentricities are "simultaneously" considered at the levels of the structure, in the
same direction and the same sense (positive or negative), the effects being statically calculated.
C 4.5.3 Structural calculation methods
C4.5.3.1 P 100-1 includes different methods for calculating the seismic response :
- Method of equivalent seismic forces (linear static calculation);
- Modal calculation method with response spectrum;
- The linear dynamic calculation method by directly integrating the equations

decoupled modal differentials;
- The static nonlinear incremental ("push-over") calculation method;
- Non-linear dynamic calculation method with direct integration of equations

coupled moving differentials.
P 100-1 recommend for the current design the two established methods, the method of
equivalent seismic forces associated with the fundamental mode of translational vibration and
the modal calculation method with response spectrum, specifying the conditions in which these
methods can be applied. The choice of the calculation method is indicated depending on the
type of construction - regular or irregular in plan and/or in elevation, as well as the need to
reduce the behavior factor q in the case of irregular structures. In P 100-1, the modal calculation
method with response spectrum is the reference method for determining the response of
structures exposed to seismic action. This method is applicable, without limitations, to buildings
and other constructions referred to in the code. In spatial seismic calculation, the modal
calculation method offers a balance between the accuracy of the results and costs. For practical
applications, numerous calculation programs on three-dimensional structural models are
available.
Linear methods represent simplified calculation tools for practical design, which do not lead to
an effective elastic seismic response. In the equivalent seismic forces method and in the modal
calculation method, the efforts are determined through a linear calculation in which the seismic
action is characterized by the design spectrum obtained by reducing the elastic response
spectrum (defined for a standard value of 5% of the fraction of the damping critical) with the
behavior factor q. The lateral displacements result by multiplying the displacements calculated
linearly with the behavior factor q. In the modal calculation method with response spectrum, the
distribution of seismic forces is based on the modal properties, determined according to the
distributions of masses and structural stiffnesses. In the method of equivalent seismic forces,
the distribution of lateral forces can be obtained based on simplified relations suitable for regular
structures. In non-linear calculation methods, inelastic stresses and displacements are obtained
directly.
C4.5.3.2.1 The method of equivalent seismic forces is the simplified version of the modal
calculation method with response spectrum, in which the fundamental eigenmode of translation
is predominant in the seismic response.
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The simplified "unimodal" method is calibrated to obtain global effects (base torque,
overturning moment) close to the same effects calculated, more rigorously, by the
"multimodal" method with response spectrum. The effects of seismic action are
determined by linear static calculation with equivalent lateral seismic forces applied
separately on two main horizontal directions of the structure.
The method of equivalent seismic forces is intuitive and simple from an engineering
point of view, being suitable for structures that satisfy the following conditions:
(i) The natural periods of the first translational vibration modes corresponding to the main
directions of the structure are smaller than 1.6 s. (ii)
The structure satisfies the criteria of regularity in elevation defined in the code ( )
From practical considerations, for the application of the lateral seismic forces method, both
conditions must be satisfied in the two main horizontal directions. If the first condition is not satisfied,
the consideration of higher eigenmodes is essential, due to the contribution of these modes in the
total response. In structures with irregularities in elevation, the effects of higher eigenmodes can be
significant, being located in areas with gross variations in inertia or stiffness characteristics. In this
case, the approximation of the fundamental eigenform by simplified configurations does not
available.
C4.5.3.2.2 The basic torsional forces are determined separately on each of the main horizontal
directions for the first natural mode of translational vibration in that direction.
In relation (4.3) for the determination of the basic torsional force, m represents the effective modal
mass associated with the fundamental eigenmode of translational vibration.
The modal equivalence factor = 0.85 is considered for 1 TT C more thantwo and buildings with more
floors. This value corresponds to an effective modal mass (associated with the first translational
vibration mode) which is, on average, approximately 85% of the total mass of the building. The
value 0.1 is considered for ground floor
whenor the
ground floorperiod
natural buildings with oneT1floor,
of vibration > Tc,but
foralso
the in the case
inclusion of
higher natural modes that can be significant.
The importance of the higher eigenmodes in the seismic response depends on the dynamic
properties of the structure, but also on the frequency content (periods) of the ground motion
described by the response spectrum. Therefore, apart from the height regime of the building, the
main parameter is the control period (col) Tc.
P100-1 recommend the determination of the eigenmodes of vibration of the structures, in

particular the calculation of the period and the fundamental eigenform of translational
vibration, through the methods of the dynamics of structures to solve the problem of
eigenvalues and vectors.
A sufficiently accurate estimate of the fundamental eigenperiod of translational vibration is
given by the energetic Rayleigh method, in which the lateral displacements are calculated
neglecting the effects of torsion.
The possibility of estimating the fundamental period of vibration with the simplified formulas
in Annex B is indicated only in preliminary calculations for conforming and pre-dimensioning
the structure. Approximate formulas include a general characterization of
the building (structural system, materials), as well as the global dimensions in plan and its
total height.
43
Simplified relationships, type 1 tHCT obtained from theoretical considerations and through
regression analyzes of some experimental data for different types of buildings, are included
in the SR EN 1998-1 standard and in various design codes (ASCE 7-98, California Building
Code 2002, FEMA 450, NBC-2005, sa). In P100-1, as in EN 1998-1, the application of these
simplified relationships is limited to buildings with heights less than 40 m.
The alternative relationship (B4) proposed for estimating the fundamental period of multi-
story buildings with structural walls made of reinforced concrete or masonry includes the
effective areas of the cross-sections and the lengths of the structural walls. The upper limit
0.9 (relation B6) is specified to avoid exaggerated values of the ratio lwi/ H specific to
buildings with plan dimensions much larger than the height.
C4.5.3.2.3 For each of the two planar models, the basic torsional force Fb corresponding to
the fundamental own mode of translation in the calculation direction is distributed over the
height of the building, at the levels of the structure, along the directions of the dynamic
degrees of freedom of horizontal translation.
At the level of each plane, horizontal equivalent seismic force Fi applied at the center of
masses, is proportional to the level mass and to the component of the fundamental proper
form and in the direction of the degree of freedom of dynamic and horizontal translation.
The fundamental eigenvector is determined by a dynamic calculation. In
the application conditions of the method of equivalent seismic forces, the fundamental proper
form can be approximated by a linearly increasing variation in height, depending on the day
level elevation.
The simplifications and approximations from the method of equivalent seismic forces are
inappropriate in the following cases:
- structures with significant irregularities of the inertia and stiffness characteristics to

which the translation response movements in two orthogonal and torsional lateral
directions are coupled; - structures with an irregular distribution of resistance
capacities that leads to possible concentrations of ductility requirements.
C4.5.3.3 The response spectrum modal method is based on the superposition of the
maximum modal responses associated with the significant eigenmodes. Each proper mode
of vibration is characterized by the proper frequency (period) of vibration, by the proper
vector (proper shape) and by the fraction of the critical modal damping. The maximum
response for each significant natural mode of vibration is determined and, by superimposing
the maximum responses with modal composition rules, the total maximum response is
calculated.
Even if an independent linear calculation is possible for each of the two main orthogonal
directions, a complete spatial analysis is recommended on a three-dimensional model with
at least three dynamic degrees of freedom at the level of each non-deformable plane in the
plane or two degrees of translation in the horizontal plane and a degree of rotation around a
vertical axis. Each proper form of vibration includes components (displacements and
rotations) in the directions of the dynamic degrees of freedom.
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In the modal calculation, all eigenmodes that contribute significantly to the total response
must be considered. The criterion frequently used in design codes considers a number
of eigenmodes for which the total effective modal mass obtained by summing the
individual modal masses (for each of the X, Y, Z directions or for other relevant directions)
is at least 90% of the total mass of the structure.
If this criterion is not satisfied, all eigenmodes that have effective modal masses greater
than 5% of the total mass of the structure must be considered.
For difficult situations (for example: buildings with a significant contribution of torsional
modes or in the case of including the vertical component of the seismic action in the
design), the minimum number of proper modes must be at least equal to 3 not being the , n
number of levels above the foundation or upper extremities of the rigid base, and the
considered proper vibration periods must exceed a limit value defined according to the
corner period Tc. This criterion must be applied if it was not possible to satisfy one of the
two criteria above regarding the effective modal masses.
Other response quantities (for example: overturning moment at the base, maximum
displacement at the upper end of the building) are less sensitive than the base torque
when considering all significant eigenmodes. The local response quantities (relative level
displacements, element forces) are much more sensitive to the contributions of significant
eigenmodes. Considering a sufficient number of eigenmodes allows the accurate
determination of the local maximum dynamic response.
C4.5.3.3.2 The maximum total response cannot be determined by direct superposition
of the modal maxima, due to the non-simultaneity of these maxima.
If the modal responses that have significant contributions to the total response can be
considered independent, the maximum total effect produced by the seismic action is
estimated by the modal combination rule SRSS - the square root of the sum of squares,
with relation (4.12). The SRSS rule for composing modal maxima is appropriate for
structures with clearly separated natural modes of vibration.
If the responses corresponding to the eigenmodes j and k cannot be considered
independent, a more precise rule for combining the maximum modal responses is CQC
- the complete quadratic combination:
N N
EE EE jk (C 4.1)
EkEj
j 1k 1
where
EE the maximum total effect
EEk the maximum effect in the natural mode k of vibration
Yeh the maximum effect in its own j mode of vibration
the correlation coefficient between the eigenmodes j and k jk
N the number of eigenmodes considered
Modal correlation coefficients are calculated with the following relation:

)(8 2 kjkj 3 rr
jk 22 2222 r rr (C 4.2)
)(4)1(4)1( kj kj r
Where
Tk
r are fractions of the depreciation
is the ratio of proper periods, and j i k
T
j
critically associated with j i k eigenmodes . If for the eigenmodes the same value is considered for the
fraction of the critical damping the relationship
of May kj ,
up becomes:
322r
8
jk
(C 4.3)
rrr222 2
)1(4)1(
If two natural modes of vibration with the same damping, have very close
natural periods (the r ratio is close to 1) and the modal correlation
coefficient has a value close to 1. Figure C 4.9 shows the values of the
correlation coefficient depending on the period ratio own r, for different
fractions of the modal viscous critical damping
0,02 , 0,05 i 0,10.
0,9
0,8
0,02
0,7
0,05
0,6
0,1
corel.
Coef.
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,5 1
1,5 2
r
Figure C 4.9.
For r ratio values equal to 0.9 and respectively 1/0.9 =1.11 and a fraction of the
critical damping of 0.05 (5%), the modal correlation becomes significant with a
correlation coefficient of 0.47, and the modes own can no longer be considered
independent.
The comparisons between the results obtained with the linear dynamic method and the
modal method with response spectrum highlight the accuracy of the CQC composition
for cases where the precision of the results obtained by the SRSS composition is
affected (underestimated) by the modal correlations and the corresponding common
terms. CQC is called the complete modal combination because it includes both
individual modal modal terms and common modal terms. Common modal terms can be
positive or negative, depending on the signs of the corresponding modal effects.
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Moreover, the SRSS modal composition is a particular case of the CQC complete ptratic
composition, for jk = 0 if jk i obviously =1 if j = k . jk
The SRSS and CQC modal maxima composition rules were developed based on the theory
of random vibrations. Estimates of the total maximum response are more accurate for
seismic motions characterized by a spectral composition with a wide frequency band and
an effective duration associated with the strong phase significantly longer than the
fundamental vibration period of the structure. For impulsive seismic waves, with short
effective durations, the accuracy of the results is lower. The SRSS and CQC rules are
suitable for estimating the maximum total response if the seismic action for the design is
represented by a smooth response spectrum, obtained by statistically averaging the
response spectra corresponding to a set of seismic accelerograms.
Each total maximum response must be estimated only by composing the modal maxima of
the same type of response quantity, the indirect determination by using other different
maximum modal response quantities being incorrect.
C4.5.3.5 The method of lateral forces and the modal calculation systematically lead to non-
conservative results when the resistance capacities of the floors have an irregular distribution
over the height, showing a concentration of ductility requirements at certain floors of the
building. In areas with irregularities, where the inelastic behavior is located, structural
element breaks may occur and additional efforts may appear that were not anticipated in
the detailed design of the structure. The seismic response of the structure is very sensitive
to the inelastic behavior in the "critical" areas, as well as to the detailing of these areas.
In regular structures, the inelastic deformation requirements tend to be distributed throughout

the structure, obtaining a "dispersion" of energy dissipation and possible degradations.
The incremental non-linear static calculation accurately considers irregular distributions of
resistance capacities. The procedure has a number of limitations and cannot be applied, for
example, to tall (flexible) building structures with very long fundamental vibration periods. In
the calculation of the inelastic dynamic response, by directly integrating the coupled
differential equations that describe the seismic movement of the structure, the resistance
capacities of the various structural components are adequately treated.
The results obtained by inelastic dynamic calculation are close to reality, if the structural
vibrations have sufficiently large amplitudes to produce significant flows during a strong
earthquake. In addition, these results are credible if they were obtained based on the
statistical processing of the inelastic responses obtained for a set of recorded or simulated
seismic accelerograms of the terrain, selected and calibrated accordingly.
The accuracy of the results of an inelastic dynamic calculation is sensitive to:
- the number of seismic accelerograms compatible with the location of the building
analyzed;
- the practical limits of modeling the interaction effects between elements with inelastic behavior;
- the non-linear calculation algorithm;

- the constitutive law that describes the hysteretic behavior of the components
structural.
C4.5.3.6 Due to the multidirectional nature of ground motion, the horizontal components and the
vertical component (when considered) of seismic action are applied to a structure.
The simultaneity of the two components on orthogonal directions in the horizontal plane or of the 3
translational components on orthogonal directions of the ground movement can only be considered
in the calculation of the spatial seismic response (linear/non-linear) by direct integration of the
differential equations of movement on the degrees of freedom directions dynamic of a three-
dimensional structural model.
Since the maximum values of the effects produced by the components of the seismic action are not
simultaneous, probabilistic based combination rules are used to estimate the maximum effect E
produced by the simultaneous application of the three components of the seismic action. The
reference rule for the "space" composition of the maximum effects Ex, Ey, Ez, produced by the
separate application of each of the components of the seismic action, is the square root of the sum of
squares (SRSS) :
222
EEEE zyx (C 4.4)
If each of the effects Ex, Ey and Ez are calculated by the CQC composition of the maximum modal
contributions and the components of the seismic action in the X, Y, Z directions are statistically
independent, then E represents an estimate of the maximum effect produced by the simultaneous
application of the three components of seismic action, independent of the orientation of the horizontal
axes X and Y.
SRSS is the reference rule for the combination of effects space, not only in the conditions of applying
the modal method with response spectra and the unidirectional CQC composition for the maximum
modal contributions, but also in the linear static calculation with equivalent seismic forces or in the
incremental nonlinear static calculation ("pushover ").
P 100-1 accept as an alternative composition rule, the linear percentage combination:
EEdx “+” 0,30 EEd “+” 0,30 EEdz
0,30 EEdx “+” 0,30 EEd “+” EEdz (C 4.5)
0,30 EEdx “+” EEd “+” 0,30 EEdz
When the three terms have the same sign, the value 0.275 corresponds to the best average linear
approximation of the SRSS combination. Rounding this value to 0.3 leads to underestimated or
overestimated values by at most 10%.
For regular structures in plan, with systems resistant to lateral forces, independent on two main
horizontal directions, the component of the seismic action applied in one direction does not produce
significant effects in the resistant system located on the orthogonal direction. For this reason, for
buildings regular in plan, with independent systems composed of structural walls or vertical bracing, it
is not necessary to spatially combine the effects produced by the two horizontal components of the
seismic action.
C4.5.3.6.2 P 100-1 provides for the consideration of the vertical component of the seismic action only
when its effects are significant. The conditions and the calculation model are similar to those specified
by the European standard EN 1998-1.
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In general, the vertical component of the seismic action can be neglected, with certain exceptions,
because:
- its effects can be covered by design for permanent and useful loads;
- the proper periods of translational vibration in the vertical direction of the structural
assembly are very short, being determined by high axial stiffnesses of the vertical structural
elements, and the spectral amplifications of the vertical response corresponding to these
periods are reduced.
For example, in SR EN 1998-1, the vertical component is considered in the calculation, when the
following conditions are met:
(1) the peak value of the vertical acceleration exceeds 0.25g
(2) the building and structural components fall into the following categories: (0)
(a) the building has a seismically isolated base
(b) horizontal or nearly horizontal elements with openings of at least 20m, consoles with
lengths greater than 5m; elements made of pre-stressed concrete; horizontal elements that
support one or more columns at indirect support points. ( ) In the cases detailed by condition
(2b), the dynamic response to the vertical component has a local character, involving a
partial model that describes the important aspects of the seismic response in the vertical direction.
The partial model includes the horizontal elements for which the action of the vertical component is
considered, but also the elements or substructures that constitute supports for these elements, the
adjacent elements (from adjacent openings) can be considered by their stiffnesses.
C 4.6 Safety check
C 4.6.2 Ultimate limit state

C4.6.2 The modern concept of seismic design considers a non-linear seismic response of the
structure. This is defined by the "balance" between the two essential properties of the structure,
strength and ductility, represented schematically in Figure C 4.10
Figure C 4.10.
This representation admits the hypothesis that the displacement requirement in the elastic seismic
response is the upper limit of the displacement requirement in the nonlinear response. This hypothesis,
stated by Newmark and Hall for the field of structures with a vibration period greater than
the predominant period of the response spectrum in accelerations, is confirmed by
numerous studies and substantiated the so-called "rule of equal displacement"
Once fixed the deformation capacity in the non-linear domain (the ductility characterized
by the du /dy ratio), the required lateral resistance results.
Modern design codes are based on the following philosophy:
- the composition of the elements (for example, the size of the concrete section in relation
to the axial and torsional forces, longitudinal and transverse reinforcement in the case
of reinforced concrete elements) implicitly ensures a certain ductility for the structural
system;
- the design seismic forces are established based on a reduction coefficient q, correlated
with the potential ductility of the structure. In this way, the values of the design sectional
efforts (strength requirement) are fixed.
The resistance condition of the structure then implies the verification of the relationship
(4.23) expressed in terms of resistance (bending with axial force, torsional force) for
all elements of the structure. The resistance of the sections corresponds, when the
design is carried out at the limit state of resistance, to the ultimate stress stage of the
sections. For example, for the bending stress with axial force for reinforced concrete
elements, the final stage is the one corresponding to the achievement of the ultimate
deformation in the compressed concrete or in the most stretched reinforcement, the
distribution of efforts in concrete and reinforcement being deduced accordingly.
- In cases where a more reliable control of the ductility properties is necessary, they are
checked explicitly by calculation.
C4.6.2.2 (2)...(5) Relation (4.22) expresses the condition for limiting the effects of the 2nd order
by limiting the ratio between the approximate values of the moment increase in the columns, due
to this effect, determined on the basis of the equilibrium in the deformed position of of the
structure and, respectively, of the floor moment (Figure C 4.11).
Figure C 4.11.
The expression (4.22) and the entire procedure for evaluating the effects of the 2nd order taken
from the American codes were substantiated by special studies with this objective.
The methodology is similar to that provided in the old STAS 10107/0-90 standard for flexible
reinforced concrete columns, except that the parameter is different.
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Thus, instead of the amplifier 1/(1-), in the Romanian standard replaced by SR EN 1992-1-1,
the amplifier was 1/1 N Ncr , established by theforce.
buckling so-called Perry's formula. Ncr is the Euler
C4.6.2.2 (6) The procedure presented above corresponds to the design phase of the structures.
Non-linear calculation methods are applied to structures with known composition, for example,
to structures designed with the methodology indicated in (1).
For these structures, the resistance of the elements and the assembly is therefore known,
which allows the verification of the safety expressed by condition (4.21) to be done in terms of
deformation.
For example, in the case of applying non-linear calculation, this means checking the
deformations of the elements (plastic rotations, relative level displacements), with the
requirements corresponding to the considered limit state. In the case of fragile type breaks,
such as those caused by force, the check can only be made in terms of force. The design
values of the forces are deduced from the limit equilibrium on the potential energy dissipation
mechanism. For example, the values of the design shear forces in the beams correspond to
the development of the plastic joints at the ends under the capable moments.
C4.6.2.3 This section presents the general conditions that a favorable energy dissipation
mechanism must meet. Thus, the plastic kinematic mechanism must have the plastic joints
distributed throughout the structure so that the plastic rotation requirements are minimal. For a
storied building structure, this mechanism involves the formation of plastic joints at the ends of
the beams and at the base of the columns.
A floor mechanism, with the plastic deformations concentrated in the columns of a single level,
is completely undesirable. The structural displacements are very large in this case and can
endanger the stability of the construction. On the other hand, the areas with plastic deformations
must be composed in such a way that they possess a very high ductility.
In order for the desired energy dissipation mechanism to be realized, it is essential that the
connections between the structural elements (for example, the nodes of the frame structures)
and planes remain stressed in the elastic domain of behavior. Otherwise, the deformations of
the structure can grow excessively and uncontrollably. For example, relatively small non-linear
deformations of nodes can lead to doubling of lateral displacements. From a practical point of
view, the imposition of the seismic energy dissipation mechanism is achieved through the
appropriate design of the resistance of the elements - the method of ranking the resistance
capacity. According to this method, the elements to which an elastic behavior is to be imposed
are ensured by dimensioning a sufficiently increased resistance compared to that resulting
strictly from the balance of the structural mechanism under the system of design forces.
C4.6.2.5 The current seismic design concept considers the development of plastic deformations
in the superstructure, with the maintenance of the infrastructure and foundations, i.e. the base
of the constructions, in the elastic field of behavior.
The realization of this concept in practice is done, as it was shown in the previous section, by
evaluating at the maximum probable level the efforts actually applied by the superstructure to
the infrastructure elements and foundations, including the consideration of some overstrength
effects. In the case of a reinforced concrete storey structure, this would involve, for example,
considering the effective section of longitudinal reinforcement in the columns
and pear, higher, in most cases, than the strictly necessary result of the calculation, and considering,
with a covering character, the possibility, very likely, that in the reinforcements in the plastic zones,
unit stresses will develop higher than the yield limit of the minimum specified. Expression (4.23)
results from such an approach.
In other words, the loads applied by the superstructure to its base correspond to the structural energy
dissipation mechanism. The value = 1.5, in the case Rd
of infrastructures
common to vertical
and foundation
elements,
systems
takes into
account certain components of the resistance mechanism ignored in the calculation model, such as,
for example, the mobilization of the torsional stiffness of the infrastructure box or the contribution of
the push passive friction on the perimeter walls of the basements.
Other aspects of foundation design are discussed in 5.8.
C4.6.2.6 The ultimate limit state refers to a stress stage of the construction that presents a sufficient
margin of safety compared to the stage where people's lives can be endangered. The explicit
objectives presented in (1) express this concept. In older versions of the design codes, lateral
displacement checks were provided only for the serviceability limit state.
As it is widely recognized today, the most significant parameter for the quality of the seismic response
is the lateral displacement. For this reason, in addition to strength checks and assembly measures to
ensure the ductility of structural elements, P 100-1 also introduced the obligation to check
displacements at ULS. It should be noted that in the case of applying non-linear calculation methods,
the checks are made only in terms of displacement. For the sake of simplifying the design, in situations
where the displacement requirements imposed by the earthquake are small enough and they easily
fall within the allowed limits, the explicit verification of the displacements can be waived. For example,
in the case of earthquakes in Banat, characterized by short predominant periods, for relatively flexible
buildings, such as multi-story frames, the displacement requirements calculated with:
2
Sd = (T/ 2) on (C 4.6)
they fall, as a rule, within the allowed limits due to the small amplification coefficient, corresponding
to the specific domain of the response spectrum on the site.
C4.6.2.7(4) The new edition of P100-1 provides for the required size of the seismic joint a lower value
than in the previous edition.
This modification is justified because the probability that the two neighboring buildings will record the
maximum displacements, in different directions, at the same moment of time, is extremely small. The
relation (4.25) is similar in structure to the relations for establishing the maximum effects of the action
in the modal response with the so-called (statistical) rule of the square root of the sum of the squares
of the maximum modal responses.
C4.6.3.2(1) The service limit state has in mind the satisfaction of the requirement to limit degradations.
SLS provides, for this reason, only checks of relative level displacements associated with the action
of more frequent earthquakes than those considered for ULSULS checks.
Until the seismic hazard map and response spectra associated with the SLS earthquake are available,
the displacement requirements are set approximately as a fraction of the lateral displacement
calculated at ULS for the design earthquake.
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In this edition of P 100-1, a distinct condition was introduced for the verification of lateral
stiffness in constructions with non-structural components anchored to the structure, but which
do not hinder the deformations of the structural elements. In the comments to Annex E, other
aspects of design and detail are discussed regarding the verification of structures for lateral
displacements.
C 4.7 Synthesis of design methods

C4.7 The synthesis highlights the essential elements of seismic design based on elastic,
respectively non-linear structural calculation. While in the first case, the current design method,
the imposition of the followed plasticization mechanism is achieved by ranking the resistances
of the elements, in the second case, the "advanced" design method, the requirements and
capacities are determined directly, based on the seismic response calculated nonlinearity,
which is closest to the actual one.
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ASCE 4-98, Seismic Analysis of Safety Related Nuclear Structures and Commentary,
ASCE, 2000
ASCE 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE, 2005
ATC (1996). Seismic evaluation and retrofit of concrete buildings. Report ATC 40, Redwood
City, CA.
Anagnostoupoulos, S.A, Chapter 8. Buildings, în Computer Analysis and Design of Earthquake
Resistant Structures. A Handbook, Editors Beskos D., Anagnostoupoulos, S.A, Computational
Mechanics Publications, Southampton, 1997
Anastassiadis, K., Avramidis I.E., Athanatopoulou, A. Critical Comments on Eurocode 8
Sections 3 and 4, Draft no.1/2000, 12th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
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Anastassiadis, K., Avramidis I.E., Athanatopoulou, A. Critical Comments on Eurocode 8 Parts
1-1 and 1-2, 11th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
Paris, 1998, Balkema Rotterdam, Paper No.095
CEN (2004). EN 1998-1-1: Design of structures for earthquake resistance / Part 1: General
rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings, Bruxelles, 250 pp.
Fajfar, P. and Fischinger, M. (1989). N2 – A method for non-linear seismic analysis of RC
buildings, Proc. of the 9th WCEE, Tokyo, vol. V, p. 111-116.
Fajfar, P. (2000). A nonlinear analysis method for performance-based seismic design.
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California Building Code, California Code of Regulation, Volume 2, based on 1997
Uniform Building Code , ICBO, 2002
Chopra A. K., Dynamics of Structures, Prentice Hall, 2001

Clough, R.W, Penzien,J.,Dynamics of Structures, McGraw-Hill,Second Edition, 1993
Cosenza, E., Manfredi, G., Realfonzo, R., Torsional effects and regularity conditions în RC
buildings, 12th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Auckland New Zeeland, 2000, ,
Paper No. 2551
Der Kiureghian, A., A Response Spectrum Method for Random Vibration Analysis of MDOF
Systems, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics,Vol.9,419-435, John Willey and
Sons,1981
Draft Regulatory Guide DG-1127 , Combining Modal Responses and Spatial
Components în Seismic Response Analysis, US- NUREG Commision, February 2005
Dubin D., Lungu D. coordinators, Constructions located in areas with strong seismic waves,
Orizonturi Universitare Publishing House, Timioara, 2003
Fardis, M.N, Chapter 9. Reinforced concrete structures, în Computer Analysis and Design of
Earthquake Resistant Structures.A Handbook, Editors Beskos D.E, Anagnostoupoulos, S.A ,
Computational Mechanics Publications, Southampton,1997
Fardis M.N, Current developments and future prospects of the European Code for World
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seismic design and rehabilitation of Buildings: Eurocode 8, 13 Conference on ,
Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver Fardis Canada,
M.N, August 1-6, 2004, Paper No. 2025
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în Earthquake Engineering, 12th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, London ,
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Ifrim M., Dynamics of structures and seismic engineering, EDP, Bucharest, 1984
Mazzolani F. M., Piluso V., Theory and Design of Seismic Resistant Steel Frames, E&FN
Spon, 1996
Ministry of Public Works (1992), P100/92: Regulations for the anti-seismic design of
residential, agro-zootechnical and industrial buildings, INCERC Bucharest, Buletinul
Construciilor, no. 1-2, 1992, 151 p.
NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and other
Structures, (FEMA 450), Part 1 Provisions, 2003 Edition, Buiding Seismic
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Newmark, N. M. i Hall, W.J. (1982). Earthquake spectra and design, Earthquake Engineering
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Paulay, T. i Priestley, M.J.N. (1992), Seismic Design of Concrete and Masonry Buildings,
John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 744 p.
Penelis G.E, Kappos, A.J., Earthquake Resistant Concrete Structures, E&FN Spoon,
London, 1997
Postelnicu, T. i Zamfirescu, D., (1998), Methodology for the calibration of the seismic forces,
11th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Paris.
Postelnicu, T. i Zamfirescu, D. (2001). Towards displacement-based methods in Romanian
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Regulations for Seimic Design – A World List, Suplement 2000, Editor Katayama, T.
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C 5. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO CONCRETE CONSTRUCTIONS
C 5.1. Generals
C5.1.2 The definitions from this section were taken practically unchanged from SR EN
1998-1. Most of them correspond to the meanings of the terms currently used in our
country.
A few clarifications are necessary:
(a) The more conventional name of "critical" zone was preferred, instead of the name of
"dissipative" zone, for the reason that in the application of the design method of ranking the
resistance capacity of structural elements, there is a possibility that plastic joints will not form in
these zones, or that incursions to the attack of the design earthquake in the post-elastic field of
deformation are limited. For example, column ends in frame structures designed for DCH class. In
this way, it is highlighted that these areas are the most requested.
(b) The proportion related to the contribution of the structural walls, respectively the frames,
in the resistance of the structural assembly, is expressed by the fraction of the basic forces in the
seismic load combination, taken over by the two structural subsystems.
(c) Torsional flexible structures present an unfavorable seismic response and, for this reason,
special design provisions are assigned to them. Such structures are, for example, systems with
rigid elements concentrated in a relatively small area, located towards the middle of the building,
and with much more flexible elements in the rest of the construction. These systems usually
present very important torsional rotations, with dangerous amplifications of the displacements of
the peripherally arranged elements. The modal calculation of the structure highlights in such cases
basic modes (the first modes) predominantly of torsion or which couple translational vibrations
with torsional vibrations, with close weights, making it difficult to control the behavior of the
structure.
Such ways of behaving are, in principle, not recommended. For this purpose, in order to balance
the structure in terms of rigidity, it is recommended to place some walls on the contour, available
in an advantageous position, or to increase the rigidity of the perimeter frames, most effectively by
increasing the dimensions (height) of the beams. The efficiency of these interventions can be
verified by a decoupling effect of the translational vibrations from the overall twisting ones.
Figure C 5.1 shows, for example, a structure with coupled modes, sensitive to twisting (a), and the
same structure improved by increasing the stiffness of the elements on the contour (b).
a) b)
Figure C 5.1.
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If system stiffness balancing measures are not possible, the seismic response is less
controllable. In such cases, it is necessary to increase the degree of insurance by
increasing the design seismic forces.
(d) Inverted pendulum type systems represent structures without redundancy,
respectively structural reserves. In engineering structures, such as water towers,
television towers, chimneys, energy dissipation usually occurs only in the area at the
base of the trunk, the only element of the structure. In these situations too, it is necessary
to increase safety by increasing computing power, this time to compensate for the lack
of redundancy. ( ) In the case of ground floor halls, if the roof plane performs the role of
a horizontal diaphragm connecting the ends of the pillars, the situation of the structure
as a whole is better than in the case of a structure made of unconnected elements,
working individually. If the connections of the roof to the columns are hinged, the columns
work on a cantilever pattern.
Despite the apparent lack of redundancy, the system as a whole can highlight a certain
overstrength, the pillars successively (not simultaneously) entering the plastic field of
deformation, as a result of the variability of the materials' resistances. If the columns have
relatively small axial loads, then they possess substantial ductility, similar to that of doubly
reinforced bent elements. On this basis, the hall structures that comply with the conditions
of the note at the end of the section are not penalized by increasing the seismic design
forces (see 5.2.2.2) and do not fit into the inverted pendulum type system.
Also, frames with a single level, with bars connected to the columns by rigid nodes, do
not fall into this category, regardless of the size of the unit compression efforts in the
columns.
C 5.2. Design principles

C5.2 (1)-(3) The seismic response of a structure is dependent on the relationship
between two major factors: strength and ductility. The stronger the structure, the lower
the ductility requirement, and vice versa. Also, if the structure is endowed with a
substantial ductility, which is mobilized to the action of the earthquake, it can be less
resistant than a construction with a ductility capable of less. This "balance" between
strength and ductility (expressed by the ratioatbetween the ultimate
the beginning of the displacement and that
flow) is represented
schematically in Figure C 5.2, where the behavior of the structures is approximated by
ideal elasto-plastic relations.
Figure C 5.2.
The relationship between strength and ductility has a counterpart in the composition of the
sections of the structural elements. In reinforced concrete structures, the bending strength, with
or without axial force, is dependent on the longitudinal reinforcement, while the ductility depends
especially on the transverse reinforcement in the critical (dissipative) zones.
The designer, in principle, can opt for different solutions, choosing higher resistance capacities
and lower ductility capabilities, or vice versa. In the context of the application of the design
code, there is the need to choose between the design in the conditions of the high ductility
class, DCH, or medium, DCM. For current constructions, the design codes have in mind a
seismic response in which displacements greater than those corresponding to ductility factors
of 4 - 5 are not imposed on the structures, in order to avoid structural degradation and excessive
residual deformations. Up to this limit, ductile behavior is preferable to a less ductile response,
especially in seismic areas with high ag values . Such an answer is obtained by designing the
building for the DCH class. In areas with weak seismicity, or in constructions with high resistance
capacity, as a result of the dimensions imposed on criteria other than structural ones, it is to be
expected that a high ductility will not be fully mobilized and, for this reason, in these
constructions, the measures ductility and, including, the ductility class can be reduced. The
design for the DCM class corresponds to these conditions. In principle, however, DCM design
can be an option for seismic regions with higher seismicity.
DCM design is simpler and can give better behavior for moderate earthquakes. DCH offers
a safety superior to the DCM class in terms of collapse under seismic actions stronger than
the design one. For this reason, designing at DCH is always preferable in seismic areas
with very high seismicity.
C 5.2.1 (4) P 100-1 allows the design of structures based on resistance considerations only,
if the design forces are high enough to obtain a practically elastic seismic response. In these
conditions, ductility measures must not be provided (low ductility class DCL). The over-unit
behavior factor, 1.5, takes into account the over-resistance of the structure due in particular
to the difference between the design values and the actual values of the design resistances.
P 100-1 recommend the choice of DCL only for regions with low seismicity because the
structures designed in this way may not have a sufficient margin of safety against
earthquakes stronger than the design one.
C5.2.2.1 In this section, the types of structures for buildings are identified.
Their definition was made in 5.1.
C5.2.2.2 (1)..(3) The design seismic force can be reduced in relation to the force value in
the elastic seismic response due to:
- the development of consistent post-elastic deformations (ductility)
- the resistance reserves that the structure captures as a result of the design
methodology (the so-called over-resistance of the structure).
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36
Figure C 5.3.
Overresistance has three main sources (Figure C 5.3):

(i) The overstrength results from the fact that the actual values of the resistance of the
materials (as the case may be, concrete, steel, masonry) are in reality higher than the
design values, which represent the minimum probable values.
(ii) Overresistance resulting from the concrete way in which the design is carried out
elements.
(iii) For example, in a multi-story building, the cross-sections of the columns and walls are
mostly kept constant throughout the height of the building, although the forces decrease
from the base to the top. Also, the minimum constructive dimensions or the minimum
percentages of reinforcement are often superior to the dimensions actually resulting from
the calculation, and when composing the sections, in the vast majority of cases, the required
dimensions of the sections are rounded off additionally.
(iv) System overstrength, resulting from the fact that the plastic joints are not formed
simultaneously but as the horizontal forces increase, so that the force-displacement curve
of the structure does not show a horizontal level, being ascending after the appearance of
the first plasticization. This is the manifestation of structural redundancy. ( )
The representation in Figure C 5.3 is a schematic one because the influence of the 3
sources of overresistance manifest together at any level of stress. In the Romanian rules,
the separation of the reduction factor due to ductility from that due to overstrength appears
for the first time in P 100-1, the procedure being similar to that in Eurocode.
In table 5.1, the reduction factor appears in the form of the product qqsr between the two
partial factors, without these notations appearing explicitly.
The fraction of the behavior factor that takes into account the potential ductility of the
structure and the overstrength effects identified in (i) and (ii) takes values between 5 and
1.5, depending on the potential ductility of the system and the chosen ductility class. This is
separated by the fraction u/1 which represents the ratio between the force registered by the
structure at the last moment and the force corresponding to the initiation of flow (in other
words, the formation of the first plastic joint). The u/ 11 factor thus expresses, formally, only
the system overresistance, being the higher the more redundant the structure.
In DCL class buildings, it is assumed that the overstrength of materials and

elements corresponds, as shown, to a behavior factor q = 1.5. It is also assumed
that this value is already included in the values in table 5.1 for buildings in DCM
and DCH.
1 can be considered as a multiplicative factor for the effects of the seismic action
in the elastic calculation for the design seismic action. Its value can be calculated
MM Rd
as the lowest value of the ratio
g
, where MRd is the value of
MM AND
g
design of the capable moment at the end of the element and ME and Mg are the bending
moments from the seismic action and, respectively, from the gravitational actions included in
the seismic design combination, for all critical areas. The value of u can be calculatedratio
as the
between the base shearing force corresponding to the formation of the complete plastification
mechanism, according to a non-linear static calculation, and the base shearing force caused
by the design seismic action (Figure C 5.2). The gravitational actions considered to act
simultaneously with the seismic action must be kept constant in the nonlinear static calculation,
while the lateral displacements increase.
Consequently, when calculating it in the non-linear
1, static calculation, the moment capacities of
the ends of the element must take the MRd design values. If the average values of the capable
moments are used, as is usual in the nonlinear static calculation, the same values will be used
for the calculation of 1.
Vb
For example, basic knowledge
Vbd design information
uVdb
Force-overshoot curve
yVdb resulting from a "pushover"
calculation
Vdb
Figure C 5.4.
In the initial phase of the design, the composition (reinforcement) of the structure is not known,
so the procedure described above can only be applied for checking the structural behavior. In
the current design, the values proposed in the Code are used, which are established according
to the number of levels and openings of the construction, in other words, the degree of static
indeterminacy (redundancy) of the construction.
Table 5.1 with the maximum values of the behavior factor q presents two novelties compared
to the previous edition of the code.
(i) Distinct values for the DCL class
The value q = 2 > 1.5, proposed for first-floor structures with d 0.25, takes into account the
"natural" ductility, without confinement measures of reinforced concrete elements with relatively
small compression forces.
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(ii) The inclusion in the composition of the factor kw from the composition of the factor de
behavior for beam structures. ( )
C5.2.2.2(4)(5) A number of relatively common constructions today, such as multi-storey car
parks and stadium grandstands, may include thin walls with potentially lower ductility than
long walls in conventional constructions. The subunit factor kw is identical to that provided for
in EN1998-1, where its values depend on the ratio between the height and the length of the
walls.
C5.2.2.2 (6) As shown in 4.4.3.3, the penalization of irregular structures by increasing the
design seismic forces is done through reduction factors (see also 5.2.2.2).
C5.3.2 The general conditions for verifying the strength and ductility of the structure were
discussed in C4.6.2.2 and C4.6.2.3. The comments made there are valid and refer here to
reinforced concrete structures.
C5.2.3.2(1) Realization of incursions in the plastic domain without significant reductions of the
resistance capacity, means stable hysteretic loops that can be achieved by
(a) limiting the relative axial force
(b) the limitation of the relative torsional force
(c) adequate composition of reinforcement ( )
(see C5.3.4.1.2, C5.3.4.2.2, C5.3.4.3.2).
C 5.2.3.3.1(6) The nonlinear seismic response of reinforced concrete structures depends on the "functioning" of the
plastic joints. For this reason, the calculation and composition provisions concern these areas, seeking to ensure a
stable hysteretic behavior for them. In the rest of the areas of the structural elements, as a rule, the elastic threshold of
deformation is not exceeded. Naturally, for these areas, the rules for "non-seismic" structural elements from SR EN
1992-1-1 are sufficient.
C5.2.3.3.3(1)..(4) This section includes the provisions for applying the method of ranking the resistance capacity of
structural elements ("capacity design method"), by which the desired energy dissipation mechanism is imposed on the
structure.
In the case of frame structures, these mechanisms provide for the formation of plastic joints in beams, and not in
columns (the so-called mechanism strong columns - weak beams).
Condition (5.4) expresses the fact that these design moments in the columns must be higher by 30% for class H,
respectively by 20% for class M, than the plasticizing moments of the beams, for each direction and sense of action of
the earthquake.
This gap is considered sufficient to ensure the mechanism of strong columns - weak beams, even for a seismic attack
in the oblique direction.
Studies carried out through nonlinear dynamic calculation demonstrate that, occasionally, for more special constructions,
the necessary Rd coefficient can reach values of about 2-2.2.
Another reason why relation (5.4) can be unreliable for avoiding the appearance of plastic joints in columns is that the
distribution of bending moments along the column of multi-story frames during the seismic action can differ substantially
from that provided by the elastic calculation at equivalent static forces. The nonlinear dynamic response highlights the
fact that the position of the inflection point is constantly changing. In [Paulay, 1986] it was shown that in structures
complying with condition (5.4) situations may occur in which plastic joints are formed under the beams, while the
sections above
they are subjected to moments with very low values. Moreover, the elastic calculation
itself highlights the situations in which the moments on the columns, above and below
the beam, are of the same sign when the beams are relatively flexible in relation to the
columns. In these cases the condition (5.4) should be replaced, in principle, with a relation of
form:
inf
MM sup
Rc corr Rd MRb
or (C 5.1)
inf sup
MM Rc corr Rd M Rb
as the moment in the column above the node, provided by the elastic calculation, is greater
inf sup
or less than that in the section below the beam. With Mcoresp and Mcoresp , the column
moments
that intervene in thein
the sections below the node and above the node were noted, in the situation where the
column would plasticize above the node, respectively below the node.
An approximate value of these moments is obtained by amplifying the values resulting from
the static calculation at design seismic loads with the ratio between the sum of the capable
moments in the beams adjacent to the node and the sum of the moments in the beams
resulting from the static calculation at design loads.
Figure C 5.5.
In P 100-1, the provisions of SR EN 1998-1 are followed and the verification of such situations
is not foreseen. It is considered that these cases are very difficult to identify, on the one hand,
and accidental plasticization, with small rotation requirements, is not dangerous. In Annex D
of the P100/92 standard, the condition between the capable moments from the columns and
those from the beams is extended to all the frame nodes at a certain level, or for the nodes in
a certain plane of the structure. This means that if the condition is not met for a certain node,
but is fulfilled at the level of the assembly, the potential plasticization mechanism is satisfactory.
Indeed, even if one or several plastic joints appear at the ends of the pillars at a certain level,
as long as most of the pillars work in the elastic domain (Figure C 5.6,b), a "weak level" type
mechanism cannot be formed . The movements are controlled in this case, and the rotations
in the plastic joints in the pillars are quite moderate.
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The variant adopted in P100/92, simpler to apply and more correct in principle, which was
adopted as an alternative procedure (relation 5.5), can be used optionally as shown in (4).
Figure C 5.6.
The situations in which the satisfaction of the condition (5.4) is excepted refers to columns
where, due to relatively small axial loads, the bending ductility is consistent, so that the
development of controlled plastic deformations is not dangerous.
To the cases indicated in (3) must be added that of the marginal pillars, in the situation
where they are strongly unloaded, sometimes totally, by the compression forces, through
the indirect effect of the horizontal forces. If the axial force is stretching or a small
compression, the sectional ductility is substantial without special transverse reinforcement
measures. The local plastification of a single pillar from the row of pillars at a certain level
is not dangerous, because it does not involve the development of floor mechanisms. On
the other hand, satisfying the condition (5.4) would attract an excessive increase of the
longitudinal reinforcement.
Imposing by design the position of plastic joints (dissipative zones) brings important
advantages:
(i) Keep the columns in the elastic range of behavior so that the fretting (confinement) of
the concrete core of the column is no longer necessary, so that the transverse reinforcement
measures can be substantially reduced.
(ii) It increases the capacity of the concrete in the columns to take over the shear forces,
in the areas at the ends of the columns, "protected" from plasticization. (iii) The adhesion
conditions of the reinforcements are improved, as a result of the fact that they are no
longer subjected to cyclical alternation in the post-elastic range. As a result, joints can be
accepted by overlapping the vertical bars on shorter lengths, corresponding to the normal
stress conditions.
(iv) The fact that the columns do not plastic improves the behavior of the beam-column
nodes. ( )
These arguments show, on the other hand, that the application of the capacity design
method for the imposition of favorable plasticization mechanisms does not mean special
reinforcement increases, especially as a result of the reduction of the necessary transverse
reinforcement (5.2.3.3.2(4)).
C5.2.3.3.3(5) In this edition of the seismic design code, the procedure for evaluating design
moments from EN 1998-1 has been abandoned. Although in this document the statement
is made that the proposed design moment diagram is comprehensive, being able to cover
the uncertainties related to the distribution of efforts in the inelastic response, the tests
carried out in the design of buildings have disproved this assessment. First of all, the EN
1998-1 chart is questionable
it is not related to the failure mechanism with the plastification of the sections at the base of
the walls. Consequently, both the values of the design bending moments and the values of
the design torsional forces from SR EN 1998-1 have a conventional character and cannot
avoid some uncontrolled plastification on the height of the building and, especially, brittle
fractures during torsion.
For this reason, P 100-1 provides for the evaluation of the design efforts in the wall the
procedure from CR 2-1-1.1, consistently based on the ranking of the resistance capacity in
order to impose the energy dissipation mechanism followed. Since the procedure is presented
in detail in for the design of structures with walls and commented extensively in the volume
of comments on the Code, P 100-1 only makes some basic specifications and refers to the
CR code 2-1-1.1 for additional provisions.
C5.2.3.3.2(6) The allowed redistributions of the dimensioning moments between the vertical
elements and, respectively, between the horizontal elements bordering the same row of
gaps, are based on the substantial ductility of the structural elements designed on the basis
of the code. If the redistributions fall within the limits of 30% and 20%, respectively, the
rotation capacities in the most requested sections are not exceeded.
The redistributions allow optimization of reinforcement, in the sense of steel economy and
simpler construction. For example, moments can be transferred from less axially loaded walls
(columns) to those subjected to higher compressions, where increased moments can be
taken over with relatively small reinforcement increments. Likewise, the redistribution of
moments between beams between two beams (pillars) can standardize the reinforcement
system and reduce the number of reinforcement types (Figure C 5.7,b).
Before
redistribution After redistribute
Before
redistribution
After redistribute
Amount 1 Amount 2 Amount 1 Amount 2
Deformata pereilor cuplai Moment diagrams in montani
Figure C 5.7.
C5.2.3.3.4 (1)(2) Mobilization of the designed energy dissipation mechanism assumes that premature
brittle or less ductile breaks are avoided. In this section, such types of transfer are identified:
(i) In order to avoid breakage when drilling in inclined sections, they are taken
the following measures:
- The values of the design forces are the maximum that can act on the elements, respectively
those that correspond to the plasticizing mechanism. When evaluating the capable moments
associated with this mechanism, the possibility of steel stress in the consolidation area is
taken into account, depending on the expected size of incursions in the non-linear area,
respectively the ductility class, medium (DCM) or high (DCH), for which the structure is
designed .
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42
- In the potential plastic areas (critical areas or dissipative areas), the decrease in the
capacity of the concrete to take over the shear force is taken into account, due to the
cyclical, sometimes alternating, stress.
To avoid breaks produced by sliding forces in working joints, these forces are also evaluated to the
maximum, as those associated with the plasticizing mechanism. An instructive example is illustrated
in Figure C 5.8, where the calculation scheme of sliding forces acting in a vertical joint of a
prefabricated wall made of large panels is represented.
From the examination of the balance of forces, it results that, at the last moment, the sliding forces
have values composed of a component resulting from the variation of the bending moment on the
height of the wall (Jurawsky sliding) and another that balances the loads applied on the planes. The
result is that the sliding force associated with the plasticization mechanism is substantially higher
than that given by the elastic calculation.
Figure C 5.8.
(ii) The degradation of the bond between the reinforcement and the concrete, especially in its
anchorage area (in many cases this represents the joining area between the elements - the structural
node), can, at the limit, remove the bar from work and therefore reduce the strength. In the case of
seismic action, this risk is amplified by the effect of cyclic, alternating loads, and by the effect of
concrete splitting cracks along the bar in the area of the structural node.
To reduce this risk:
- bars with periodic profile are used; -
special anchoring measures are taken; -
the anchoring length of the straight bars is increased. Section 5.7 provides for a 20%
increase in the anchorage lengths of the longitudinal bars stretched in the elements
participating in taking over the seismic action, in relation to the anchorage lengths of the
reinforcements under normal stress conditions. In order to ensure a good anchoring of
the stirrups with the role of fretting in the critical areas of the structural elements, their
hooks have the shape and dimensions of Figure C 5.9,a. By penetrating the hook into the
concrete core of the section (Figure C 5.9,b), better anchoring conditions are created
than by positioning it in the immediate vicinity of the covering concrete layer, which can
be lost under intense seismic stress.
(iii) Based on the same considerations, it is necessary to avoid seams (especially

those by welding overlap) in critical areas. This problem occurs especially when
strengthening the vertical reinforcements in the columns and the wall, where
interruptions of continuity occur at each level, due to the execution technology. The
simplest solution to avoid the reinforcement in the dissipative zone at the base of the
columns or walls is to provide reinforcements with the length of two levels. In the
case of walls with a high ratio between height and length (with a relatively small
height of the plastic zone), when solutions like those indicated above are not possible
or are difficult to execute, the idea of developing the critical zone above the zone of
strengthening of the vertical reinforcements (Figure C 5.10). For this, the supporting
area must be significantly stronger than the area above, a condition met by mounting
sufficiently strong musters. Moving the critical area higher does not involve substantial
increases in the associated shear force, a situation that occurs in columns, due to
the configuration of the wall-specific moments diagram, characterized by a much
larger shear arm.
a) b)
Figure C 5.9.
Figure C 5.10.
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44
Figure C 5.11.
(iv) The problem of avoiding the breaking of extended areas also arises in gravity design.
After the tensioned concrete cracks, the efforts taken up to that moment by the tensioned
concrete must be taken over by the reinforcement, whose cross section must be large
enough so that it does not break following this sudden stress transfer. This is actually the
condition for determining the minimum reinforcement (that is, the minimum percentages of
reinforcement) required in large areas. ( ) In the case of seismic action, the cracking of a
section with insufficient reinforcement is not necessarily followed by the breaking of the
reinforcement, because the applied effort decreases to the value it can support (Figure C
5.11).
Two issues must be considered:
- In the case of some sections developed in the compressed zone, the height of
the compressed zone at break is very small, resulting in very large deformations
in the stretched reinforcement. If the rotation requirement is high, stretched
reinforcement with insufficient section may break. - In the case of highly
developed sections in the extended area, even if the reinforcement placed in
relation to the core section may appear sufficiently, the cracking moment (Mcr)
may be higher than the yield moment (My) of the reinforced concrete section.
This means that the shearing force associated with the cracking moment is
greater than that associated with the plasticization mechanism and the
dimensioning of the transverse reinforcement must be done at the highest value
of the shearing force that can act on the element.
C5.2.3.4(1) The ductility of the structure as a whole can be mobilized in the critical areas
of the structural elements. The plastic deformation capacity of the dissipative zones is
directly dependent on the final specific rotation (curvature) developed in the most stressed
section as the break in the section is reached by overcoming the ultimate compressive
strain with that of C
the5.12,
concrete,
aib). The
or the
x marked
ultimatethe
strain
height
of the
of the
stretched
are compressed
reinforcement
area. (Figure
with are
a) in in
x b) dx
Figure C 5.12.
with
in
x
(C 5.2)
are
in
dx
important in, in the situations where they are established by the relationship suu
xd
(found in some elements subjected to eccentric stretching or, more rarely, to eccentric bending or compression
with reduced axial forces and small stretched reinforcement sections), ensure, usually in excess, the ductility
requirements associated with a favorable behavior to seismic stresses.
In the usual case where the relationship is applied, it is found that the u values can be increased, either by
measures that lead to the reduction of the compressed area, or by measures that increase the value
with.
The first objective can be achieved (see the equation that describes the balance of the projection of forces at
break in a reinforced concrete section) by:
- choosing some flared sections (with soles) in the compressed area, - reducing
the average unit compression efforts, respectively by increasing the concrete section,
- increasing the reinforcement in the compressed area,
- limiting reinforcement in the extended area,
- increasing the concrete class.
Increasing the deformability of concrete is obtained through the confinement effect achieved by an effective
transverse reinforcement. Transverse reinforcement also has other roles. Thus, a correctly constructed transverse
reinforcement ensures the integrity of the concrete enclosed between the stirrups and, consequently, contributes
to the hysteretic stability of the element's behavior, including by preserving the capacity of the concrete to take
over the shear force.
Also, to the extent that it is judiciously arranged, the transverse reinforcement supported by stirrups and clips
prevents lateral buckling of the compressed longitudinal reinforcing bars.
C5.2.3.4(2)(c) Concrete strength positively influences, under all aspects, ductility and energy dissipation capacity.
Thus, a more resistant concrete has a superior adhesion to the steel reinforcements and a superior capacity to
take over the shear force. Also, increasing the strength of concrete leads to a direct increase in bending ductility
by reducing the dimensions of the compressed areas in the sections
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46
the elements. P 100-1 provides, for this reason, lower limits for the class of concrete
used in structures, higher for the DCH class than for the DCM class.
Certain properties of steel are important from the point of view of the behavior of
reinforced concrete structures under seismic actions:
(i) The steel must present high enough ultimate deformations, so that the incursions
into the post-elastic range registered by the reinforcements required during intense seismic
actions, summed up over the entire life of the construction, do not consume their capable
elongation. The fixed conditions are that the minimum elongation under the maximum
unitary stress, sometimes called
are, class and uniform
7.5% for theelongation
DCH class.at break, should be 5% for the DCM
(ii) The ratio between ultimate and flow resistance is important for several reasons
viewpoints (Figure C 5.13). So:
- steel consolidation is one of the sources of the development of plastic
deformations in a certain area. The greater the length lp of the plastic zone, the
greater the plastic rotation capacity. For this reason, some design codes stipulate
the condition that the su/ sy ratio should be at least 1.15.
- a too high su/ sy ratio, as well as a too high variability of the fy value, can
exaggerate the ratio between the last moment and the moment of initiation of the flow.
The effects of such an overstrength due to the steel can be the premature
breaking of the element during forging, due to the unexpected increase in the
value associated with the ultimate moment developed at the ends, and the
change in the ratio between the moments of the beams (ample demand in the
post-elastic domain) and the moments at the ends of the columns, around nodes,
until the condition of the weak beam - strong pillar mechanism is not ensured.
For this reason, the su/ sy ratio is limited to 1.35. For the same reason, when evaluating
the associated torsional forces and checking the condition between the moments of the
bars converging in a node, the capable moments of the beams are amplified by multiplying
by the factor Rd.
Figure C 5.13.
The mentioned conditions are met by class B and C steels for DCM class, and only by
class C steels for DCH class (see table C1 of SR EN 1992-1-1).
(iii) Under alternating cyclic loads, the hot-rolled steel highlights the so-called Bauschinger
effect, which consists in the apparent reduction of the tangent modulus of elasticity,
after the first loading in the postelastic domain (Figure C 5.14), in other words, in the non-
linearization of the relationship - at substantially lower values than the initial yield limit
recorded at the first foray into the plastic domain. One of the consequences of this
property is the reduction of the buckling length of the reinforcement in relation to the one
corresponding to the behavior in the elastic domain. For this reason, P 100 -1:2011, like
SR EN 1998-1, provides for small distances between the clamps of the compressed bars
in the dissipative areas.
Figure C 5.14.
(iv) The cooperation of the steel with the concrete, its effective anchoring in the concrete,
so that sliding is avoided or reasonably limited, are decisive for the favorable behavior of
the dissipative zones that are cyclically and alternately demanded. For this reason, the
use of steels with an efficient profile is mandatory. ( )
The investigation of the seismic response of reinforced concrete structures using the
most efficient non-linear dynamic calculation tool available, highlights the fact that the
real picture of the plastic joints and the distribution of efforts can differ significantly from
those assumed by the application of current design methods. The additional measures
given in these sections aim to cover such differences in a not very precise, but sufficiently
safe manner. A few situations of this kind that appear in the seismic design of reinforced
concrete constructions are discussed below, by way of example:
mobilizedIn the
during
usual
thecases,
action the
of earthquakes
mechanismsassociated
of plasticization
with the
of structures
life safety performance
in frames, (i)
requirement, involve, for each direction of action of the earthquake, the formation of
plastic joints with the same direction of rotation in the two ends of the beams. Given the
low level of seismic design forces in relation to those corresponding to the elastic seismic
response, the development of plastic joints as in Figure C 5.15,c. represent a working
hypothesis with a probability close to certainty, regardless of the configuration of the
design moment diagrams (Figure C 5.15, aib).
a) b c)
Figure C 5.15.
The hysterically stable behavior of the two plastic joints makes it necessary to achieve a
capacity to take over positive moments on the support, respectively
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48
the provision of a minimum reinforcement at the bottom of the beam ends. This minimum amount is given in
P 100-1, as well as in other codes, as a fraction of the reinforcement provided at the top of the beams to take
the negative moments.
(ii) The development of negative moments in the field of the beam depends on several factors, such as:
the size of the opening, the ratio between the moments in the vertical and horizontal loads, the disposition of
the plastic joints (see (iii)), etc.
A typical situation is represented in Figure C 5.16. taking into account the dilation of the moment diagram to
introduce the effect of inclined cracks on the effort from the stretched reinforcements and the necessary
anchoring of the bars, it is found that there is practically no section in which it is not necessary to provide some
reinforcements at the upper part in the field. On this basis, P 100-1 stipulates the mandatory positioning of
minimum continuous reinforcements at the upper part of the beams.
(iii) Determining the position of the plastic joints in the beams, its influence on the strength assurance and the
confinement measures through transverse reinforcements require a special discussion.
Figure C 5.16.
The positions along the beam of the two plastic joints depend on the way in which the diagram
of capable moments, corresponding to the detailing of the longitudinal reinforcement, "dresses"
the diagram of maximum design bending moments. Two possible situations are illustrated in
Figure C 5.17. Thus, in the case represented in Figure C 5.17, a, the plastic joints appear at
the ends of the beams, and in the situation in Figure C 5.17, b, one plastic joint appears at one
end of the beam, while the other appears in the field of the beam.
There are several arguments that make the first situation to be considered more advantageous.
Indeed, when the plastic joints appear at the ends of the beam:
- for the same rotations of nodes, the deformations imposed on the beam and,
consequently, the ductility requirement for rotation in the plastic zone are smaller
(Figure C 5.17, cid); for clarity, in Figure C 5.17 the deformations at the initiation of
the flow are indicated.
- the torsional force associated with the plasticizing mechanism may be lower;
- the minimum transverse reinforcement provided for the plastic area extends over a
smaller length; In Figure C 5.17, aib, which illustrates the distinct cases that may
appear in practice, the specific mode of transverse reinforcement of the beam is
indicated.
Figure C 5.17.
It should be noted that there are also situations when, mainly aiming to protect the node,
the concrete way of making the longitudinal reinforcement of the beam directs the
appearance of plastic zones at sufficiently large distances from the ends of the beam,
thus avoiding plasticization (flow) and the sliding of the reinforcement in the node of the
structure and implicitly the degradation of the concrete in the node (Figure C 5.18). If, for
to ensure
various
sufficiently
reasons,
narrow
the column
compressed
section
areas,
cannot
concrete
be developed
confinement
(iv) inmethods
such a way
are as
applied to increase the ductility properties. Confining the concrete also increases the
compressive strength of the concrete, so that the critical area of the column can move
above the confined area. In order to ensure sufficient deformability properties, it is
recommended to provide transverse reinforcement measures in the plastic zones and in
these portions of the column (Figure C 5.19). ( )
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50
Figure C 5.18.
Figure C 5.19.
Figure C 5.20.
M Rb
Rd
M 1,Rc Rd
M 1,Rc
M Rc
Rd MRc,0
0
Figure C 5.21.
C 5.3. Design of high ductility class elements

C5.3 The provisions of this section aim to endow reinforced concrete elements of the DCH class
with a deformation capacity in the post-elastic range (ductility) sufficient in accordance with the
reduced level of design seismic forces (compared to the high values of the reduction coefficient).
C 5.3.1. Conditions relating to materials
C5.3.1 The intense seismic demand requires the use of materials of sufficiently high resistance,
and in the case of reinforcements, with superior ductility and adhesion properties.
C 5.3.2. Geometric conditions

C5.3.2(1)-(3) The conditions related to the thickness and geometric configuration of the elements
aim to ensure minimum resistance values, a good execution (concreting) and avoiding the
occurrence of geometric instability phenomena.
The limitation of the eccentricity between the axes of the beams and the columns has in mind the
limitation of the additional bending moments produced by it and the realization of a robust frame
node by the appropriate engagement of the concrete of the column at the height of the node.
C5.3.3.2 The section mainly refers to the evaluation of design shear forces in beams, on the
scheme of the plasticization mechanism.
In order not to evaluate excessive values of torsional forces, relation (5.9) also takes into account
the situation in which there is no plastic joint at the end of the beam, the resulting moment in this
section being capped by the lower capacity of the columns in relation to the capable moments of
the beam (Figure C 5.20).
The ductility requirements in the plastic joints in the beams are generally substantial, so that the
steel of the longitudinal reinforcements can be deformed in the strengthening area.
C5.3.3.3 The concept of evaluating the design torsional forces in columns is identical to that
described in 5.3.3.2 in the case of beams. The calculation scheme is suggested in Figure C 5.21,
for the first level of the structure.
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52
It should be noted that the adoption of Rd >1 values in the sections of the pillars, with the
exception of the base, has a covering character. In principle, if directing the plasticization
mechanism through relation (5.4) is achieved, then no plastic joints are formed in the columns.
C5.3.3.4 The value of the maximum torsional force that can develop in the frame node
corresponds to the situation where the sections of the beams adjacent to the node reach the
ultimate stage of stress. From the balance of the forces around the node (Figure C 5.22),
relation (5.11) for internal nodes and relation (5.12) for marginal nodes result.
C5.3.3.5(2) At C5.3.3.3.2(4) the arguments were shown for which the provisions of CR 2-1-1.1
were used in P 100-1, regarding the method of determining the design values of the bending
moments, consistent, in general, with the non-linear seismic response on which P 100-1 is
based. Naturally, the evaluation procedure of the design torsional forces is taken over, which,
only for the DCH class, practically coincides with the procedure in EN 1998-1.
Information regarding the substantiation of the procedure as well as additional provisions

regarding its application can be found in the relevant sections of CR 2-1-1.1 and the comments
to this code.
As2fyd Vc
As2fyd Vhd
Nod interior Nod marginal
Figure C 5.22.
A separate discussion is necessary regarding the evaluation procedure of the design

values of the shear forces in the walls of dual structures. The values of the burst diagram
in Figure 5.2 have been modified from those of the previous edition of P100-1.
These diagrams present design values in the upper part of the building, increased
compared to those associated with the diagram obtained from the structural calculation
under the design seismic action and multiplied by the overresistance factor.
takes intoThis increase
account the
fact that in the upper area of the building the effects of higher vibration modes are felt. On
the other hand, it must be taken into account that, in the elastic response, in the upper area
the walls are relatively unloaded as a result of the interaction with the frames, so that the
forces resulting from the calculation that return to the walls may have insignificant values.
Such values are obviously not comprehensive if the nonlinear dynamic response of the
ductile structure is taken into account.
C5.3.3.6 In the case of dark walls, the influence of higher vibration modes is negligible, so
that kv=1, as given in relation 5.14.
C5.3.4.1.1(2) The beff values given here vary depending on a condition ignored in the
previous Romanian norms, namely the presence, or not, in the node of a transverse beam
in the direction of the beam being calculated. The effective width of the wings, beff, also
defines the reinforcements in the plane plate that contribute to the bending capacity of the beam.
C.5.3.4.1.1(4) In the critical areas subjected to alternating bending moment stresses, the
cyclic cracking of the concrete leads to the degradation of the concrete and to the
reduction of its capacity to absorb shear forces. The laboratory tests highlight the fact that
the classic model of the beam with the lattice, the inclination of the diagonals by 45° and
ignoring the contribution of the contribution in taking over the torsional force represents a
sufficiently covering stirrup dimensioning scheme. For this reason, P 100-1 consequently
modifies the provisions of SR EN 1992-1-1 applicable to elements required for non-seismic
(gravitational) loading.
A special case is that of beams where the design forces change sign for the two directions
of the seismic action.
The beams in this category are generally short beams, with relatively small gravitational
loads, or beams of some space frames where the unidirectional unloading of the planes
makes the beams in one direction to be subjected practically exclusively to the forces from
the seismic action.
The sizing rules are differentiated according to two parameters:

- value = VV between the algebraic values of the torque forces of
ed min, ed max,
design in both directions of seismic action;

- the absolute value of the maximum torsional force.
In the most severe case of stress, < - 0.5 i (2+)fctdbd, the danger
IN
max
AND
of slippage in the section at the
end of the beam may appear.
When the sign of the moment changes, an open vertical crack may appear along the entire height
of the section until the recovery of the plastic deformation in the reinforcement stretched in the
previous cycle. In these conditions, the vertical loads applied to the beam can cause the beam to
slide vertically, deformation that reduces its subsequent resistance capacity. In order to avoid such
slips, P 100-1 requires that in this situation, inclined reinforcements should be provided in two
directions, dimensioned to take over half of the design value of the torsional force. The difference
in torsional forces must be taken over by vertical stirrups, which have the advantage of being active
for both directions of the torsional force.
C5.3.4.1.2 (1) In reality, the critical areas along which the plastic deformations develop have smaller
dimensions, of the order of the beam height. The values prescribed in this paragraph take into
account the uncertainties related to the position of the plastic joints. Stronger transverse
reinforcement must be provided in these areas than in the rest of the beam.
C5.3.4.1.2 (2) and (6), (a) and (b) The provisions of these paragraphs represent additional
measures in the spirit of section 5.2.3.6. These minimum reinforcement measures can also be
considered measures to increase the ductility in the elements, when the minimum reinforcement is
placed in the compressed area.
C5.3.4.1.2 (4) The amount of longitudinal reinforcement in the beams must fall between a lower
and an upper limit.
Machine
54
The bent reinforced concrete elements must have enough reinforcement in the stretched areas
so that the moment of initiation of flow in the stretched reinforcement is greater (to a sufficient
extent) than the moment that produces the cracking of the stretched area. Otherwise, after
cracking of the stretched area, the stress taken up to then by the stretched concrete must be
taken up by the stretched reinforcement. The released deformation energy leads to a rapid
increase in the deformations of the reinforcement (and, implicitly, the bending deformations of the
beam). If the reinforcement is insufficient, the moment of the section decreases, and the
deformations of the reinforcement can quickly reach the ultimate deformation of the steel. Thus,
the behavior is brittle and should be avoided.
In the case of static gravitational action, if the cracking moment Mcr > My, after cracking the
beam breaks, if there is no possibility of redistribution (Figure C 5.11). In the case of seismic
action, the beam does not break instantly because the force (moment) decreases to the capacity
of the element, but the deformations increase suddenly and can quickly reach the breaking
deformations of the steel even if the bending ductility requirements are small.
C5.3.4.1.2(5) The amount of reinforcement in the tension zone of the beams should be limited
and superior to limit the development of the compressed zone in the section of critical end zones.
If the compressed reinforcement is greater than the stretched one, as usually happens at the
ends of beams subjected to positive moments, the break occurs by exceeding the elongation
capacity of the stretched steel reinforcement.
If the reinforcement in the extended area is greater than that in the compressed area, it must not
be greater than that which allows reaching a certain value (of a certain ultimate curvature). EN
1998-1 proposes the relationship:
1,max
= 2 + (0,0018/ sy) fcd / world (C 5.3)
in which 1 i 2 represent the reinforcement coefficients in the stretched and compressed area.
Instead of this difficult-to-use relationship, because the bending ductility requirement is assumed to
be known, P 100-1 provides a simpler condition to practically fulfill, limiting xu to 0.25 d. This condition
provides a sufficient bending ductility.
C5.3.4.1.2 (7) In the case of beams, the stirrups available in the critical areas have the role of taking
over the torsional forces and preventing the buckling of the compressed reinforcements, a role which,
in fact, fixes the distance between the stirrups. As shown in 5.3.4.1.2(5), the deformation capacity of
beams in the post-elastic range is controlled by an appropriate proportion of compressed and tension
reinforcement and, to a much lesser extent, by concrete confinement.
C5.3.4.2.1 The application of the capacity design method provided for by P 100-1 allows, with high
probability, to avoid floor plastification mechanisms and, consequently, the ductility requirements in
the columns of a structure sized in this way are modest. As a result, it is to be expected that the cyclic
action reduces to a much lesser extent the resistance capacity of the columns, compared to the case
of the beams. In the vision of the code, the application of the factors to the evaluation of the design
shear forces ensures a sufficiently covering nature of the design action in order not to modify the
expression of resistance to shear forces given in SR EN 1992-1-1.
In the European standard for seismic evaluation of structures, SR EN 1998-3, the contribution of the
axial compression force is added to the dimensioning expression of the transverse reinforcement.
The result is the expression:
Vw = w bw z fw ctg + N(d – d1) / lcl (C 5.4)
The angle takes values like those for columns designed for non-seismic actions (according to the
provisions of EN1998-1), with ctg between 1 and 2.5. In the case of the pillars of the lateral structures,
the alternation of efforts is almost complete, being equal to -1. Also, the value of the design torque is
usually high. However, the provision of inclined reinforcement is not considered necessary.
The presence of the axial compressive force and the moderate plastic deformations in the longitudinal
reinforcements means that in the case of the columns there are no situations in which the cracks
completely cross the sections. On the other hand, sliding along the working joint is prevented, to a
large extent, by the mandrel action and the tightening effect exerted by the intermediate vertical bars
of large diameter located between the reinforcements at the ends, which are stressed in the elastic
domain.
C5.3.4.2.2 (1) The limitation of the normalized value of the axial force aims to ensure a minimum
bending ductility, by limiting the size of the compressed area at the moment of yielding. Other methods
of increasing ductility are, mainly, limiting the amount of reinforcement in the stretched area, increasing
the compressed reinforcement (for non-symmetric reinforced columns), increasing the concrete grade
and increasing the ultimate deformation of the compressed concrete, with, by confining it with
transverse reinforcement. To take into account the confinement effect, the calculation models in P
100-3 can be used.
C5.3.4.2.2 (2) The minimum value of the percentage of reinforcement follows the endowment of the
column with a minimum resistance required in seismic areas, with hysteretic stability.
The upper limit is justified by economic considerations, but also by the intention to limit the level of
adherence efforts, which at too high percentages can become critical.
C5.3.4.2.2 (3) A distributed longitudinal reinforcement ensures homogeneous behavior, effective

confinement and limitation of the opening of tension cracks on the side of the column (Figure C 5.23).
Figure C 5.23.
C5.3.4.2.2 (4) The provision has an obvious covering character. As it was shown in C5.2.3.3.2, the
imposition of the energy dissipation mechanism by ranking the resistances of the elements should, in
principle, ensure that plastic joints in the columns (with the exception of their base) can only appear
accidentally and with low ductility requirements .
Machine
56
C5.3.4.2.2 (5) The provision is comprehensive and takes into account only the geometric
parameters. In reality, the length of the critical zone also depends on other factors such as the
amount and distribution of reinforcements, the shear arm (M/ V), etc.
C5.3.4.2.2 (6) In the case of columns with short member properties, the inclined
cracks and the almost inevitable sliding of the reinforcement propagate the flow of the
reinforcement over almost the entire height. From this point of view, dark posts behave
similarly to short coupling beams. On the other hand, dark columns require strong
transverse reinforcement throughout their height and to prevent characteristic inclined breaks
brittle
C5.3.4.2.2(7) The transverse reinforcement rules given in this paragraph aim to
achieve a sufficiently effective confinement (freighting) effect to ensure stable hysteretic
behavior in critical areas (Figure C 5.24).
Figure C 5.24.
Figure C 5.25.
From the analysis of the triaxial compression effect exerted by the tension spring mechanism
constituted by the thrusts of the balls inscribed in the concrete mass, balanced by the stretching
forces from the longitudinal and transverse reinforcements, it follows that this effect can increase
by:
- reducing the distances between the fixing points of the vertical reinforcements
( reducing distances etc. ) ;
- increasing the section of the stirrups;
- the provision of longitudinal reinforcements thick enough to limit the amount of mutual
steel-concrete pressures at the "birth" of concrete diseases;
- increasing the yield strength of the steel in the stirrups and clips.
The calculation expressions of the resistance and ultimate deformations of the confined
concrete highlight the main parameter on which they depend: the transverse pressure
balanced at the limit (at yield) by the transverse reinforcement (Figure C 5.25).
C5.3.4.2.2 (8) (9) (10) and (11) In situations where d values exceed 0.45, it is necessary to
specify the capacity of ductility of curvature, which must be lower than the requirement
estimated with relations (5.4).
In the support area, the bending resistance of the column can increase due to the increase
in the number of active bars, but also as a result of the strong confinement of the concrete.
In these conditions, there is a possibility that immediately above the strengthening zone the
column section will be weaker than below it and the vertical bars will be stressed beyond
the yield point. By the measure indicated in (11), the containment measures are extended
in the plastic potential zone above the strengthening zone.
C5.3.4.2.3 A good behavior of nodes is essential to obtain a favorable seismic response of
structures in ductile frames. For this purpose, the following conditions must be met:
(i) The resistance of the node must be higher than the maximum requirement associated with the energy
dissipation mechanism of the structure. This eliminates the energy dissipation inside the node and the need to
repair a practically irreparable structural component. Otherwise, there are severe degradations of the stiffness
and strength of the nodes under alternating cycles with stresses in the inelastic range.
(ii) The strength of the pillar should not be negatively affected by the degradation of the knot, which is
otherwise a part of the pillar;
(iii) The seismic response of nodes to moderate earthquakes must be elastic;
(iv) The deformations of the nodes due to the inclined crack and the sliding of the longitudinal reinforcements
in the beams must be reduced as much as possible. Otherwise, the lateral movements of the structure can
increase a lot;
(v) The reinforcement of the knot should be made as simple as possible, taking into account the fact that the
longitudinal reinforcement of the beams and columns also penetrates the knot. ( )
The node must take high forces whose value is calculated with the expression (5.11) or (5.12). Efforts are
balanced at the node level through two mechanisms:
(a) a compressed diagonal mechanism associated with internal holes developed in concrete (Figure C 5.26, a);
(b) a beam mechanism with lattices "loaded" by the adhesion efforts between the longitudinal reinforcements
of the concrete beams and columns (Figure C 5.26, b); from Fig. C5.26 it can be seen that the adhesion forces
along the length of the node are very high, being produced by the sum of the efforts in the reinforcements in
the beams to the left and right of the node (Figure C 5.26, c) ( )
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58
hb
hc
(c)
(a) hc (b)
Figure C 5.26.
inactive zone
1/2
b
c
bc bw
b
j
min
hb
In
5.0 c
the active
area of the node
hj= hc
Figure C 5.27.
Vcol
C’s Ts
C’c
efforts taken over by the efforts taken over by the grating
mechanism of mechanism
arc
Cs
Cc
distribution of efforts in the

my
upper armature
f’sfy
distribute
efforts of
Figure C 5.28.
C5.3.4.2.3 (1) and (2) If the shear reinforcement is sufficient to control incursions in the
postelastic range, crushing of the concrete by diagonal compression may represent a potential
failure mode. This failure mode can be avoided by upper limiting the diagonal compressive
stresses. In practice, this is achieved by limiting the equivalent shearing efforts in the node,
expressed by relations (5.26) and (5.27).
The effective (active) section of the node is taken into account, both when calculating the capacity
of the node and when mounting the effective reinforcement of the node horizontally and vertically.
C5.3.4.2.3 (3) Expressions (5.29) and (5.30) serve for the dimensioning of reinforcements for
taking over the torsional force of the node through the lattice beam mechanism. The right-hand
side of the expression represents the torsional force transmitted to the node through the
adhesion efforts developed on the lateral surface of the upper reinforcement of the beam, on
the area related to the tensile crack at the base of the upper column section. This is obtained
by subtracting from the value of the total torsional force in the node the value of the torsional
force taken over by the compressed diagonal mechanism (sometimes also called the spring
mechanism because it is characterized by taking over an inclined push).
The force related to the spring mechanism includes the sum of the adhesion efforts developed over
a length equal to the height of the compressed area at the base of the upper column (required in
stage II, if the plasticization mechanism is of the strong columns - weak beams type).
From the examination of relations (5.29) and (5.30) it is found that the torsional force that must
be taken by the reinforcements is the smaller the higher the compression effort in the upper
column. This is justified if it is taken into account that the forces taken over by the spring
mechanism are greater the larger the compressed area (Figure C 5.26, c).
Compared to the dimensioning expressions given in EN 1998-1, corrections were introduced in

the relationships in P 100-1 in order to bring the results obtained by calculation closer to those
provided by the experimental studies. These studies prove that the effective resistance of the
nodes is significantly higher than that provided by the calculation expressions associated with
the theoretical models presented above.
It should be noted that in the American standards (UBC, ACI 318), unlike the European and New
Zealand standards, it is considered that the torsional forces are fully taken over by a compressed
diagonal mechanism (Figure C 5.26, a). This mechanism is considered active if the respective
unit efforts do not exceed a certain value and if the compressed diagonal is secured transversely
by a confining effect exerted by the transverse beams and the horizontal reinforcements of the
node made of stirrups.
It is considered that the provision on the height of the node of the dense transverse reinforcement
in the critical areas is sufficient for this. In these conditions, ACI 318 provides the following
verification relationships:
Vjhd 70,1 hbf ejck , for nodes confined on 4 sides;
Vjhd 25,1 hbf ejck , for nodes confined on 3 sides;
Vjhd 00,1 hbf ejck , for the other nodes.

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60
Co-grind is considered to provide the node with a sufficient confining effect if it has a size of at
least 3/4 of the size of the node.
C5.3.4.2.3 (4) and (6) Regarding the composition of the Ash armature, some clarifications must
be made:
- the rhombic or polygonal reinforcements contribute to taking over the torsional force
from the node only by projecting the efforts parallel to their direction;
- only the reinforcements positioned inside the effective section of the node (bj hj)
are effective;
- the reinforcements must be distributed over the height of the node to obtain an
efficient action if the configuration of the truss mechanism is taken into account;
- clips that are too short are not effective because they may not intersect the plane
1
breaking. It is recommended to neglect clips shorter than hj.
3
- the diagonal compression field is efficiently mobilized only if stirrups with multiple branches are provided;
- the horizontal reinforcement of the node will not be smaller than the transverse reinforcement at the ends of the
columns to ensure the lateral support of the compressed longitudinal bars, especially those in the corners.
ESR ESR
(a) (b) (c)
Figure C 5.29.
C5.3.4.2.3 (5) From the examination of the balance of tangential forces represented in Figure C 5.26, it results that the vertical
torsional force in the node can be estimated accurately enough with the relation:
Vhhvjhcbjv _ (C 5.5)
From this value, it is considered that the vertical reinforcements must take only the fraction through the beam mechanism
2
,
considering c
Vjv 3
the design provisions limit or even avoid the plasticization of the poles.
C5.3.4.3.1 (1) and (2) P 100-1 brings changes to the dimensioning procedures for monotonously statically loaded walls
(according to SR EN 1992-1-1), when the structural walls are subject to seismic cyclic actions.
For the calculation of the reinforced concrete sections of the walls, reference is made to
CR 2-1-1.1, as was also done in the case of the frame structure elements for which
reference was made to SR EN 1992-1-1. However, in order for the application of the code
to be done with a full understanding of the provisions, the present comments present the
foundation of the calculation relationships for the walls.
As in the case of the pillars of the frame structures, separate provisions are given for the
insurance in relation to the failure of the concrete by compression and, respectively, for the
insurance against the so-called rupture by diagonal stretching of the walls. In the first case,
the compressed concrete breaks suddenly before the flow of the transverse reinforcements,
while in the second case, the break occurs after the development of plastic deformations in
the reinforcements.
The code also establishes calculation models for sliding failure along casting joints.
(a) Insurance against breakage by diagonal compression
First, the provisions given in EN 1998-1 are presented.
The dimensioning of the concrete sections, respectively the evaluation of the maximum torsional
force VRd,max, is done differently for the elements designed for DCH and DCM, on the one hand,
and between the plastic zones and the zones outside them, on the other hand. So:
(i) For the walls designed for the medium ductility class, the dimensioning provisions for
shear forces given in SR EN 1992-1-1 for monotonously statically stressed walls are taken
unchanged.
(ii) For the walls designed for the high ductility class, the calculation procedure
is: ( )
- Outside the critical areas, the VRd,max value is calculated with the SR EN 1992-1-1
relations, considering ctg = 1 ( = 45°), and the lever arm of the internal efforts z 0.8lw.
- In the critical area at the base of the wall, VRd,max is 0.5 of the value determined for
areas located outside this area.
This reduction of the design resistance of the walls in the critical area at their base, for structures
with high ductility requirements (DCH class), is very drastic. It is based on the experimental studies
led by the authors of the Eurocode which highlighted such decreases in the capacities of the
loaded walls, in relation to the values obtained by applying SR EN 1992-1-1:2004.
And in the case of the walls designed for the medium ductility class, since they will have to
bear cycles of alternating loads in the post-elastic range, their resistance will naturally be negatively
affected.
However, EN 1998-1 does not provide for the adoption of other calculation expressions than those
given in SR EN 1992-1-1.
The application of these provisions to the design of structures with walls in areas with high
seismicity, such as, for example, the areas with the maximum design acceleration, ag 0.25g on
the territory of Romania, obviously leads to the following consequences:
- Excessive dimensions, for the practice from us in the ar, of the walls. For example, for
dual structures of the current type, with 10 – 15 levels, the thickness
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62
required result of the calculation is, depending on the openings, 90 – 120 cm. In these
conditions, the consumptions can become prohibitive and as a result of the fact that the weight
of the walls takes the largest share in the total weight of the construction.
- Major increases in longitudinal bending reinforcements for DCM class structures, compared to
those designed for DCH. The high ductility class is, in principle, the most suitable in areas
exposed to the attack of strong earthquakes. On the other hand, the increase in the bending
resistance capacity also attracts the increase in design shear forces and, implicitly, in the
consumption of concrete and transverse reinforcement, to ensure the necessary resistance to
these actions.
The experience accumulated following the earthquakes that the territory of Romania has endured in the
last 40 years does not seem to confirm these very severe dimensioning procedures.
Thus, for example, in the great earthquake of 1977, buildings with structures with reinforced concrete
walls behaved relatively well despite the fact that their dimensions and reinforcement were completely
inadequate and insufficient as a result of the design based on a code far below the level today's advanced
codes.
For this reason, the procedures in CR 2-1-1.1 for the evaluation of the diagonal compression strength are
kept. Such an option is also justified by the fact that the application of these procedures leads to results
very close to the application of design codes from the USA and New Zealand, countries where seismic
engineering is very advanced.
The expression for checking the strength of the core concrete of the walls to main stresses in the critical
zone at the base of the walls (zone A) is made with the relation:
VEd 0.15 bw lw fcd (C 5.6)
It is noted that the diagonal compressive strength is expressed as a function of the design strength of
compressed concrete and not as a function of the strength of stretched concrete, as in the previous
edition of the CR 2-1-1.1 code. Writing the relationship in this way is the correct one, since it expresses
the resistance to a compression effort. The 0.15 factor takes into account the dependence of the
concrete's compressive strength, the size of the normal stretching efforts on the diagonal (the main
stretching efforts, taken over by the transverse reinforcements) and the reduction of the concrete's
resistance to the static stress produced by the cyclic action of the horizontal forces.
Although significantly higher than the resistance value given by SR EN 1998-1, the value provided by the
relationship (C 5.6) matches, as shown, with that prescribed by the American and New Zealand standards.
Outside the critical zone, the strength of the concrete core of the wall is determined by the relation:
VEd 0.18 bw lw fcd (C 5.7)
However, it should be noted that if the building does not have many floors, it is advisable to maintain
the thickness of the walls throughout the height. However, it is possible to reduce the class of concrete.
(b) Diagonal tensile strength ( )
The calculation expressions are chosen depending on the size of the shear ratio (opening).
s = MEd / VEd lw.

calculation
In the
is carried
case of
out,
long
according
and medium
to thewalls,
provisions
category
of SR
defined
EN 1992-1-1,
by (i) 2, the
considering
s the inclination
of the critical crack =45° and z=0.8lw.
effects isIngreater,
the case
theofexpressions
dark walls, defined
are used:
by( a) ratio s>2, where the relative weight of (ii) shear force
- For horizontal reinforcements:
VEd=VRd,c+0.75hfyd,hbw0slw. (C 5.8)
in which:
h the reinforcement coefficient of the horizontal bars in the heart of the wall
fyd,h the design value of the yield limit of the horizontal reinforcement in the core
VRd,c design value of the shear force capable for elements without shear reinforcement according to
SR EN 1992-1-1.
The s factor highlights the fact that with short elements the vertical reinforcements are active in taking
over the torsional force, so that the efficiency of the horizontal reinforcement is conventionally
increased.
Examination of the expression (C 5.8) shows that it expresses a limit equilibrium in an inclined section
conventionally considered to be the rupture crack joining the conventional point of application of the
resultant of the horizontal forces to the compressed neck at the base of the wall.
The contribution of the horizontal reinforcement is given by the second term in the relation (C 5.8),
which can be written, ignoring the i factor,
s, in the form:
VEd = (Ah/ bw0 Sh)b w0 (MEd / VEd)0.75fyh,d=Ah(Z/ Sh)0.75fyh,d. (C 5.9)
The ratio z/ sh indicates the number of transverse reinforcements with section Ah intercepted by the
rupture crack, and the factor 0.75 takes into account the efficiency of these reinforcements, namely
the reinforcements near the compressed neck, where the crack is slightly open and, therefore, does
not reach flow.
The dimensioning model of the horizontal reinforcement is common with that of CR 2-1-1.1.
Since the VRd,c prescribed by EN 1998-1 is not justified in principle, for the contribution of the concrete
in taking over the shear force, the relations are given:
VEd VRd,c + h fyd ,h bul
lw .VRd ,c = 0, in area A (C 5.10)
VRd,c = 0.50bwlw in area B
where 0 is the average unit compressive stress at the heart of the wall, to account for the favorable
effect of the vertical compressive force applied to the wall section.
Since for the evaluation of dark walls, most of the design norms apply the beam with lattice model,
in CR 2-1-1.1 the procedure for dimensioning the heart reinforcements based on this model was
mentioned.
and with regard to the resistance of the walls along the sliding joints of other pre-cracked planes, the
friction sliding resistance model from CR 2-1-1.1 is maintained.
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64
C5.3.4.3.2(3) Inequality (5.34) represents a minimum curvature ductility condition.

This condition is expressed in a general and rigorous form by means of limiting the size of the
compressed zone of the concrete sections. In this way, the influence of all the factors on which
its size depends can be taken into account (the amount of armor on the heart, the intermediate
feet, etc.).
The xu values were established considering the case of long walls (with the ratio between the
length and the width of the section H/h>4) and values of the structural ductility in the range 4-6.
Converting the displacement ductility condition of the structure into bending ductility conditions
and taking into account the ratio between the calculation resistances and the average ones
considered, as a rule, in the calculation of the effective deformations, a value xu0.3lu can be
obtained To take into account the fact that the ductility requirements decrease as the resistance
capacity increases, the xu value was corrected by including the ratio .
C5.3.4.3.2 (7) The integrity of the concrete area referred to in this section is essential for
the good behavior of the wall under alternating cyclic seismic action. In the situation where it
is compressed, the fastening of the vertical bars with stirrups contributes to this, in addition
to the current transverse reinforcement of the heart or footing. In the situation when the
extremity of the wall is subjected to stretching, the column-type transverse reinforcement
contributes to achieving good adhesion conditions for the vertical reinforcements and to
limiting the opening of cracks.
C5.3.4.4(2) The laboratory tests and the behavior of the coupling beams under the attack of
intense earthquakes highlight the fact that beams reinforced with orthogonal bars (with
longitudinal bars and vertical stirrups) suffer very high degradation of the concrete,
accompanied by a reduction in strength. They are mainly exposed to sliding failure in the
open vertical joints between the walls and the end of the beam.
C5.3.4.4(3) For this reason, the "classical" reinforcement with orthogonal bars is only allowed
if the level of tensile stress, expressed by the magnitude of tangential unit efforts, is relatively
small (relation 5.37). Otherwise, it is mandatory to reinforce with diagonal bars, tightened with
stirrups or frets, forming casings of the type used to reinforce the pillars. It is counted on the
equal input of stretched and compressed bars.
For a good behavior, it is essential that the reinforcements are generously anchored and do
not buckle.
C 5.4. The design of elements in the medium ductility class
C5.4 In the case of the constructions designed for the DCM class, the lateral resistance is
closer to the value of the basic torsional force in the elastic seismic response than in the case
of the constructions belonging to the DCH class.
As a result, the plastic deformations expected in the plastic areas of the structural elements
will be smaller, and the plastic deformation in the elements and areas designed as non-
dissipative through the appropriate ranking of the resistance capacity will, with great probability,
be rare.
On this basis, the design measures regarding the direction of the energy dissipation mechanism
and the ductility measures of the structural elements are naturally more relaxed for the
constructions of the DCH class, in relation to those of the DCM class.
The main differences between the design measures for the two classes are discussed as a
whole, and not in detail, by problem category. The most important are:
(i) The values of the factors

Rd,for all categories of elements are lower on the grounds that,
due to the moderate advancement in the field of steel strengthening, the overstrength effects
are lower.
(ii) At each level of a storeyed frame only the areas at the bottom of these members are
considered plastic zones in the columns. The first level from the base is an exception, where the
areas at both ends are considered critical.
There are two arguments for this, namely:
- The seismic response of the reinforced concrete frames designed with the resistance
capacity method does not highlight, as a rule, plasticization on the height of the pillars.
When, occasionally, plastic joints occur at lower levels, where the ductility of the
columns is lower, as a result of higher axial compressive forces, they develop at the
base of each level. On the other hand, the current measures of transverse
reinforcement in the columns provide a significant level of confinement.
- Due to the large length of the critical zones, in the conditions in which they are
considered to exist at both ends of the pillars, the "non-critical" median zone is
insignificant in terms of development. This causes, in an unjustified way, severe
transverse reinforcement measures specific to critical areas to be provided practically
for the entire height of the pillars.
(iii) Ductility measures, primarily those of transverse reinforcement, are reduced compared to
the DCH class, adopting maximum distances between larger stirrups and smaller stirrup
diameters.
(iv) The verification by calculation of the frame nodes is waived. The tests prove that the tensile
strength of the nodes is much higher than that determined by the calculation models adopted in
the Code. Consequently, in the case of structures designed for the DCM class, to which (v) the
only be ensured
deformation
by observing
of the beams
somein constructive
the plane domain
rules. is
(vi)
limited,
For the
the
beam,
strength
the condition
of the nodes
for can
limiting the compressed area of the sections in order to ensure the necessary bending ductility
is, in turn, relaxed compared to that provided for DCH.
(vii) The condition that allows the orthogonal reinforcement of the coupling beams is relaxed
by increasing the maximum value of the design torsional force by 50%.( )
C 5.5. The design of elements from the low ductility class

C5.5 Structures designed for DCL are theoretically ductile free.
Their major sensitivity concerns their behavior to the action of earthquakes stronger than that of
the design earthquake. For this reason, the adoption of this ductility class is allowed only for
seismic regions with low seismicity, having ag0.10g.
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66
In order to endow the essential structural elements with a minimum of ductility, a minimum
transverse reinforcement is provided in the critical areas at the base of the columns and walls.
C 5.6. Design of dual structures
C5.6 Until the present edition of P100-1, the Romanian norms did not differentiate between the
two categories of dual structures, with predominant frames and with predominant beams. As a
result, in design practice it is usual that, regardless of whether they belong to one category or
another, beams and columns are designed as elements of pure frames.
df dd
df>dd
Structure in frames Structure with pears
Figure C 5.30.
Such an approach is unjustified and has the effect of a more complicated design procedure and
a higher consumption of material than required in the pillars.
As shown schematically in Figure C 5.30, the high rigidity of the walls causes the horizontal
displacements to be lower than those that produce the plastic articulation at the ends of the
columns. Under these conditions, layer plasticization mechanisms cannot develop and, as a
result, it is not necessary to observe relation (5.4), which aims precisely to avoid the formation of
such mechanisms. On the other hand, no special measures are needed to increase the ductility
of the columns (because their ductility will not be mobilized). Consequently, higher values can be
accepted than in the case of pure frame structures, and the transverse reinforcement measures
at the ends of the columns can be relaxed.
d theAs a guide,
DCM class with
can abecovering
applied character, the
to the poles rules forfor
designed
the DCH class, and the rules for the DCL to the poles designed for the DCM class.
C 5.7. Anchoring and bracing of reinforcements
C5.7.1 (4) The measure of increasing the anchoring length of the reinforcements in the plastic
zone takes into account the degradation of the bond produced by the alternating tension-
compression efforts caused by the cyclic seismic action.
A similar measure was provided for in STAS 10107/0 – 90 where a 20% increase in the
anchorage length was indicated in the case of elements with unfavorable stress conditions.
C5.7.2.1 (2) The loading of the nodes with the connecting forces with the beams is mostly done
by the adhesion efforts developed on the lateral surface of the bars which
cross the node. The adhesion forces must balance the efforts applied to the reinforcements,
on one side and on the other of the frame node, according to the diagram in Figure C
5.31. In the state of maximum stress, the bars on the upper side of the beams are
stressed at one end by the yield stress, and at the other by a smaller unit stress, for the
lower arm As2<As1, on the one hand, and on the other part, part of the compression
force is transmitted to the node through the concrete.
The bars on the upper part do not benefit from favorable adhesion conditions as a result
of the initial pouring of the concrete, so you can only count on approx. 70% of bond
strength 2.2fctm, whereb fctm is the average tensile strength of the concrete.
The adhesion resistance should also be added to the frictional resistance due to the
normal load from the compression force developed in the upper column, which can be
approximately estimated by the value of 0.25dfcd, where d is the normalized axial force,
and fcd is the design compression resistance.
xc
C’ ss
T’ cs
C’ c
Vc
Asb1world Asb1world
hjw
Cb
Cb
Asb2fyd
T’’ cs
C’ c
C’’ ss
Figure C 5.31.
This results in an average sliding resistance around the bar
2,2fctm+0,25dfcd 2,2fctm(1+0,8d ). (C 5.11)
Equating the effective value of the tangential stress resulting from the balance of the bar in
Figure C 5.31 with this value of the equivalent bond strength, the relationship that establishes
the maximum diameter dbLmax of the reinforcements crossing the node is obtained:
8,01 d f ctm
d bL max 10 hc
s 1 f yd
(C 5.12)
A 75,01
A s 2
Relation (5.46) has been adjusted to take into account that a certain fraction of the torsional
force applying to the node is transmitted through diagonal compression.
The expression (C 5.12) is confirmed by the results of some experimental studies. Its application
leads to admissible, relatively small diameters of the beam bars that cross the nodes, especially
on the upper floors, where the d value is small.
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68
The condition (C 5.12) can be considered as another dimensioning condition of the column
section, besides the one related to drift limitation and that of the node concrete resistance to
diagonal compression.
C5.7.3(4) Relation (5.48) is obtained starting from the balance of the reinforcement area
beyond the section where the anchorage is measured Figure C 5.32
fbd
Asb1world
lbd
Figure C 5.32.
fAyds 1 f yd
l bd d bL (C 5.13)
.
fdbdbL 4 f bd
in which:
lbd required anchorage length
f the ultimate adhesion unit effort

bd
25,2 ff
bd ctd (C 5.14)
where:
f ctd
the design value of the concrete tensile strength
coefficient that takes into account adhesion conditions,
=1 for good adhesions and =0.7 for unfavorable adhesion conditions, according to
SR EN 1992-1-1.
The overlap length, l0, for the current cases, is calculated with the relation:
'
1
And
0 kl % 25
s
s
l bd (C 5.15)
As
in which:
'
A s
% represent the ratio expressed in percentages between the section of reinforcements that
A
s
breaks in a section and the total section of the bending bars, limited higher than 1.5
ks coefficient of amplification of the overlap length in the situation where the reinforcement
is made in critical areas, stressed alternately, equal to 1.25
Considering the most severe conditions, it results:
x
25,15,1 f f
l0 corn d
bL 2,0 f corn d
bL (C 5.16)
x f
25,24 ctd ctd
C5.7.3(5) The condition is identically taken from SR EN 1998-1.
The structure of the expression highlights the fact that the pressure exerted on the concrete in
which the reinforcement is embedded, at its tendency to split, respectively to counteract the
annular stretching efforts, produced by the interaction between the profile of the reinforcement
and the surrounding concrete, are dependent on the area of the transverse reinforcement and the
interval between stirrups
C 5.8. Foundations and infrastructures
C5.8.1 The organization of the structural Eurocodes system, naturally also adopted by the national
system of technical regulations, provides that the geotechnical design and the design of the
foundation structures are treated in a separate regulation from P100-1.
For this reason, only the principle aspects and a small number of design measures are retained
here for discussion.
The foundation system, or infrastructure, as the case may be, represents an essential component
of a building, whose integrity and whose properties of rigidity and resistance decisively influence
the seismic response of the structure as a whole. At the same time, the cost of the foundation
works has a very large weight in the total cost of the construction and, for this reason, the choice
of the foundation system and its correct design represent one of the most important operations of
construction design.
The foundations are developed in plan as much as is necessary for the pressures on the land to
be low enough to be supported by the foundation soil, a material with a strength almost 100 times
lower than the structural material - concrete.
Depending on the type of structure and the mechanical properties of the land, the way the
foundations are made can be different: isolated foundations or continuous slabs under the wall,
foundations connected or constituted by foundation beams, general erasures, deep foundations,
piles or caissons, infrastructures complex. In the conditions of an adequate composition, the
infrastructures represent the most advantageous system from the point of view of the structure's
resistance to lateral forces and a safe support on the ground. The system is indicated, especially,
in the case of multi-storey structures with reinforced concrete walls. In most cases, the
infrastructure is made up of the basement elements: foundation beams of the dimensions of the
internal and contour basement walls, together with the slabs of the basement planes and the
plate (scraper) located at the lower level of the beams.
The infrastructure can include the structure of the first above-ground levels, if they are considerably
stronger than that of the following levels. It can also be made from structural elements, below the
functional levels of the building. and in the case of infrastructures, it is possible to opt, when the
ground is weak or when high lateral forces would lead to the loss of contact with the ground by
detaching on a surface
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70
large footprint of the construction in the field, at the foundation on piles, able or not, as
needed, to develop significant stretching forces.
The infrastructures constructed in this way possess high capacity for resistance and rigidity,
so that they behave close to that of a rigid body. The practical consequence is that the
vertical elements can be considered embedded at the level of the plane above the basement,
the dimensioning of the superstructure can be done on this model. Also, in this case, the
uncertainties regarding the pressure distribution on the ground are smaller, and the relative
movements between the bases of the vertical elements are minimized.
It is considered, in a simplified way, but not comprehensively, that the design axial force is
the one obtained in the structural calculation at the design seismic section. In principle, there
are two limits to the modeling of foundations (infrastructure) used in current design:
- A complete modeling of the elastically supported superstructure-foundation assembly

(through Winkler springs, with linear or non-linear behavior), loaded with vertical and
lateral forces. The calculation performed with the equivalent horizontal forces method
or with the modal method with response spectrum provides the efforts from the
foundation elements, components of this assembly.
- A modeling of the foundation elements required by the connection forces with the
superstructure applied in the cross-sections at the base of the vertical elements (pillars,
beams) of the superstructure. In the most complex case of some infrastructures, this
type of modeling equates the set of its elements with a plane of a network of horizontal
beams, in which the different components are characterized by stiffness properties
equivalent to the cooperation of the foundation beams (walls) with the foundation slabs
or basement(s). Such modeling is approximate and most of the time non-covering.
Through design, an elastic or non-linear seismic response can be imposed on infrastructure

elements.
The elastic response can be obtained in two situations:
- in the case of structures designed for the DCL class, in areas with very low seismicity,
with elastic response for the superstructure-infrastructure assembly; the elements are
sized to the efforts obtained in the combination of seismic loads, based on the
provisions of EN 1998-1. - in the case when in the calculation model the forces
transmitted by the superstructure to the infrastructure are those associated with the
mechanism of dissipation (plasticization) of the superstructure; a simple, approximate
way to obtain the design values of the efforts in the infrastructure elements, is to
consider in the structural calculation a horizontal force increased compared to the
design force by amplifying with a global overstrength factor. For constructions with a
uniform plan structure and moderate overstrength, this amplification factor can be
taken equal to 1.5. The procedure also takes into account components of the resistance
mechanism at the level of the infrastructure, which are not considered, as a rule,
explicitly in the calculation: friction between the ground and the contour walls, passive
pressure, etc. In other compounding situations, the value of the amplification factor
must be modified accordingly.
A second possible approach is to determine the efforts in the infrastructure elements from
the structural calculation at the seismic design force, for the ductility class selected for the
superstructure, DCH or DCM. In this case, the dimensioning and reinforcement of the
elements of the foundation system is done in compliance with the rules specific to the
considered ductility class. A special concern must exist for the dimensioning of the elements
of the beams (basement walls) at values of the shear force deduced on the basis of the
capacity design principles and for compliance with the ductility measures.
C5.8.2 In general, the most difficult design problems involve complex infrastructures of
reinforced concrete wall structures. These issues are discussed in the commentary appendix
to CR 2-1-1.1.
Of the design measures given in 5.8.2, only two are retained here.
C5.8.2 (2) In the connecting beams between the foundations, in addition to bending moments
and torsional forces, there are also axial forces resulting from the relative horizontal
displacements between the foundations, which the structural calculation does not explicitly
highlight. In EN 1998-1, these forces have values that represent fractions of the design axial
force brought by the vertical elements on the foundations, depending on the nature of the
ground. The connectionpeak
forces are determined with the
isrelationship gakN , where ofagkweak
is
is the
gEddesign acceleration, NEd
factor that takes the from
values design axial
0.3, force,
in the caseand a
terrain, to 0.6 in the case of very poor soils.
C5.8.2 (4) The horizontal reinforcement mounted in the screed must take the bending
moments produced by the pressures on the ground, but it must also control the shrinkage
cracking of the concrete in the screed. It is accepted today that the percentage of
reinforcement that allows the necessary limitation of crack opening is at least 0.20% on each
side of the base plate. It is recommended that the thickness of the eraser be chosen in such
a way that the necessary bending reinforcement is 0.25%, as much as it ensures the control
of the shrinkage crack.
C 5.9. Local effects due to interaction with non-structural walls

C5.9 Two concepts can be taken into account when constructing infill walls made of ceramic
bodies:
(a) isolating the elements of the frames from the masonry panels by providing strips
narrows made of deformable materials between masonry and structural
elements; (b) maintaining the perimeter contact between the masonry panels and the
columns and beams of the reinforced concrete structure. ( ) In this latter case, the filler panels
interact with the structure and, regardless of whether they are considered in the lateral
resistance capacity of the construction or not, they manifest in reality as structural elements
and, until their eventual destruction by the action of an earthquake strong, the panels take a
certain fraction of the lateral load.
In design practice, in situation (b) there are two possible approaches:

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72
- the partitioning and closing wall, placed between the elements of the frame, is
considered a structural element, a constitutive part of the structural mechanism for
lateral forces and, as a result, must be reinforced;
- the structural contribution of the masonry is not counted, but through the design,
measures are taken to take into account the effects of the interaction between the
structure and the infill wall; the behavior requirements of the infill panels must be
ensured at ULS, in which case the damaged masonry must not fall and present a
risk to people's lives, and at SLS, in which case the degradation of the masonry
must be moderate and easily repairable as a result of the appropriate dimensioning
of lateral stiffness of the frames.
The most important effects of the interaction of the infill panels with the frame structure are
the following:
- increasing the lateral rigidity of the structure; for the case of flexible structures
located in seismic zones characterized by small values of the Tc period, the seismic
forces increase above the level corresponding to the pure structure;
- the creation of vertical irregularities (successions of rigid and flexible levels, Figure
C 5.33, a) and horizontally, by increasing the overall torsion as a result of the
change in the position of the center of rigidity (Figure C 5.33, b); when designing
buildings in seismic zones, such situations must always be avoided;
(a) (b)
Figure C 5.33.
- the creation of short element-type stress conditions, with the risk of breaking during
shearing (Figure C 5.34), because the shearing force on the deformable portion of
the column is substantially higher than that which can appear in a free column.
Figure C 5.34.
In order to avoid such breaks, in these cases it is recommended to separate the non-structural
walls from the structural elements.
The structural action of the masonry panel can be modeled in the form of a compressed bar with
the diagonal direction of the panel, depending on the direction of attack of the earthquake (Figure
C 5.35). The action of the diagonal becomes substantial after the appearance of inclined stretching
cracks and after the detachment of the masonry from the frame elements in the vicinity of the
corners where the stretched diagonal would be applied.
Figure C 5.35.
The assembly consisting of the reinforced concrete frame and masonry panels can fail in several
ways under the action of lateral forces:
(a) In overall bending as a composite jointed structural wall, similar to reinforced concrete
structural walls (Figure C 5.36). For this, it is necessary that the masonry core of the walls is thick
enough not to break under shear force, and the reinforcement of the reinforced masonry core is
effectively connected to the reinforced concrete pillars.
(b) By crushing the compressed diagonal formed in the masonry heart of the composite wall.
The effective size of the compressed diagonal depends on several parameters, among which the
ratio between the stiffnesses of the panel and the frame, the characteristic curves of the materials,
the stress level.
(c) If the seismic action continues after the masonry panel breaks, practically the entire lateral
force is transmitted to the columns (bulbs of the composite wall), which can break by bending or
shearing.
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74
(a) (b)
a
Figure C 5.36.
(d) By sliding the wall along the length of a horizontal joint, which creates an effect of "kneeling"
the frame at that level (Figure C 5.36, b). Such a mode of failure is manifested if the diagonal force
associated with the production of stresses, vf, which generate sliding, is lower than the compressive
strength along the diagonal. With the notations in Figure C 5.36, b, the value of the diagonal force
corresponding to the production of slippage [Paulay, Priestley, 1992] is: ( )
'
' 04.0 f m
Rd ''
tb
In (C 5.17)
3.01 lh
in which,
'
mf the design resistance to compression of the masonry;
t
the thickness of the masonry
bw the size of the equivalent diagonal
After the sliding of the masonry, the lateral resistance of the assembly is provided by the pillars, which
can yield to bending or, more often, to shearing. In the case of an identical construction of the masonry
on the height of the building, damage to the masonry by crushing it diagonally or by sliding on the joint
usually occurs at the first level. By the disappearance of the filler panel at the first node, the structure
turns into one with a weak level, where the plastic deformations are still concentrated. From the
approximate behavior scheme in Figure C 5.36, it follows that the ductility requirements for the elements
of the first level are much higher than in the case of a structure with uniform vertical deformability.
It follows from the presented that it is quite difficult to control the seismic response of a composite
structure such as the reinforced concrete frame in interaction with the infill walls. This observation is
especially valid for the case where the masonry is unreinforced. In such situations, in order to protect
the columns from the first level, the transverse reinforcement measures for the critical areas extend over
the entire height of this level.
Dy= the deformation at the level

of the resultant force at the
initiation of plastic deformations
DP = plastic component of the

deformation
Figure C 5.37.
Masonry panels must also be secured for inertial forces perpendicular to their plane.
The lateral collapse of the walls represents the most important danger produced by
these elements for people's lives. In the case of reinforced panels and efficiently
connected by reinforced concrete frames, the panel can be treated as a plane plate
resting on the contour, loaded normally on its plane.
Experimental studies have highlighted the fact that unreinforced panels (simple masonry)
can support important normal forces on their plane, due to the formation of a vault effect
between the wall supports horizontally and vertically, even after the bending cracking of
the panels.
This resistance mechanism is negatively influenced by the presence of free spaces (free
joints) on the contour between the panels and the reinforced concrete frame. Such voids
can come from an incomplete filling of these spaces with mortar or as a result of
detachment along the contour (in the extended diagonal area, Figure C 5.35) due to
forces acting in the plane of the wall. Also, if the material is strongly degraded by the
action of the forces in the plane of the wall, the bolt action becomes much less effective.
It follows that unreinforced filling does not ensure a satisfactory structural material, with
the exception, perhaps, of low buildings (roughly, up to two levels) with a rigid frame.
Bibliography:
ATC (1996). Seismic evaluation and retrofit of concrete buildings. Report ATC 40,
Redwood City, CA.
CEB (1998), Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Bull. D’Information 242, T.
Telford (ed.), London.
CEN (2004). EN 1998-1-1: Design of structures for earthquake resistance / Part 1:
General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings, Bruxelles, 250 pp.
Fajfar, P. and Fischinger, M. (1989). N2 – A method for non-linear seismic analysis of
RC buildings, Proc. of the 9th WCEE, Tokyo, vol. V, p. 111-116.
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Fajfar, P. (2000). A nonlinear analysis method for performance-based seismic design.

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FIB (2003). Displacement-based seismic design of reinforced concrete buildings, Bulletin 25,
Lausanne, Elveia, 192 pp.
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concrete elements, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete
Mander, J.B., Priestley, M.J.N. i Park, R., (1988), Theorteical Stress-Strain Model for confined
Concrete, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 114, No. 8, pp. 1827- 1849.
Ministry of Regional Development and Public Administration (2013), CR 2–1–1.1: Design code
for constructions with reinforced concrete structural walls, Bucharest.
Ministry of Public Works (1992), P100/92: Regulations for the anti-seismic design of residential,
agro-zootechnical and industrial buildings, INCERC Bucharest, Buletinul Construciilor, no. 1-2,
1992, 151 p.
Panagiotakos, T.B. i Fardis, M.N., (2001), Deformations of Reinforced Concrete Members at

Yelding and Ultimate, ACI Structural Journal, V.98, No. 2, pp. 135-148.
Park, Y.J. i Ang, A.M.S. (1985), Mechanistic Siesmic Damage Model of Reinforced Concrete,
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 111, No. 4, pp. 722-739.
Paulay, T. i Priestley, M.J.N. (1992), Seismic Design of Concrete and Masonry Buildings, John
Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 744 p.
Paulay, T. (1986). A critique of the Special Provisions for Seismic Design of Building Code
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-82). În: Journal of the ACI, martie-aprilie 1986.
Postelnicu, T. i Zamfirescu, D., (1998), Lateral stiffness assessment of multistory RC frames

structures, 11th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Paris.
Postelnicu, T. i Zamfirescu, D., (1999). Comparison between displacement methods used for
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Romanian codes. Proc. 1st Romanian-American Workshop, Iai, Romania.
Postelnicu, T. i Zamfirescu, D., (2001). Towards displacement-based methods in Romanian

seismic design code. Earthquake Hazard and Countermeasures for Existing Fragile Buildings,
Eds. D. Lungu & T.Saito, Bucureti, pp. 169-142.
Ruanu, Cr., Pascu, R., (2003). Nonlinear static analysis for an existing reinforced concrete
building. UTCB Scientific Bulletin, no. 1/2003, pp. 27-39.
SR EN 1998-1, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance,

Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings
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Earthquakes, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, V. 96, No. ST 12, pp. 2557-2573.
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Concrete Elements Subjected to Shear. ACI Struct. J., 83(2), p. 219-231.
C 6. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO OEL CONSTRUCTIONS
C 6.1 Generalities
C6.1. Chapter 6 of the P 100-1 code is mainly based on the provisions of SR EN 1998-1
with some additions and modifications.
C 6.1.1 Object and scope

C6.1.(1) The provisions of this chapter refer exclusively to buildings with a metal structure
(civil, industrial, agricultural constructions and other types of metal constructions with a
structure similar to that of buildings (industrial platforms, flyovers, framework structures
for supporting towers and boilers of thermal power plants, etc.).
C6.1.(2) This code implements verification criteria for the strength of structural elements
and joints harmonized with SR EN 1993-1-1 and SR EN 1993-1-8.
C 6.1.2 Design principles C6.1.

The characterization of the type of behavior of a structure, dissipative or non-dissipative,
for calculation, in the case of applying calculation methods in the elastic domain (with
equivalent static forces or based on response spectra) is carried out by means of the
force and the behavior
factorq.Figure
base and
C 6.1top
shows
displacement
a typical relationship
of a structure.
between
To simplify
the knowledge
the
nonlinear response of the structure, a bilinear idealization is often adopted. The value of
the q factor depends on the following factors:
design overresistance q FF Sd d1 which comes

,
from: the dimensioning of the structure for conditions other than earthquake
resistance (resisting the fundamental grouping of loads or the limitation of relative
level displacements to the seismic service limit state) avoiding too much variation
in the number of sections to standardize and simplify the design processes i
performs a real resistance of the materials higher than the nominal one, etc. q VV
represents the plastic redistribution capacity a
redundana structural R 1
and
of the structure, after the formation of the first plastic

joint, the structure's ductility q FF characterizes
capacity thedeformation without a significant
for post-elastic
and and
reduction of the strength-stiffness characteristics. In the relations above, the following i

notations were used:
Fe – force corresponding to an infinite elastic response;

Fy – system flow force;
F1 – force to form the first plastic joint; Fd –
design force.
The total value of the behavior factor q can be expressed as the product of the design
overstrength, the redundancy and the reduction factor due to ductility:
Sd R qqq q
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F It is
elastic response
q
q
the real answer
F
y
q R
the idealized answer
F 1
q Sd
F
d
Of Of D
Dy
Figure C 6.1. Definition of the components of the behavior factor q
In principle, any correctly sized and conformed structure has design overstrength
due to the partial safety coefficients used to define the calculation resistances and
loads used in the design. Statically indeterminate structures also possess structural
redundancy. Consequently, for a correctly designed and dimensioned structure, the
effective value of the q factor is always above unity. The third component of the q
factor, given by ductility, is also the most important. This involves ensuring ductility at
the level of the material, of the sections of the structural elements, of the structural
elements and the joints between them, of the structure as a whole.
The structures composed and dimensioned to ensure the requirements regarding

overstrength, redundancy and ductility are called dissipative structures and are
classified according to P 100-1 in the ductility classes DCH or DCM.
Structures that do not meet all ductility conditions but possess structural overstrength
are considered weakly dissipative and are included in the DCL ductility class.
Poorly dissipative structures made of elements with class 1, 2 or 3 sections can be
designed based on a factor of 1 1.5 q . Low
with dissipative
class
checked 3 structures
1, 2 orbased
section aremade
on the of elements
provisions
dimensionedof SR
and
EN 1993-1-1.
Structures with class 4 elements are calculated based on a factor 1 q in i am checked
accordance with the provisions of SR EN 1993-1-3 or SR EN 1993-1-5.
C 6.1.3 Safety check

C6.1.3 (1) Cyclic stress induced by seismic action can lead to fatigue phenomena in
the plastic (oligocyclic) domain. To take this phenomenon into account, the partial
safety coefficients M for the verification at the ultimate limit state in the seismic design
situation are increased compared to those used in the normal design situation
(fundamental grouping of loads).
(2) The design will take into account the possibility that the effective yield strength of
the steel, (fy, act), may be higher than the nominal yield strength (fy), by introducing a
yield strength amplification coefficient

f y act
,
. Effective flow limit a

ov
f and
steel is determined by experimental tests on the materials used in the execution of the
structure. In the absence of such tests, the values recommended in 6.2(5) may be used.
C 6.2 Conditions regarding materials

C6.2 (1-2). For structures in the DCH and DCM ductility classes, steels with ductility properties
defined by: will be used in the dissipative elements (which contain potential plastic zones).
- the ratio between the breaking strength fu and the minimum flow limit fy will be at
least 1.20
- elongation at break will be at least 20%
- a distinct yield point, with specific elongation at the end of the yield point of at least
1.5%.
C6.2 (3) Sheet metal elements with thicknesses > 16mm subjected to stretching perpendicular
to their plane are susceptible to lamellar damage. The risk of this phenomenon occurring is
significant in the case of the end plates of the beams in the case of beam-column joints in the
area thermally affected by the weld between the bottom of the beam and the end plate. The
risk of lamellar collapse can also occur in the case of beams welded directly to the base of the
column, in the case of columns welded to the base plate or in the case of continuity joints
made with flanges.
In order to avoid the risk of lamellar collapse, the following measures are recommended:
- avoiding constructive solutions that lead to significant tensile stresses in the
thickness direction due to welding and the effect of external loads;
- if such solutions cannot be avoided, it is necessary to use steel grades with a

minimum necking value Zz during the tensile test on specimens taken along the
thickness (test performed according to SR EN ISO 6892-1:2010):
ZZWith
from nec,
where Zz,nec is the minimum required value of necking i is determined according to

the procedure of SR EN 1993-1-10.
C6.2 (5) The average value of the steel yield strength is generally higher than the nominal
value and depends on the brand of steel and the type of steel product (sheets, profiles, etc.).
The material overstrength values provided in the code are based on studies carried out within
the OPUS project (2010) on a sample of 13,000 samples taken from rolled steel (HEA, HEB,
IPE, UPN, IPN) from European producers, which indicated different values of material
overstrength depending on the brand of steel. ov
C6.2 (6) In the dissipative zones, the yield limit value, fy,max, of the material in the respective
structural elements is limited to ensure the agreement between the designed dissipation
mechanism and the real response of the structure. The yield strength, fy,max , will not be
greater than the nominal yield strength amplified by ( f
ov
y ,max
f ).
ov and
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C6.2 (7) The bolted joints of the structural elements that participate in taking over
and transmitting the seismic action (beams and columns in non-braced frames,
beams, columns and braces in braced frames) will be designed with high-strength
screws groups 8.8 and 10.9.
The elements that do not take part in taking over and transmitting the seismic action (e.g.
secondary plane beams) can also be joined with screws from quality groups 4.6, 5.6, 5.8
and 6.8.
C6.2 (8) In general, the anchor bolts of the columns in the foundations are
recommended to be made of steels of quality groups 4.6 and 5.6. When using
anchor bolts from quality groups 5.8, 6.8 and, in particular, in the situation where
bolts with physical-mechanical characteristics similar to quality group 8.8 are used,
greater attention must be paid to the concrete class, respectively to the systems
anchorage. In principle, there must be compatibility between the tensile strength of the screws
and the adhesion between them and the concrete in the foundation.
C 6.3 Types of structures and behavioral factors
C 6.3.1 Types of structures
Unbraced frames
The resistance and stiffness capacity of the structure required for seismic action is ensured,
mainly, by the resistance and bending stiffness of the beams and columns, as well as by
the ability to transmit bending moments at the level of the joints between beams and
columns, respectively of the joints between columns and foundations.
For non-braced frames with rigid beam-to-column joints, the plastic joints will run at the
ends of the beams. To ensure the overstrength of the joint compared to the joint element,
the section of the beam legs can be locally reduced - the "dog-bone" solution.
The dissipative zones can also be located in the pillars, respectively at their base (above
the anchoring in the foundations) and at the top of the pillars on the top floor.
P 100-1 allows the use of semi-rigid and partially resistant beam-column joints (in
accordance with the classification in SR EN 1993-1-8), if the joints have sufficient total
rotation capacity (at least equal to 0.04 rad for the DCH class of ductility, respectively 0.03
rad for the DCM ductility class). The formation of plastic joints in the joints is allowed in the
conditions where the real stiffness and resistance capacity are taken into account in the
analysis of the structure.
In the case of first-floor frames with rigid and full-strength column-line joints and with rigid
clamps in the foundations, plastic joints can be formed at the top and at the base of the
columns, provided that the axial compressive force in the columns, NEd, meets the
condition NEd/ Npl,Rd < 0.3 (NEd – the design axial effort in the load group that contains
the seismic action; Npl,Rd – the plastic resistance of the centric compression section).
Center braced frames

Center braced frames are those braced frames where the axes of the
structural elements meet at the nodes and form a triangulated vertical
structure (see Figure C 6.2). In this category in the following structural
systems (see Table 6.3 of P 100-1):
Bracing with active stretched diagonals, where the horizontal forces are taken only
by the stretched diagonals, neglecting the compressed diagonals.
Bracing with V-diagonals, where the horizontal forces are taken over by both
stretched and compressed diagonals. The point of intersection of these diagonals
is located on the beam, which must be continuous.
Figure C 6.2. Constructive systems with centric

bracing In order to ensure a ductile behavior of these systems, it is necessary that the
diagonal sections are class 1 for the DCH structural ductility class and class 1 or 2 for
the DCM structural ductility class. The grips of the diagonals must ensure the level of
overstrength specified in 6.5.5 of P 100-1.
The use of bracings with sections with high flexibility can lead to their premature veiling,
even at low levels of relative level displacements and, implicitly, to a reduced ductility
of the elements.
Other bracing systems can be used, for example X-bracing on two levels or V-bracing
with vertical tie bar (see Figure C 6.3).
vertical link bar
(a) (b)
Figure C 6.3. Two-level X-braced frames (a) and V-braced with vertical tie bar (b), AISC
(2005)
These frames can be designed with a post-elastic behavior similar to X-braced frames.
These two systems have the advantage of ensuring a reduction of the forces transmitted
to the beams after the buckling of the compressed bracings. The system with
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X-bracing on two levels is generally more flexible than the V-bracing system, on the
other hand, the vertical tie bar system ensures a uniformization of the axial forces
from the bracing along the height of the structure. Using these two systems reduces
the risk of formation of level mechanisms.
Eccentric braced frames

The main characteristic of these systems consists in the transmission of the axial
force from the bracing by means of a beam segment, called a dissipative bar (link),
which is subjected to shear and bending (see Figure C 6.4).
Figure C 6.4. Constructive systems with eccentric bracing

The advantage of frames with eccentric bracing consists in the fact that, through a
suitable composition and dimensioning of the structural system, a rigidity similar to that
offered by frames with centric bracing can be obtained, simultaneously with ductility
characteristics specific to non-braced frames.
Inverted pendulum structures

These structures are characteristic for water castles, platforms or ground floor structures
that support large weights, such as those for silos, bunkers, etc.
Metal structures associated with reinforced concrete cores or walls

In these structures, horizontal forces are mainly taken up by reinforced concrete
diaphragms or cores (table 6.3.e). The metal frames, as a rule not braced, are
dimensioned from gravitational actions. The calculation of reinforced concrete elements
is done in accordance with the provisions of chapter 5 of P 100-1. The calculation of
the metallic structure is made in accordance with the provisions of SR EN 1993-1-1 and
SR EN 1993-1-8. In the case of non-symmetric structures, or symmetrical but with an
eccentric mass distribution, measures must be taken to take over the torsional effects
because the reinforced concrete core does not always ensure the necessary torsional
rigidity. In this case, it is recommended to carry out an analysis on a spatial model. The
result of the structural analysis may lead to the need to introduce some vertical bracing
in the metal structure, preferably in the perimeter frames. In this case the structure is
dimensioned in accordance with the relevant provisions of P 100-1.
Dual structures (unbraced frames associated with braced frames) In

general, braced frames alone cannot be used for the structure of a building, as they are
usually associated with non-braced frames. In the situation where the unbraced frames
are designed to take at least 25% of the horizontal actions, the composite structural
system (unbraced and braced frames) is called
dual system. In principle, a dual system can be obtained by combining braced and
unbraced frames in the same plane (2D structure), or in different planes in the same
direction (3D structure), the cooperation being ensured by the diaphragm effect of the
plane.
Dual structures can be made by combining non-braced frames with centrically braced
frames, respectively with eccentrically braced frames. For both composite systems,
distinct values of the performance factors q are provided in P 100-1.
Buckling-restrained braced frames The main

characteristic of buckling-restrained braces is the quasi-symmetric hysteretic response,
which is due to the prevention of compression buckling. These braces usually consist of
a steel core embedded in a metal sheath filled with mortar, which has the role of
preventing buckling of the steel core. As in the case of ordinary centric bracing, the
arrangement of buckling restrained bracing must be done so that the axes of the bars
meet at a point. The hysterically stable behavior of braces with restrained buckling leads
to a superior seismic response compared to that of frames with classical centric bracing.
This fact offers the possibility of using higher q behavior factors .
C 6.3.2 Behavioral factors

C6.3.2 (1-2) The significance of the behavior factor q was presented in paragraph C 6.2,
respectively Figure C 6.1. The q - factor values associated with different types of
structures are presented in table 6.3 of P 100-1. The values in the table can be used
provided that the ductility and overstrength criteria specified in paragraphs 6.5-6.11 are
respected, respectively those regarding the quality of the materials in chapter 6.2 and the
quality of the execution in chapter 6.12. It is emphasized that the values from table 6.3
can be used only under the conditions of satisfying the criteria of regularity of the
structure, specified in chapter 4.4.3. In the situation where the structure is irregular in
elevation, the values of the behavior factor q given in the table are reduced by 20%. This
reduction is explained by the fact that vertical irregularity (levels with stiffness and/or
resistance substantially different from the adjacent levels) can generate the appearance
of plastic level mechanisms. If the structure shows irregularity both in plan and vertically,
it is recommended to reduce by at least 30% the reference value of the q factor (given in
table 6.3 of P 100-1).
C6.3.2 (3-4) The / ratio values presented

in 1 in table 6.3 of P 100-1 for various types of
structures represent the structural redundancy defined by the qR factor (see Figure C
6.1). Theoretically, this ratio has the value 1 only in the case of statically determined
structures, which can form a single plastic joint. More accurate values of the / ratio can
be determined in 1through a non-linear static analysis (pushover), in which case this ratio is
limited to the value 1.6.
C6.3.2(5) The factor q shall be determined independently for each main direction of the
structure, depending on the structural type considered, with the values given in table 6.3
of P 100-1. In principle, it is recommended that the structure be conformed so as to have
comparable stiffnesses and deformation capacities in the post-elastic domain on the two
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directions. In practice, however, there are numerous situations in which unbraced frames
are used in one direction, and braced frames or dual frames in the other.
C 6.4 Calculation of the structure
C6.4 (1-2) A well-formed structure to take over the seismic actions must ensure, through
composition, calculation, dimensioning and constructive details, a balance between the
strength, rigidity and ductility of the structural elements and their joints. In this context,
the calculation of the structure is carried out under the assumption that all structural
component elements are active. Exceptions are structures in centrically braced frames
with diagonals that work only in tension (in X or alternating). In these cases, if a non-
linear calculation is not carried out, the contribution of the compressed bracing is
neglected when taking over the seismic action. For example, in the case of an elastic
analysis with equivalent static forces, only the stretched braces will be considered for
one direction of the forces; there will therefore be two structural models for the two
senses of the seismic action. In the case of a modal calculation with response spectra,
the two previously mentioned structural models can be used, but the calculation efforts
and reactions will be obtained from the results of the two structural analyses.
The modeling of the structure for analysis will take into account the horizontal diaphragm
effect given by the planes, which will be designed as such in accordance with the
provisions of 4.4.1.6. If semi-rigid and/or partially resistant joints are accepted, their rigidity
and resistance will be taken into account in the overall static or dynamic analysis.
C 6.5 Rules for the dissipative behavior of structures
C 6.5.1 - C 6.5.4
The ductility of a structure required for seismic action is given by the ability of the structure
to dissipate the energy induced by the seismic movement through plastic deformations.
Structural ductility defines the ability of the structure to develop deformations in the post-
elastic range without a significant reduction in bearing capacity.
Dissipative structures (ductility classes DCH and DCM) are those structures where,
through design and execution, ductility requirements are ensured at the level of material,
sections, structural elements, joints and the structure as a whole. Dissipative structures
are designed in such a way that the plastic deformations are directed to certain areas of
the structure, depending on the type of structure (see C 6.3.1). In general, in a structure
there are components that can have a fragile behavior (for example the screws and
welds in the joints), or that must have a predominantly elastic behavior to ensure the
overall stability of the structure (for example the pillars). These components must be
provided by design with a sufficient overstrength to remain in the elastic range even after
the plasticization of the dissipative components.
The dissipative elements will be dimensioned in terms of strength and stability in
such a way that they can be used in the post-elastic field, at the level of stress
corresponding to the behavior factor q considered. In principle, dissipative elements
should not be oversized. There are situations in which, in order to direct and control
the plastic deformations, a reduction of the bearing capacity of the ductile elements
in the dissipative zones is resorted to (example: beams with a reduced section in
the vicinity of the joints with the columns; compressed bracing made of steel of a
lower grade than the rest of the structure, etc.)
Material ductility. In the case of steel, the material ductility requirements are
expressed by means of the specific elongation at break, respectively by the ratio
between the breaking strength and the minimum flow resistance; these requirements
are specified in chapter 6.2 of P 100-1 i to C 6.2.
Sectional ductility. In the case of elements required in tension, the ductility of the
section is ensured by the ductility of the material. In the case of structural elements
subjected to compression and/or bending, the ductility of the section depends on the
flexibility of the walls and the ductility of the material. Depending on the flexibility of
the wall, expressed by the ratio lime/thickness, the compressed and/or bent walls fall
into four classes of sections.
The classification criteria in classes of sections are established according to SR EN 1993-1-1.
Class 4 walls are those with greater flexibility than the values corresponding to section class 3. Class 4
compressive and/or flexural walls, where the compressive stresses are higher than the critical buckling
stress, are considered to work within the section with reduced (effective) geometric characteristics. The
calculation of these walls (sections) is done with the effective limit method, in accordance with the
provisions of SR EN 1993-1-3 and SR EN 1993-1-5. Figure C 6.5 compares the bending moment
relationship for the four section classes.
Mpl
Class 2 Class 1
Mel
Class 3
Class 4
Figure C 6.5. Moment-curvature relationship for section classes 1-4
The section class of the component structural elements is an essential factor for defining the ductility
class of the structure. Table 6.4 of P 100-1 shows the relationship between the ductility class of the
structure and the section classes (see Table C 6.1). To relate the section classes with the behavior factor
q, the correlation will be made between tables 6.3 and 6.4 of P 100-1.
Table C 6.1. The relationship between the ductility class and the section class
The ductility class of the The reference value of the a

Section class
structure behavior factor q
DCH according to Table 6.3 class 1
DCM according to Table 6.3 class 1 or 2
1,0 q 1,5 class 1, 2 or 3

DCL
q = 1,0 class 1, 2, 3 or 4
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The structures made of structural elements with class 4 section will be dimensioned
only in the elastic domain, with a behavior factor q equal to 1, taking into account
the geometric characteristics of the effective section (see also chapter C 6.3.2).
The ductility of the structural elements depends on the ductility of the material,
the ductility of the section, the type of stress, the slenderness and the way the
structural element is supported. In principle, the ductility of the structural element
expresses its ability to form plastic joints. The ductility of structural elements
subjected to tension is given by the ductility of the material. In the case of
compressed and/or bent elements, the ductility of the structural elements is defined
by the plastic rotation capacity for beams, columns, long dissipative bars, the
plastic shear deformation capacity for short dissipative bars and the axial plastic
deformation capacity for bracing.
The ductility of the joints is expressed by their plastic deformation capacity. The
current calculation norms, including SR EN 1998-1 and AISC 2010, as well as P
100-1, impose minimum values of the plastic rotation capacity for placing the
joints in the high or medium ductility classes (DCH or DCM). These norms do not
contain evaluation methods by calculating the plastic deformation capacity,
requiring experimental tests. The FEMA 350 document and the US ANSI/AISC
358-10 standard contain recommendations and prequalification criteria for some
types of beam-to-column joints for unbraced frames. The design guide GP 082/2003
presents constructive solutions and parameters for the design of ductile joints to
metallic structures in seismic areas. At the same time, this guide presents the
procedure for carrying out experimental tests in cyclic mode for structural elements
and joints based on the ECCS European recommendations, 1985.
It should be mentioned that structural joining is not limited to the means of assembly
(screws, welding cords), but involves the interaction of several component elements
that belong to the structural elements that are joined. For example, in the case of
a beam-column joint with extended end plate and screws, several components are
highlighted that contribute to its strength, rigidity and ductility (see Figure C 6.6).
Thus, the node consists of two major components: the core panel of the pole and
the joint itself. In turn, the following components of the joint can be highlighted: end
plate in bending (including screws), column sole in bending (including screws),
column core in compression, column core in tension, beam sole in compression.
Depending on the type of node, the number of components may be higher or lower.
Among these components, some (e.g. the core panel of the column, the end plate,
etc.) have the ability to deform in the plastic domain, ensuring the joint a ductile
behavior, others (e.g. the screws and weld beads) have a fragile.
It is necessary that the design of the fragile components ensure an over-resistance

compared to the ductile elements of the joint, in order to ensure their elastic
behavior throughout the seismic action. To ensure a ductile behavior of a node,
the joint components with the lowest resistance will have to have the best ductility
properties.
Overstrength and ductility are ensured by design, by a suitable choice of material,
by a correct composition and dimensioning of the joint and by control of the
execution quality.
1. heart panel subjected to shear

2. joint
3. components (e.g. screws, grip plate,

etc.)
Node = heart panel required in shear + joint

Figure C 6.6. The components of a beam-column joint (SR EN 1993-1-8)
Structural ductility is associated with the capacity for lateral deformation of the
structure in the post-elastic domain during the seismic action. Structural ductility
integrates material ductility, ductility of sections, ductility of structural elements and
joints.
Limitation of relative level displacements at ULS according to paragraph 4.6.3.2. of P

100-1 has the main purpose of ensuring the integrity of non-structural elements (closing
and partitioning walls) in the event of a major earthquake. Indirectly, this check also
limits the ductility requirement of the structure.
C 6.5.5 Design rules for joints in dissipative zones

C6.5.5. (1) Through the constructive design, dimensioning, execution technology and
quality control, stress concentrations and the appearance of high residual stresses in
the joints of structural elements will be avoided, especially in those components that
have a fragile behavior.
C6.5.5. (2) The strength of the non-dissipative joints must be sufficient to allow the
formation of the fully consolidated plastic zone in the adjacent dissipative elements. For
this purpose, the calculation effort for the dimensioning of the joint is determined based
on the capable effort of the joint element (Rfy), taking into account the consolidation of
the plastic zone (factor 1.1) and the overstrength of the material (factor ov).
C6.5.5. (4-5) Bolted joints subjected to shear will be made with pre-tensioned high-
strength bolts, in order to achieve the transmission of forces through friction.
Joints from categories B (sliding prevented at the service limit state) and C (sliding
prevented at the ultimate limit state) are allowed according to SR EN 1993-1-8.
The surfaces of the parts in contact will be processed to fall into classes A (coefficient
0.5) and B (0.4) according to SR EN 1090-2. In the case of joints required perpendicular
to their plane (screws required to stretch), the surfaces of the parts in contact will be
processed to fit into classes B (coefficient 0.4) and C (0.3) according to SR EN These
1090-2.
joints are made with pre-tensioned high-strength screws (category E according to SR
EN 1993-1-8).
C6.5.5. (7) In order to ensure a ductile behavior, in the case of bolted joints required in
their plan, the shear strength of the bolts shall exceed the
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little 20% resistance to pressure on the walls of the mouth. A ductile failure mode is thus
ensured by plasticizing the mouth (plastic ovalization), avoiding shearing of the rod, which
represents a fragile failure mode.
C6.5.5. (8-9) Due to the extreme demanding conditions of joints in dissipative zones of
structures subjected to seismic actions, it is necessary to verify their behavior through
experimental tests. The materials, the joint composition details and the dimensions of the
structural elements will be as close as possible to those used in the project.
The method of applying the charge will have a cyclical character. The realization of the
experimental tests will be carried out in accordance with the provisions of SR EN 1990
chapter 5: "Structural analysis and design assisted by experiment" and annex D "Design
assisted by tests", as well as the recommendations of the European Convention on Metal
Constructions (ECCS, 1985). The tests on the joints will have to confirm, with an adequate
safety factor, the resistance and plastic deformation capacity, according to the ductility class.
When specific experimental tests are not performed for a given project, the experimental
results performed on similar elements can be used. At the same time, the types of joints
and the design criteria for prequalified joints according to GP 082/2003 and ANSI/AISC
358-10 can be used.
C6.5.5. (10) In the case of joints with pre-tensioned high-strength screws, which work in
their plane, in order to take into account the possibility of slippage of the parts as an effect
of cyclic stress, the joints will also be checked as joints with ordinary screws, in accordance
with the provisions of SR EN 1993-1-8.
C6.5.5. (11) Due to the substantially different stiffness and deformation capacity of bolted
and welded joints, hybrid constructive solutions are not allowed, in which the taking over
and transmission of efforts are carried out simultaneously through screws and welding
cords. It is allowed to use screws when assembling elements joined by welding, if the screws
are not taken into account when dimensioning the joint in the final phase.
C 6.5.6 Design rules for anchor bolts

C6.5.6 For the transmission of the forces from the anchor bolts to the foundation, there
must be compatibility between the tensile strength of the bolts and the adhesion between
them and the concrete in the foundation. In general, the screws for anchoring the pillars in
the foundations are made of steels from quality groups 4.6, 5.6 and 6.6. When anchor bolts
of quality groups 5.8, 6.8 or higher are used, extra attention must be paid to the anchoring
system in the foundation. The use of anchor bolts with high strength (5.8, 6.8 or higher)
often requires the use of mechanical anchoring systems.
C6.5.6 (1) The anchoring of the pillar in the foundation is dimensioned to ensure the joints
at the base of the pillar an overstrength that will keep its components in the elastic range
throughout the seismic action. The eventual plastic joints will be able to form only in the
pillars, in the vicinity of the joint, but not in it.
The components of the joint at the base of the column are the anchor bolts, the base plate,
the cross members and the stiffeners (when present). To achieve the over-strength condition,
the joint at the base of the pillars will be dimensioned under the effect of the forces
determined according to the relationship from 6.5.6(1) of P 100-1.
C6.5.6 (2) In order to ensure a ductile behavior of the anchor bolts under extreme
stress, it is recommended to ensure a free deformation zone of the anchor bolts
of at least 5d (where d is the diameter of the bolt rod). The material from which
the anchor bolts are made will meet the ductility conditions specified in P 100-1
chapter 6.2.
C6.5.6 (3) It is recommended to avoid complex stress states in anchor bolts (tension and
shear). For this purpose, P 100-1 recommends that the torsional forces from the base of
the column are not transmitted to the foundation through the anchor bolts but by
embedding the base of the column in a reinforced concrete overlay or by providing some
welded elements under the base plate of the column. Otherwise, the anchor bolts will be
checked for the combined effect of stretching and shearing efforts, in accordance with the
provisions of SR EN 1993-1-8. Alternatively, fixing the pole in the foundation can be done
by embedding it in the infrastructure at a height that ensures its direct anchoring, without
the need for anchoring screws.
C 6.6 Unbraced frames
C 6.6.1 Design criteria

C6.6.1 (1-3) Ensuring a maximum capacity of seismic energy dissipation takes place in
the case of a global type plastic mechanism. In the case of unbraced frames, this condition
corresponds to the formation of plastic joints at the ends of the beams, as well as at the
base of the columns and at the top of the columns at the last level.
Avoiding the formation of plastic joints in columns is also based on the fact that
these structural elements have a reduced plastic rotation capacity due to the axial
force, and their failure affects the overall stability of the resistance structure.
C 6.6.2 Beams
C6.6.2 (1-2) In the case of unbraced frames, beams represent the main dissipative
elements. Dissipation of seismic energy takes place through the formation of plastic
bending joints at the ends of the beams. The development of the capable plastic moment
of the section and ensuring the rotation capacity are influenced by the slenderness of the
element, the suppleness of the section walls, as well as the presence of significant
compression and/or shear forces. Therefore, P 100-1 provides for the arrangement of
sufficient lateral connections to prevent the buckling of the beam by bending-twisting in
the event of the formation of the plastic joint at one of the ends of the beam. In dissipative
zones, the sections will be class 1 for the DCH class of structural ductility and class 1 or
2 for the DCM class of structural ductility. So that the capable moment of the section and
the rotation capacity are not diminished, the axial force will be limited to 15% of the
plastic axial force of the section, and the shearing force will be limited to 50% of the
capable plastic shearing force (see relations 6.3 and 6.4 from P 100-1). If the axial force
and/or shear force in the beam do not comply with the conditions (6.3) and (6.4) of P
100-1, the beam cannot be considered a dissipative element when bending. In the case
of an elastic structural calculation, torsional forces are substantially underestimated
compared to the level of torsional forces in the structure that responds in the plastic
domain under the action of seismic loading. That is why the shear force in dissipative
beams is determined under the assumption of the formation of plastic joints at the two ends of the beam (acc
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In order to prevent the increase of the capable moment of the beam as a result of the
cooperation with the reinforced concrete plate, no connectors will be placed in the area of the
plastic joint along a length defined in section 7.7.5 of SR EN 1998-1.
C6.6.2 (4) Ensuring the overstrength of beam-column joints can in many cases lead to
uneconomical solutions. An alternative is to reduce the limit of the beam ends near the beam-
column joint area, provided for in P 100-1. Composition details and calculation relations for
this solution are available in Appendix F.
Figure C 6.7. Beam with reduced section
C6.6.2 (5-6) To prevent bending-twisting buckling of the beams, they will be fixed
laterally, at the upper and lower footings. The maximum distances between these
lateral supports are determined according to SR EN 1993-1-1 and P 100-1, paragraph 6.6.2(1).
In addition, the lateral links must be arranged in the areas where the formation of
plastic joints is possible. P 100-1 contains relations for determining the required
strength of these side grips.
The studies carried out in the USA (AISC 2010, FEMA 350) indicate that in the case
of beams made of usual laminated profiles made in a steel-concrete composite
solution, if the plastic joint is located in close proximity to the column, the connection
between the upper sole and the reinforced concrete slab ensure a sufficient lateral
connection for the development of plastic deformations corresponding to relative
level displacements of 0.04 radians. If, however, the plastic joint is not located close
to the face of the pillar or the beam has a large height, it is necessary to have
additional connections at the bottom base near the plastic joint.
C 6.6.3 Poles
C6.6.3 (1-2) The columns that are part of the main resistance structure must possess
sufficient resistance to prevent their plasticization under the effect of the design
seismic action (see C 6.5.1 - C 6.5.4). The exception is the sections of the pillars in
which the formation of plastic joints is allowed, respectively at the base of the pillars
and at the top of the pillars from the last level (see C 6.6.1).
To ensure the necessary overstrength of the pillars, the calculation efforts are obtained by
summing the efforts from the seismic component amplified by the T factor and those from
the gravity component, according to relations (6.6) from P 100-1.
M M
P 100-1 provides for the determination of the value as well as the minimum value i
=
of the ratios Mpl,Rd,i / MEd,i, calculated for all beams that contain potentially
plastic areas. In the case of a simplified calculation, the overstrength valuesAnnex
T fromF can
be adopted. Since it is possible that the overstrength conditions introduced by relations
(6.6) do not always lead to avoiding the appearance of plastic joints in the columns, it is
recommended that, if the design does not have base a calculation in the inelastic domain,
to check the condition of weak beam - strong column, in accordance with the provisions
of SR EN 1998-1.
The strength and stability check of the pillars will be carried out according to SR EN
1993-1-1. To determine the buckling lengths of the pillars of multi-storey structures, the
provisions of Annex F, section F.1 can be used.
C6.6.3 (5) The experimental tests carried out on beam-column nodes have demonstrated
that the heart panel of the column has an important contribution to the total ductility of the
node (AISC 2010, Dubina et al, 2000). Although the heart panel of the column has a
ductile behavior, its excessive deformations have an unfavorable effect on the overall
behavior of the node. Therefore, the strength of the core panel of the column must be
balanced in relation to that of the adjacent beams. The calculation forces in the panel are
determined under the assumption of the formation of plastic joints in the adjacent beams,
based on the capable plastic moments, corrected by design in front of the column.
The resistance of the heart panel of the pillar is determined according to SR EN 1993-1-8.
Increasing the shear strength of the core panel of the column can be obtained by placing
additional (doubling) plates, see Figure C 6.8.
Figure C 6.8. Doubling boards for heart panels (AISC 2010)
C6.6.3 (7-8) Ensuring the strength and rigidity of the beam-column nodes generally
requires the arrangement of continuity stiffeners at the level of the beam bases on
both sides of the column. In addition to the role of transferring the stresses from the
beam feet to the column, the stiffeners also serve to delimit the heart panel of the
column, which represents a highly stressed area. The stiffeners will be designed so
that they have a resistance at least equal to that of the beam bases.
C6.6.3 (9) In the area of the beam-column joint, the column legs must be tied
laterally. These lateral connections can be made by bracing, beams, concrete
slabs, etc. If there are no such elements in the structure, special elements will
be arranged, which must have a resistance of at least 0.02 fy tf b (tf, b –
dimensions of the beam base).
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C 6.6.4 Beam-column joints

C6.6.4 (1-2) In unbraced frames, the dissipative zones are located at the ends of
the beams. To meet the safety requirements at the ultimate limit state under the
effect of seismic loading, the potential plastic zones must have an adequate
rotation capacity (0.04 radians for the DCH ductility class and 0.03 radians for the
DCM ductility class). If the joints do not have sufficient overstrength (they are
partially resistant), plastic joints are formed in the joints. In this case, the joints
must possess the previously specified rotation capacities. The determination of
the rotation capacity of the joints must be demonstrated through experimental
tests. If the joints are overstrength compared to the dissipative zones in the
beams, and the beams are designed according to chapter 6.6.2 of P 100-1, the
rotation capacity in the plastic joints in the beams can be considered adequate.
The rotation capacity of the joints or the areas of the beams adjacent to the joints is determined
with the relation where represents the deformation
0,5L , of the beam in the middle
of the span, and L is the span of the beam (see Figure C 6.9).
0.5L 0.5L
Figure C 6.9. Deformation of the beam for calculation
The rotation capacity in the plastic joints must be ensured for a cyclic loading,
without a degradation of strength and rigidity
This requirement
greater thanis20%
valid(see
regardless
Figure of
C 6.10).
the
location of the plastic joint (joint or beam).
900
0.8Mmax,p u,p=0.05
600
300
0
Moment,kNm
300
600
u,n=0.04 0.8Mmax,n
900
0.075 0.05 0.025 0 0.025 0.05 0.075
Spin, rad
Figure C 6.10. Resistance degradation acceptance level

C 6.6.5 Column continuity joints Column

continuity joints are calculated according to SR EN 1993-1-8.
They are located at approximately 1/3 of the floor height to facilitate the assembly
of the joint directly from the plane and for the joint to be located in an area with
reduced moments.
C 6.7 Cadre contravântuite centric
C 6.7.1 Design criteria

C6.7.1. (1-3) Centrally braced frames dissipate seismic energy through axial plastic
deformations of the braces. Experimental tests on braces subjected to cyclic loads
have shown that after the occurrence of buckling in the plastic domain, the force
capable of compression decreases dramatically in successive loading cycles, which
leads to the reduction of the energy dissipated in the compression half-cycles. Thus,
the absorption of lateral seismic forces and the dissipation of energy takes place
mainly in the extended bracing.
To ensure a uniform behavior of the structure as a whole, for both directions of the
seismic action, the horizontal projection of the area of the ascending bracing must
be as close as possible to that of the area of the descending bracing (see relation
6.13 of P 100-1).
Figure C 6.11. Cyclic force-displacement diagram for a bracing (AISC 2010)
C 6.7.2 Calculation features
C6.7.1. (1) The braces of centrally braced frames are their dissipative elements. They
are characterized by a significant reduction in the load-bearing capacity under
compression following the plastic deformations that occur during an earthquake. That
is why, after the end of the seismic action, when the bracing is practically out of use,
the gravity loads must be taken over only by the beams and columns, without taking
into account the presence of the bracing.
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C6.7.1. (2-3) Due to the significant reduction in the resistance of the compressed
braces due to plastic buckling, the contribution of the compressed braces to taking
over the horizontal forces produced by the seismic action is reduced. To take this
aspect into account in an elastic calculation, the structure model is built under the
assumption that only the stretched bracings are active. Exceptions are structures with
V bracing, where both tension and compression bracing are considered active. For
details on the practical way of performing the structural calculation and determining the
efforts, see C 6.4(1-2). If a non-linear static or dynamic calculation is carried out, the
calculation model must contain both tension and compression bracing, provided that
the inelastic bracing model reflects its behavior before and after buckling (see Figure
C 6.11). The behavior model of compressed bracing must be based on adequate
theoretical and experimental justifications.
C 6.7.3 Calculation of
diagonals C6.7.3 (1-3) For all centric bracing systems, the dimensionless slenderness
of the bracing is limited to greater than 2.0, to prevent premature buckling of the
compressed bracing. The dimensionless slenderness is determined according to the relationship:
Of and
N
cr
where:
A – area of the cross-section of the bracing;
fy – nominal flow limit;

2
NO
Ncr – fora critic of flambaj, N .
cr
L 2
cr
In the case of braces with X-diagonals, the dimensionless slenderness will be greater than 1.3, to avoid
overloading the columns in the pre-buckling phase of the compressed diagonal (when both tension and
compression diagonals are active).
C6.7.3 (4-5) The tension bracing is dimensioned so that the capable plastic stress of the cross section
Npl,Rd is greater than the design stress from the seismic combination NEd. For systems with V bracing,
the compressed diagonals will be checked for buckling according to SR EN 1993-1-1.
C 6.7.4 Calculation of beams and columns

C6.7.4 (1) In centrally braced frames, beams and columns are non-dissipative elements. In order to prevent
their plasticization, they must have a sufficient resistance to the dissipative elements (braces). Calculation
efforts in columns and beams are obtained by summing the efforts from the seismic component amplified
by the factor of those from the gravity component, according to relations (6.14) from P 100-1.
T
C6.7.4 (2) In order to ensure a global plastic mechanism, the diagonals of the bracing system must
plasticize as evenly as possible over the entire height of the structure.
It
For this purpose, it is recommended that the maximum and minimum values 's not
of the ratios differ by more than 25%. This condition is difficult to comply with in the
case of multi-level buildings, where wind action may impose different resistance and
stiffness requirements compared to seismic action. If it is not possible to comply with
the requirement of uniformity of bracing demand in the seismic design situation, the
seismic performance of the structure must be confirmed through a non-linear calculation.
C6.7.4 (3) In the case of frames with inverted V bracing, the beams must be designed
to take the gravity loads from the seismic combination and the efforts produced by the
bracing after buckling of the compressed diagonal. These efforts are calculated
considering Npl,Rd for the stretched diagonal and 0.3Npl,Rd for the compressed
diagonal. The calculation of the beam will be done without considering the intermediate
support provided by the bracing.
C6.7.4 (5) Proper functioning of V-bracing systems is ensured by preventing the loss of
the overall stability of the beam. For this purpose, lateral connections will be provided
at the level of the beam legs in the intersection section with the diagonals.
C 6.8 Eccentric braced frames
C6.8 (1-4) In eccentrically braced frames the dissipative zones are located in the
dissipative bars (links). The other elements of the eccentrically braced frames must
remain mainly in the elastic domain under the effect of the forces that can develop after
the plasticization and consolidation of the dissipative bars. The components of
eccentrically braced frames are shown in Figure C 6.12. Depending on the length of the
dissipative bar, its plastic behavior can be dominated by shear (for short dissipative
bars) or bending (for long dissipative bars). Dissipative bars can be horizontal (along
the length of the beam, see Figure C 6.12 i-iii) or vertical (external to the beam, see
Figure C 6.12 iv).
In order to avoid the concentration of plastic deformations in a small number of
dissipative bars, it is necessary to ensure a global plastic mechanism. For this, the
stress level of the dissipative bars under the effect of the seismic action must be as
uniform as possible.
C 6.8.2. Calculation of dissipative bars

C6.7.4 (1) The heart of the dissipative bars will be made without , because it is
doubling plates, possibly because they do not properly participate in the plastic
mechanism of the dissipative bar. Also, the presence of holes has an unfavorable effect
on the plastic behavior of the dissipative bars, therefore they are not allowed.
C6.7.4 (2-9) The inelastic response of dissipative bars depends significantly on the
length of the bar, in relation to the ratio Mpl,link/ Vpl,link. When the dissipative bar length
is less than 1.6Mpl,link/ Vpl,link (short dissipative bars), the inelastic response will be
dominated by shear. If the dissipative bar length is greater than 3Mpl,link/ Vpl,link (long
dissipative bars), the inelastic response will be dominated by bending. For intermediate
dissipative bar lengths, the inelastic response is characterized by the interaction
between shear and bending (intermediate dissipative bars). The plastic deformation
capacity of dissipative bars is generally higher for short dissipative bars. Experimental
trials (AISC, 2010) have
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artat plastic rotations capable of 0.08 radians in the case of short dissipative bars and 0.02 radians in the case
of long dissipative bars.
(i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)
a = dissipative bar (link) b = beam portion adjacent to the dissipative bar c = bracing d = column
Figure C 6.12. Examples of eccentrically braced frames (AISC
2010)
The effect of the axial force on the inelastic response of the dissipative bar can be neglected if the axial force
does not exceed 15% of the capable plastic axial force of the dissipative bar. If the level of the axial force
exceeds 15% of the capable plastic axial force of the dissipative bar, the capable torsional force and the
capable plastic moment will be reduced. In this case, only short dissipative bars are allowed, whose maximum
length is given by relations (6.21) and (6.22) from P 100-1. In the case of eccentrically braced frames where
the bending moments at the two ends of the dissipative bar are equal (see Figure C 6.12 i), the classification
of the dissipative bars (short, intermediate and long) is made with relations (6.23) - (6.25) from P 100 -1. In the
case of eccentrically braced frames where the bending moments at the two ends of the dissipative bar are
different (see Figure C 6.12 ii-iv), the classification of the dissipative bars (short, intermediate and long) is
made with relations (6.26) - (6.28) from P 100-1.
C6.7.4 (10-14) A ductile cyclic behavior of the dissipative bars can be obtained by a corresponding
detailing of the transverse stiffeners of the heart. For this purpose, stiffeners are needed at the ends of
the dissipative bar on both sides of the heart, as well as intermediate stiffeners (see Figure C 6.13). In
the case of short dissipative bars, the intermediate stiffeners aim to limit the plastic veiling of the heart.
In this case, the maximum distance between the intermediate stiffeners depends on the necessary
plastic deformation of the dissipative bar, a smaller distance being necessary for a higher plastic
deformation capacity. For long dissipative bars, with a length between 3Mpl,link/ Vpl,link and 5Mpl,link/
Vpl,link, it is necessary to arrange an intermediate stiffener at each end of the dissipative bar at a
distance equal to 1.5b, where b is the size of the sole, to limit the degradation of strength caused by
the plastic veiling of the soles and the buckling by bending-twisting. If the length of the dissipative bar
exceeds 5Mpl,link/ Vpl,link, intermediate stiffeners are not required. When the height of the transverse
section of the dissipative bar is greater than 600 mm, the intermediate stiffeners are placed on both
sides of the heart. In the case of dissipative bars with a height of less than 600 mm, it is allowed to
arrange the stiffeners only on one side of the heart.
Figure C 6.13. The main elements of the dissipative bar (AISC 2010)
a
it
eccentricitateinterax
is the buckling
contravantuiri
eccentricity in the
calculation model
It is
Longebaradisipativa
(a) (b)
Figure C 6.14. Modeling the length of the dissipative bar
The fastening of the stiffeners to the heart and soles is done with relief (collar) welds.
The stiffeners must be detailed so as to avoid welding in the connection area between
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sole and heart, this can lead to the reduction of the plastic deformation capacity of the dissipative bar by
initiating cracks in the heart (AISC, 2010).
The length of the dissipative bar greatly influences the seismic behavior of the structure.
That is why it is very important to model them correctly in the structural analysis. Ideally, the length of the
dissipative bar (e) measured between the bracing ends should be equal to the eccentricity formed by the
intersection of the bracing axes and the beam axis (ea). In reality, due to the size of the beam sections and
the braces, the length of the dissipative bar e can be different from the interaxial eccentricity of the braces
(ea), see Figure C 6.14a. A finite element calculation model of the bar type in which the structural elements
are arranged in the axis would underestimate the bending moments in the beam segments outside the
dissipative bar and in the bracing (when it > e) or those in the dissipative bar (when it < e). A possible
solution is to adopt a calculation model in which the inclination of the braces is adjusted so that the theoretical
eccentricity in the axis of the beam formed by the axes of the braces is equal to the physical length of the
dissipative bar (e), see Figure C 6.14b.
6.8.3 Elementally non-dissipative
C6.8.3 (1) In eccentrically braced frames, columns, braces and beam segments adjacent to dissipative bars
are non-dissipative elements. In order to prevent the production of plastic deformations in these elements,
they must have a sufficient overresistance compared to the dissipative bars. The calculation efforts in the
non-dissipative elements are obtained by summing the efforts from the seismic component amplified by the
factor T and those from the gravity component, according to relations (6.29) from P 100-1. However, it is
possible that relations (6.29) do not provide the necessary overresistance in non-dissipative elements in all
situations. Therefore, it is recommended to directly estimate the calculation efforts in the non-dissipative
elements through a non-linear calculation (static or dynamic).
When the dissipative bar and the beam containing it are made of a single element, the yield strength of the
steel has the same value in the dissipative bar and in the adjacent beam segment. Consequently, the
calculation efforts in the beam segment adjacent to the dissipative bar can be determined according to
relations (6.29) in P 100-1, using the value of the material overstrength
ov = 1,0.
C6.8.3 (2) In order to ensure a global plastic mechanism, the dissipative bars must be dimensioned so that
under the action of seismic forces they plasticize uniformly over the height of the structure. For this purpose,
the maximum and minimum values of the ratios must not differ by more than 25%. This condition is difficult i
to meet in the case of buildings with many levels. If it is not possible to comply with the requirement of
uniformity above, the seismic performance of the structure must be confirmed by a non-linear calculation.
C 6.8.4 Joints of dissipative bars C6.8.4 In
the case of eccentrically braced frames of the type shown in Figure C 6.12 i, the beam-to-column joints of
beams that contain dissipative bars shall be dimensioned with the same relations used for dimensioning the
beams (6.29). In the case of eccentrically braced frames of the type shown in Figure C 6.12 ii-iii, the beam-
column joints are located in potential plastic areas and require attention
particular. Experimental research has shown that this type of joint is stressed in a
different way than beam-to-column joints in unbraced frames (AISC 2010). That's
why the method of composing beam-column joints from non-braced frames does
not always ensure adequate behavior if they are used for dissipative bar-column
joints to eccentrically braced frames.
Figure C 6.15. Example of a dissipative bar - pillar triple joint
It is recommended that the composition and dimensioning of the dissipative bar -

column joints in eccentrically braced frames be validated by experimental tests, or
that an over-strength compared to the dissipative bar be ensured. In this case, the
joint will be dimensioned to the efforts corresponding to the development of the plastic
mechanism in the dissipative bar, amplified by 1.5ov. Figure C 6.15 shows an example
of the construction of such a dissipative bar-column joint.
C 6.9 Structures of the inverted pendulum type
C6.9 The main characteristic of these structures is the location of plastic joints
exclusively in the columns and the high level of axial force, defined by the relationship
NEd/ Npl,Rd > 0.3. These structures are characteristic for water castles, platforms or
ground structures that support large weights, such as those for silos, bunkers, etc.
Ground floor frames of the type used for halls or industrial platforms are not usually
characterized by the development of axial forces in the columns that satisfy the
previous condition.
C 6.10. Metal structures with reinforced concrete cores or walls and dual structures
C 6.10.1. Structures with reinforced concrete cores or walls
C6.10.1 In these structures, horizontal forces are mainly taken up by reinforced

concrete diaphragms or cores. The metal frames, as a rule not braced, are
dimensioned from gravitational actions. Since the participation of the metal frames in
taking over the horizontal seismic forces is negligible, they are checked according to
SR EN 1993-1-1 and SR EN 1993-1-8. The calculation of the concrete elements,
which ensure the absorption of seismic forces, is done in accordance with the provisions of chapter 5 of
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100-1. The designer will take care that the constructive details by which the connections
between the metal structure and the concrete one are solved respect the previously
mentioned working assumptions.
If the metal structure has a significant contribution (at least 25%) to the absorption of seismic
forces, it will be designed based on the provisions of P 100-1.
C 6.10.2. Dual structures

C6.10.2 A structure made up of braced and unbraced frames can be considered dual when
the unbraced frames have a significant contribution to absorbing seismic forces (minimum
25% of the total seismic force). These structures are designed with a unique reduction factor
q . Centrally braced frames have a reduced capacity to dissipate seismic energy. The dual
structure obtained by combining the centrally braced and non-braced frames has an improved
global seismic response, due to the redundancy and greater dissipation capacity of the non-
braced structure.
The category of dual structures includes those obtained by combining eccentrically braced
frames with non-braced frames. In this case, both structures have a comparable seismic
energy dissipation capacity, their association being mostly done for functional reasons. The
use of eccentric bracing instead of centric ones leads to more homogeneous structural
systems, both in terms of rigidity and ductility. In addition, the impact of eccentric bracing on
traffic flows in the building is less. If the participation of unbraced frames in taking over the
seismic forces is less than 25% of the total seismic force, their contribution is neglected.
The reduction factor q is that of the braced system, which is dimensioned in accordance with
the provisions of chapters 6.7 and 6.8. In this case, the frames
not braced are checked according to SR EN 1993-1-1.
C 6.11. Buckling Resisted Bracing (BRB) Frames

C6.11 (1) Restrained buckling braces are a special category of centric braces. These braces
usually consist of a steel core embedded in a metal sheath filled with mortar, which has the
role of preventing buckling of the steel core. As in the case of conventional centric bracing,
the arrangement of restrained buckling bracing must be done so that the axes of the bars
meet at one point. Figure C 6.16 shows some examples of possible configurations. It should
be noted that the use of configurations in K or X is not accepted.
Figure C 6.16. Examples of restrained buckling braced frames (AISC 2010)

Braces with prevented buckling are characterized by the ability to plasticize both in
tension and compression by preventing buckling of the bracing at least up to a
level of forces and deformations corresponding to the design displacement. This
behavior ensures a quasi-symmetrical cyclic response without degradation of
strength or stiffness and implicitly a greater energy dissipation capacity compared
to classical bracing (see Figure C 6.17).
braces with prevented buckling

conventional centric braces Figure C
6.17. Comparison between classical bracing and restrained buckling bracing (Star
Seismic Europe )
C6.11 (2) The design of beams and columns must be done in such a way that plasticization
of bracing occurs before the formation of plastic joints in beams and columns or the loss of
general stability. This is done by using in the calculation the maximum force that can develop
in the braces.
C 6.11.2. Bracing resistance
C6.11.2 (1) To ensure a proper behavior of the system, experimental tests on bracing are
necessary. These tests also have the role of determining the maximum force that develops
in the bracing and which takes into account the increase in compression resistance compared
to the tensile strength, the strengthening of the material in the core and the possibility of
increasing the yield strength of the steel in the core.
C6.11.2 (2-5) The correction factor of the compressive capacity takes into account the
increase in the compressive strength compared to the tensile strength, caused in particular
by the interaction between the steel core and the system that prevents the buckling of the core.
When a brace with restrained buckling is subjected to alternating axial deformations (tension
and compression), the difference between the maximum force from the tension cycles and
the maximum force from the compression cycles must be as small as possible (see Figure C
, consolidation
6.18). The correction factor due to consolidation takes into account the phenomenon of of
the core material following large plastic deformations and repeated cycles in the inelastic
domain. Bracing with sub-unit values of the factors and cannot be considered buckling
restrained bracing and their use is not allowed by these provisions.
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Deformaia specific, %
axial,
Fora
kN
Figure C 6.18. Hysteretic behavior of restrained buckling bracing (Tsai et al.

2013)
C 6.11.3. Calculation features
C6.11.3 (1-2) Braces are not part of the system for taking over gravity loads.
Therefore, in the frames with V and inverted V braces, the beam that intersects the
braces will be designed in such a way as to have sufficient resistance capacity. This
capacity must allow the development of plastic deformations in both bracing for the
maximum level of level displacement and taking into account the different tensile and
compression capacity of the bracing. In addition, the deformation capacity of the
bracing must take into account the additional deformation produced by the deformation
of the beam. For these reasons, it is recommended to avoid flexible tie beams.
When using the special configurations in Figure C 6.19, these provisions are not
relevant.
Figure C 6.19. Special configurations of centrally braced frames (AISC, 2010)
C 6.11.4. Bracing calculation
C6.11.4 (4-5) These calculation provisions are based on test-assisted design.

They seek to ensure the use of braces with restrained buckling only within the
limits of their deformation capacity and the formation of plastic joints and failure
mechanisms based only on the hysterically stable behavior of the braces at least
until the maximum level displacements are reached. If an elastic analysis is used,
the maximum level displacement corresponds to twice the calculation level
displacement at ULS, but not less than 0.02 of the floor height. If a nonlinear
dynamic analysis is used, the maximum displacement can be obtained directly from the analysis.
The compliance of bracing is based on the performance of experimental tests

carried out based on the provisions of SR EN 15129. The tests consist of tests on
individual elements and tests on subassemblies. The stretching and compression
tests on the individual bracing have the purpose of verifying the satisfaction of the
resistance and plastic deformation requirements expressed by these provisions.
The experimentally obtained values can also be used to determine the maximum
forces taken into account in the design of adjacent elements. In the case of the
subassembly test, the specimen is axially loaded and the end joints are rotated to
simulate the conditions under which the bracing works inside the frame. This test
aims to check if the rotation requirements imposed by the frame in the bracing
joints do not compromise its performance. This test cannot be used to evaluate
frame performance.
Both the results obtained during the tests for the respective project and the results
of the existing experimental tests in the specialized literature or tests for other
similar projects are accepted in the calculation.
C 6.11.5. Beams and pillars

C6.11.5 (1-2) When V-bracing systems are used, because the tension and
compression capacities of the bracing are approximately equal, the tie beam
intersecting the bracing is subjected to reduced unbalanced forces compared to
similar structures with centric bracing conventional. However, the use of flexible
beams is not recommended because this can lead to excessive deformations of
the beam and additional plastic deformation requirements in the bracing.
C 6.11.6. Bracing joints

C6.11.6 (1) The bracing joints must not plasticize at forces lower than those
corresponding to the flow of the steel core. Two of the joints frequently used in
practice are shown in Figure C 6.20.
BRB BRB
Additional gusset (on

both sides)
He was
Guseu joint
Joint with screws Bowl joint Figure C 6.20.

Joints for braces with restrained buckling C6.11.6 (2)
Joints of braces must be dimensioned for the maximum axial compressive force
that can develop in the brace, increased by a factor equal to 1.1. This factor
takes into account the possibility that the deformation requirement is higher than
that used to determine the factors i .
C6.11.6 (3) The experimental tests carried out in recent years have shown that
the joint can be one of the critical points in the design of bracing due to the failure
mode.
Machine
104
Welding
Bracing axis
2L
Pillar
Welding
Pillar
Intersection Beam
point
Beam
Screws of
plate of capt sau
catch corniera
(a) (b)
Figure C 6.21. Hinged beam-column joints: Stoakes and Fahnestock 2010 (a) and Thornton
and Muir, 2008 (b)
C 6.11.7. Beam-column joints

C6.11.6 (1) Braced frames can be subjected to large relative level displacements, so that
significant rotations can occur in the beam-column joints. In order to ensure a proper behavior,
both solutions with a rigidly clamped beam and with an articulated beam can be adopted (see
Figure C 6.21), in which case the joint must be dimensioned so as to allow a rotation of at least
25 mrad.
C 6.12. Execution control

Ensuring the quality of the execution of a seismically stressed metal structure that was designed
as a dissipative structure is essential. For this purpose, when constructing and assembling the
structure, it is recommended that, in addition to the provisions of SR EN 1090-2 and C150-99, the
provisions of SR EN 1993-1-10 should be followed.
Bibliography
ANSI/AISC 341-10 (2010). "Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings".
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. Chicago, Illinois, USA.
ANSI/AISC 358-10 (2010). "Prequalified Connections for Special and Intermediate Steel Moment
Frames for Seismic Applications", American Institute of Steel Construction, One East Wacker
Drive, Suite 700, Chicago, Illinois 60601-1802.
Dubina D., Grecea D., Ciutina A., Stratan A. (2000), "Influence of connection typology and
loading asymmetry", in F. Mazzolani (ed.), Moment resisting connections of steel building frames
in seismic areas, E & FN SPON, p. 217-244.
ECCS (1985). "Recommended Testing Procedures for Assessing the Behaviour of Structural
Elements under Cyclic Loads", European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Technical
Committee 1, TWG 1.3 – Seismic Design, No.45 FEMA 350, (2000). "Recommended Seismic
Design Criteria for New Steel Moment Frame Buildings", SAC Joint Venture.
FEMA 356, (2000). "Prestandard and commentary for the seismic rehabilitation of
buildings", Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington (DC).
GP 082/2003. "Guide on the design of ductile joints to metallic structures in seismic
zones". Construction Bulletin, no. 16/2004.
Mazzolani, F.M., Moment resistant connections of steel frames in seismic areas:
Design and Reliability. London: E & FN Spon, 2000.
Ministry of Public Works and Territorial Planning (1999), Normative regarding the
quality of steel welded joints of civil, industrial and agricultural constructions, reference
C 150-99
OPUS (2010). "Optimizing the seismic performance of steel and steel-concrete

structures by standardizing material quality control". Contract no. RFSR-CT-2007-
00039. Final Report. Research Programme of the Research Fund for Coal and Steel.
SR EN 1090-2+A1:2012. "Execution of steel structures and aluminum structures.
Part 2: Technical requirements for steel structures"
SR EN 15129: 2010. "Anti-seismic devices".
SR EN 1993-1-1:2006. "Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-1: General rules
and rules for buildings"
SR EN 1993-1-10:2006. "Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-10: Selection
of steel quality classes"
SR EN 1993-1-3:2007. "Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-3: General
rules. Additional rules for structural elements and cold-formed plates"
SR EN 1993-1-5:2007. "Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-5: Structural
elements from flat plates required in their plan"
SR EN 1993-1-8:2006. "Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-8: Design of joints"
SR EN 1998-1: 2003. "Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance.

Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings".
SR EN 1990 "Eurocode: Basics of structural design"
6892-1:2010 Test method at Metallic
ambientmaterials.
temperature
Tensile test. Part 1: SR EN ISO
Stoakes, C.D. i Fahnestock, L.A., “Flexural Behavior of Concentrically-Braced

Frame Beam-Column Connections,” ASCE Structures Congress 2010, Orlando,
FL, May 2010.
Thornton, W.A. i Muir, L.S. (2008). "Vertical Bracing Connections in the Seismic
Regime". ECCS / AISC Workshop Connections in Steel Structures VI. June 23-24,
2008. Chicago, IL.
Tsai, K.C., Lin, P. C., Wu, A. C., Chuang, M. C. (2013). "Buckling restrained braces:
research and implementation in Taiwan". Steel Innovations Conference 2013,
Christchurch, New Zealand, 21-22 February 2013.
Machine
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C 7. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO COMPOSITE BUILDINGS
C 7. Generalites
C 7.1.1 Domain
C 7.1.1 The design provisions of laminated steel - reinforced concrete composite

structures required for seismic action contained in P 100-1 are based on chapter 7 of
SR EN 1998-1. In this code there are numerous references to the other Eurocodes:
SR EN 1992-1-1, SR EN 1993-1-1 and especially SR EN 1994-1-1. The provisions of
SR EN 1998-1 regarding composite constructions have, from edition to edition,
important modifications and additions according to the state of research in this direction.
C 7.1.2 Design principles

C 7.1.2 The design principles of composite structures in seismic zones sum up the
principles of good compliance of reinforced concrete structures with those of steel
structures.
Composite structures are designed in areas with high seismicity, as a rule, as dissipative
structures with high dissipation. However, in the case of inherent over-dimensions of
reinforced concrete elements with rigid reinforcement, a corresponding relaxation of the
ductility conditions can be achieved. This is, for example, the case of columns subjected
predominantly to compression within structures with walls and frames, columns where the
rather restrictive bending ductility conditions can be relaxed in this code in relation to NP
033.
Composite structures with steel dissipative zones in beams are considered feasible only to
the extent that composite action is prevented in these zones by separating the concrete
from the steel component.
Hybrid structures in which the transition is made between a reinforced concrete substructure
and a steel substructure by means of a reinforced concrete substructure with rigid
reinforcement can ensure a fluent transfer of efforts and deformations without gross
variations in stiffness and resistance capacity. In poorly dissipative structures, the sectional
efforts will be determined based on an elastic calculation without taking into account the
non-linear behavior of the materials, but considering the reduction of the moments of inertia
due to the concrete crack.
C 7.2 Material
C7.2 Concrete of class below C20/25 shall not be used in composite elements due
to its inadequate strength properties especially in areas of stress concentrations, such
as in the area of concrete covering the structural steel.
The use of high-strength concretes is limited to C50/60 in the case of composite elements
in seismic areas due to the reduction of ultimate compressive strain and ductility for higher
classes of concrete. Through a special conformation, the deformation capacity can be
, thelimitations
increased, but due to the difficulties in realizing it, the above pipe elements
are justified.
filled with
For
concrete, it is more favorable to use high-class concrete because the state of triaxial
stresses significantly increases the ultimate deformation.
The materials for the structural steel must meet the conditions related to the ratio between
the breaking strength and the yield strength, the elongation at break and the length of the
yield stress specified in point 6.2.(2), and the materials for concrete steel reinforcements, the
conditions in 5.3 .1(c). The conditions regarding the ductility of the steel chosen for dissipative
elements are important for the behavior in the post-elastic domain of these elements. Steels
with a yield strength greater than 460N/mm2 will not be used because they are generally
insufficiently ductile.
C 7.3.1 Types of structures

C 7.3.1 The practical realization in composite form of the main types of elements and
subassemblies (beams, columns, nodes, bracing, beams, boards) allows the inclusion of all
types of steel structures and of reinforced concrete.
C 7.3.2 Behavior factors C 7.3.2

Behavior factors q that express the seismic energy dissipation capacity of different types of
composite structures whose values are given in table 7.2 are large in the case of structures
with high dissipation respectively: composite structures in frames with several levels and
openings, dual composite structures, structures with more than 2 composite walls coupled in
each direction, by different values of the / ratio.
in 1
The experimental tests carried out indicate higher values of the behavior factor q in composite
structures than in reinforced concrete structures .
C 7.4 Diaphragm action of composite planes

C 7.4 Because the composite planes show in the elastic domain the role of a rigid beam,
checks will be made of their capacity to resist bending in their plane as well as their capacity
to resist sliding along the beams at forces 25% higher than those associated with the
dissipation mechanism of the structure as a whole. The ability of the composite planes to
transmit the reactions to the vertical elements will also be verified. The connection of the
composite planes of the beams will be dimensioned and composed in such a way as to allow
the transmission of the shear forces resulting from the action of the diaphragm. The types of
connectors recommended in seismic areas are the ductile ones, respectively the mandrels
with head. The relations for the calculation of connectors are given in SR EN 1994-1-1
C 7.5 Design of composite dissipative structures

C 7.5.1 Design criteria of composite dissipative structures
C7.5.1 The design criteria of composite structures refer to ensuring their resistance, ductility,
stability and deformability conditions.
The method of ranking the resistance capacity allows the imposition of a favorable
plasticization mechanism and by complying with some composition and dimensioning
conditions, the necessary ductility in the dissipative areas is ensured.
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108
To verify the ultimate bending state of a section from the dissipative zones of the
composite elements, the lower limit of the resistance capacity is determined, using
the calculated resistances of the materials. In this case, the non-ductile steel that
may appear in the section, for example as plate reinforcement, is not taken into
account when calculating the resistance capacity.
The design efforts for checking the non-dissipative sections will be calculated in the case
of the realization of the dissipation mechanism using the upper limit of the resistance
capacity. The upper limit of the resistance capacity is determined by considering the
overresistance factors of the dissipative elements and all the reinforcement in the
calculation section.
Follow this method:

- guiding by design the formation of a favorable plastic yielding mechanism;
- an appropriate protection in relation to brittle breaks, for example, ensuring a strength
resistance capacity higher than the bending capacity;
- a behavior in the elastic domain of non-dissipative zones.
C 7.6 Design of unbraced composite frames C 7.6.1

General provisions C 7.6.1 Composite frames shall be
designed so that the critical areas are directed to the ends of the composite beams. Even if
certain ends of the composite beams have a reduced probability of becoming dissipative
zones, they will be subject to the same compliance rules. Plastic deformations are allowed
in the sections at the base of the columns and in the sections of the columns on the upper
part of the last level of the storey frames, provided that NEd/ Npl,Rd<0.3.
The ductility of the dissipative areas of the composite frames is ensured by measures to
avoid brittle breaks. The composite effect will be ensured at least until reaching the bending
resistance capacities of the dissipative zones.
- For protection against breaks due to shear force, we recommend:
- - that the laminated steel sections of the composite beams and columns should be
made wholeheartedly;
- calculation force to be determined based on the dissipation mechanism;
- - there should be a correct correlation between the requirements and the tensile
strength capacities of the two components: rigid reinforcement and reinforced
concrete. This correlation is made in relation to the bending moments of the two
components.
- For protection against buckling due to local instability of compressed steel elements, we
recommend:
- the yield limits of the steel elements given in table 7.3 must be respected;
- in the case of elements made of rigid reinforced concrete (BAR), the recommended
covering with concrete (of 100 mm) must be respected and there is a corresponding
reinforcement with stirrups;
- there may be connecting elements between the compressed steel sheets and the
surrounding concrete.
- For protection against breakage due to slippage, we recommend:
- calculation sliding will be determined based on the dissipation mechanism by integrating

the normal unit efforts in the plastic field and thus ensuring a total connection;
- slippage will be taken over in critical areas through adhesion mechanisms and ,
friction
connectors;
- checking when the board slides along the beam, in the case of composite planes with
corrugated board, a check that can be, in this case, critical.
- For the protection of the joint areas of the rigid reinforcement:
- the joint areas of the laminated steel of the composite elements will have a higher degree
of insurance in relation to the rest of the areas and will be located in areas of reduced efforts;
- For protection against insufficient anchorage of rigid reinforcement in infrastructures:
- the base plate of the rigid reinforcement of the pillars and walls will be embedded in
reinforced concrete. In the case of storied buildings, the rigid reinforcement will be anchored
at least at the height of a basement;
- connecting elements such as sliding connectors or sewing bars that pass through holes
provided in the rigid reinforcement will be placed on the height of the embedment.
- The girder-pillar nodes will be dimensioned with a degree of assurance higher than the adjacent
dissipative zones so that they work in the elastic domain.
- It is recommended that on the height of the building, sudden variation in rigidity and resistance
capacity should be avoided.
C 7.6.2 Structural calculation of composite frames

C 7.6.2 For the structural calculation by the general design method, the stiffness of the composite
sections is of interest.
The stiffness of the composite sections with concrete in the compressed area is calculated by
transforming them into equivalent sections with the consideration of an equivalence coefficient n=E/
Ecm, where E and Ecm are the modulus of elasticity of the steel and the secant modulus of elasticity
of the concrete for short-term loads . In the conditions in which, when calculating the composite
sections, the stretched concrete is neglected as it is cracked, in the case of composite beams, two
bending stiffnesses can be considered: EI1 for the positive moment zone taking into account the
effective limit of the plates and EI2 for the moments zone negative with the consideration of the
reinforcement in the actual slab file or an average stiffness for the entire opening.
For composite columns with rectangular sections as a rule, the stretched area being cracked, the
stiffnesses are calculated with the relation :
(EI)c=0,9(EIa+ 0.5EcmIc+EIs )
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110
For the verification of lateral movements at the service limit state, the reduction of seismic forces will be
achieved by the factor that takes into account, the
SLS,shorter return the
considering period of theof
stiffness earthquake associated
the elements with
corresponding
to the cracked concrete.
C 7.6.3 The suppleness of the walls of the steel sections that make up the composite elements
C 7.6.3 The ultimate limit state of the dissipative zones corresponds, in the case of composite elements,
to reaching the plastic rotation capacity which can be limited by the production of 3 phenomena: the
crushing and detachment of the concrete component, the breaking and buckling of the reinforcing bars
and the local instability of the steel structural.
The values of the limit flexures of the walls of the steel sections depend decisively on the degree of
embedding in concrete, there being three situations: without embedding, with partial or total embedding
in concrete, filled or filled and embedded in concrete. The yield strength decreases as the characteristic
strength of the steel increases. The limit flexibility for the medium ductility class of the structure is higher
by a maximum of 50% than in the high ductility class.
If we compare class 1 of the limit ductility of the steel sections given in annex F with the limit ductility of
the composite elements, limit values at least twice higher result by embedding the steel sections in
concrete, in the conditions in which the details of connections and covering with concrete provided for in
this code.
C 7.6.4 The transfer of efforts and deformations between steel and concrete
C 7.6.4 The manifestation of the composite action at the section level and the mobilization of its entire
resistance capacity is conditioned by the avoidance of relative sliding between the concrete and steel
components by taking over the sliding efforts on the entire stress area. This is achieved by direct shearing
of the covering concrete in the case of BAR elements, by adhesion and friction at the interface through
sliding connectors or direct reactions, through thrusting effects between components.
There are the following situations in which it is necessary to check the transfer of forces between concrete
and steel:
- when taking over the longitudinal sliding forces associated with the dissipation mechanism;
- when distributing the reactions transmitted only to one of the components to the other
component, for example from the steel pipe to the concrete core; - when anchoring rigid
reinforcements.
The values of the average tangential stress of adhesion depend decisively on the friction. On the
areas where a non-filling with concrete is created, for example under the footings of the steel
beams, this effort is 0. In the case of elements with partial embedding in concrete and filled seams,
adhesion is lower due to concrete shrinkage.
Adhesion depends on the concrete cover layer of the rigid reinforcement and the percentage of
stirrup reinforcement. In relation to the statically stressed elements, the average unit adhesion
effort for the calculation of the elements for alternating seismic actions is reduced to 50%.
Recommended values obtained in table 6.6 of SR EN 1994-1-1 are covering those recommended
in P 100-1 Thus, for a concrete covering of 100 mm of the rigid reinforcement, the following
values of the unitary adhesion effort are obtained: 0.5x0. 3x2.2= 0.33N/mm2
- fully embedded steel sections (BAR)

- partially embedded profile tiles 0.5x 0.2= 0.1N/mm2

-
- hearts of partially embedded profiles
- the inside of the circular piles filled with concrete - the inside 0.5x0.55=0,275 N/mm2
of the rectangular piles filled with concrete 0.5x 0.4= 0.2 N/mm2 The arrangement of connectors
welded to the hearts of the steel profiles leads to the increase of friction on the inside of the soles through the
compressed rods that form between the base of the connectors and tpl. In taking over the longitudinal sliding forces
resulting from bending, the contribution of the adhesion can be neglected, in a covering manner, as follows: - In the
case of composite steel beams with reinforced concrete slabs, the sliding is taken over entirely by the connectors.
In the case of dissipative beams, the degree of connection
it will be total.
- In the case of BAR elements, the longitudinal sliding is, as a rule, entirely taken over by the concrete and stirrups
in the concrete cover.
If the direct shearing of the covering concrete, the direct reactions between concrete and steel, adhesion and
friction cannot fully ensure the transfer of tangential forces associated with the plasticizing mechanism, connectors
will be arranged that, together with the other phenomena, ensure the full absorption of the associated sliding forces
reaching the element's bending capacity.
C 7.6.5 Composite beams

C 7.6.5 The conditions for checking composite beams in dissipative zones are similar to the conditions for reinforced
concrete or steel beams.
- The determination of the capable moment of the composite sections is based on the following assumptions:
- flat sections remain flat;
- reinforcements and structural steel suffer the same relative deformations as the adjacent concrete;
- the tensile strength of the concrete is neglected;
- the efforts in compressed concrete are deduced from the calculation effort-deformation diagram given
in SR EN 1992-1-1;
- the forces in the reinforcements for reinforced concrete are deduced from the calculation diagrams
given in SR EN 1992-1-1;
- the efforts in the structural steel are deduced from the calculation diagrams given in SR EN 1993-1-1.
- The methods used in determining the capable moments are: the general method and the simplified method,
detailed in SR EN 1994-1-1.
- The plastic capable moment is determined from the section balance of the internal efforts by writing the moment
equation relative to the plastic center of the section (in the case of symmetrical sections – the center of gravity).
Machine
112
- The capable moments in the case of BAR sections are also determined for each individual component: M
pl,c,Rd for reinforced concrete and M pl,a,Rd for steel provided:
M pl,Rd =M pl,,c,Rd + M pl,a,Rd
- The design moments are determined as follows:
- the design moments of the dissipative sections of the MEd beams are the maximum moments
from the buckling diagrams in the respective sections considering the groups of significant loads;
- redistribution of moments between the sections of a beam and between the beams of a frame is
allowed by up to 20% based on their plastic deformation capacity while maintaining the effect of the
action on the whole;
- The bending resistance requirement is expressed with the relation: MEd / Mpl,Rd 1.0 - The
design torsional forces in beams VEd are determined from the balance of each opening under the transverse
loading from the seismic group and the moments at the ends of the beam, corresponding to each direction
of the action of forming the plastic joint in the beams, or in the vertical elements connected in the node. The
distance between plastic joints is determined according to this situation.
- The design forces are divided between the reinforced concrete component Vc,Ed and the structural steel
component Va,Ed in relation to their capable moments with the relations:
V c, Ed = VEd M pl,c,Rd / MRd
Va ,Ed = VEd M pl,a,Rd / MRd
- Capable vertical torsional forces are determined for each individual component as follows:
- for the reinforced concrete component with the relationships from SR EN 1992-1-1 respectively
A
sw
with the relation: INRdc,pl, fz ctg
ywd
s
The value of the angle is considered ctg =1 ( =45o ), z= 0.9 d ,
fywd =0.8 fywk - for1993-1-1

SR EN the steel component with the relations from
- The verification of strength is carried out on the components and on the whole for the composite section.
When checking the steel section, the coefficient of 0.5 is applied to reduce the capacity of resistance to
forging, respectively:
Va,Ed/ Vpl,a,Rd 0,5.
C 7.6.5.1 The conditions applied to the dissipative zones of composite steel beams with reinforced concrete
slabs follow:
- in the case of slabs in compressed areas, preserving the integrity of the reinforced concrete slab during the
seismic action by: - limiting, due to the ductility conditions, the relative height of the compressed concrete
area x/ h according to table 7.4;

- arrangement in the slab, in the area of the column, of additional reinforcements transverse to the
beam with the role of tensioner when transmitting the compressions from the slab to the column;
- in the case of slabs in extended areas, avoiding buckling of the compressed areas of the steel component by
choosing some sections in the first class of flexibility and by limiting the percentage of reinforcement in the
extended areas of the slab. A solution to avoid buckling of compressed slabs is to transform the bearing areas of
composite slab beams into BAR beam areas.
Determining the effective limit of the b plate from table 7.5 expressed in the vicinity of the nodes is useful in two
situations:
- determination of stiffness for elastic calculation;
- determination of the bending resistance capacity;
In the calculation of the bending moment, the following are of interest:
- the actual size of the board compressed at times
- the effective plate size in which the stretched reinforcements are considered active at negative moment. In this
case, it is important how to anchor the reinforcements stretched from the board, especially at the marginal nodes
(through welding, creating loops, etc.). ,
- in the field of composite beams for the calculation of the effective limit of the slab, the relation from SR EN
1994-1-1 can be considered, respectively bei = Le/8 where Le is the length of the positive moment area.
- in the bearing areas, the active lime at negative moment is in the same section greater than the active lime at
positive moment due to the greater restrictions that are imposed on the transmission of compressions from the
plate to the column than those applied to reinforcements located in extensive cracked areas.
- the active file at positive moment in the vicinity of the marginal nodes depends on the way in which the
transmission of compressions is ensured (directly to the column, if there is a plate in the cantilever
marginalin column,
front of the
beams or transverse edge elements)
The capable moments of composite steel beams with reinforced concrete slabs are determined by the simplified
method or by the general method.
C 7.6.5.2 The capable moments of reinforced concrete beams with rigid reinforcement are determined by the
simplified method or the general method.
The effective plate size is determined in accordance with 5.3.4.1.1, respectively 2hf on each side of the beam in
the case of external columns and 4hf in the case of internal columns.
The length of the dissipative zones is respectively lcr=1.5hb (hb - the height of the beam) measured from the
front of the BAR pillars or of the zones of the same length located apart from each other of a section of the beam
field.
The increase in the length of the dissipative zones in the beam fields at 3hb compared to the previous provisions
is due to the greater uncertainty of the extension of the flow zones in relation to the starting point.
Ensuring local ductility conditions in the dissipative areas of composite beams are those provided for in 5.3.4.1.2
for reinforced concrete beams and refer to ensuring minimum longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
coefficients, limiting the height
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114
the compressed area of the section and the distance between the stirrups. In the case of the steel component,
the conditions from 6.6.2 do not apply due to the embedment in concrete.
C 7.6.6 Reinforced concrete composite columns with rigid reinforcement (with the steel
section completely embedded in concrete)
C 7.6.6 The design efforts of the NEd , VEd, MEd pillar sections are determined on the
assumption of the development of the favorable mechanism for the dissipation of seismic energy
with the relations provided in article 5.3.3.3, taking into account the following factors:
- the overstrength factor of the beams M Rb

/M Edb
(in node or per level);
- the overstrength factor due to the strengthening effects of the steel in the beams Rd .
The values of the sectional efforts resulting from the structural calculation under seismic
loads will take into account the geometric imperfections and the 2nd order effects if these
effects are significant.
In the conditions in which the application of the method of directing the capacity of resistance to frames from
BAR can lead to over-dimensioning of columns, especially in buildings with few levels and
beams with large openings and gravity loads, to optimize the structure in these cases one of
the solutions can be used:
- carrying out redistributions, at a certain level, of the moments in the columns and
beams under the conditions of achieving the nodal balance and keeping the level
torsional force constant;
- creating beams with steel dissipative areas in the vicinity of the pillars by
disconnecting the plate from the steel beam on these areas;
- reduction of steel beams in the dissipative areas;
- making semi-rigid joints between the rigid reinforcement in the column and the
beam, provided that no unwanted plasticization of the node is formed; - the
appearance of plastic joints in certain pillars, provided that they exist
sufficient strong elements (pillars or walls) that prevent the appearance of unwanted
floor or node mechanisms.
The ductility condition that the calculated axial force must respect is :
n=NEd/ Npl,Rd = NEd / (Aa fyd +Ac fcd + As fsd) 0.3.
This condition from P 100-1 is taken from SR EN 1998-1 and is more restrictive than the
one given in NP033-99.
The ductility conditions related to the axial force of the columns can be relaxed in the case
of structures in frames with fixed nodes in combination with structures stiffened by horizontal
forces (with reinforced concrete walls or bracing).
The bending and bending resistance capacities of the composite columns are calculated as
the sum of the contribution of the steel section and the reinforced concrete section with the
relations from SR EN 1992-1-1 and SR EN 1993-1-1.
The force checks are carried out on the components by distributing the total design forces
between the components according to their moments capable of bending with axial force.
In the case of dissipative composite structures, the areas at the ends of the columns at each
level of length lcr are designed as dissipative (critical) areas for which measures are taken to
ensure the ductility of the reinforced concrete columns provided for in 5.3.4.2.2 respectively:
ensuring minimum coefficients of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement, limiting the height
of the compressed area of the section and the distance between stirrups, the conditions
regarding the arrangement of bars and stirrups in the section. A special menu refers to the
concrete covering of the rigid reinforcement which, in the case of BAR elements, must not be
less than 100mm so that longitudinal sliding failure does not become critical.
C 7.6.7 Columns made of pipe filled with concrete

C7.6.7 The columns of the EAV composition are made in the following variants:
- columns made of concrete filled with simple concrete or reinforced concrete;
- pillars made of pipe filled and embedded in reinforced concrete; -
pillars made of unfilled pipe embedded in reinforced concrete;
- reinforced concrete pillars embedded in steel pipe without continuity and, eventually,
with reduced adhesion between concrete and eav.
For the design of columns made of steel hollows filled with concrete or filled and embedded in concrete, the calculation
relations of the resistance to bending and forces given in SR EN 1994-1-1 can be used.
The particularities of these pillars are: - In the
case of circular pipe pillars, there is a favorable interaction between the steel pipe and the concrete core, which
manifests itself by increasing the compression resistance and the specific breaking deformation of the concrete in the
core due to the confinement, but also by reducing the flow resistance axial of the evii steel due to the radial stretching
to which it is subjected. The increase in compressive strength is considered in the calculation by the superunit
coefficient 1/0.85. These favorable influences are more significant at reduced axial force eccentricities e/ d < 0.1.
- The concrete core increases the force associated with the local buckling of the eaves. This positive influence is
expressed by the possibility of reducing the limit suppleness of concrete-filled steel ages in relation to steel ones.
- Concrete core reinforcement is useful in the following situations:
-
for increasing the resistance capacity of the composite pole; to ensure the load-
-
bearing capacity of the pole
gravitational forces associated with the action of fire;
-
to ensure the continuity and partial transfer of the resistance capacity between the composite
pillar and the reinforced concrete pillar in the case of hybrid structures;
- The transfer of stresses and deformations between the steel pipe and the concrete core necessary for the distribution
of the reactions applied only to the pipe is done by adhesion or, if it is not enough, by connecting elements: welded
mandrels, bars or profiles that cross the core. Compression resistance locally generated under gussets or stiffeners
will be determined with the relations from SR EN 1994-1-1:
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116
t ykf A c
fA cdc
c,Rd = 1fcd cL world
a f ck A 1
A 1
t is the thickness of the eaves wall,
a is the diameter of the hole or the size of the rectangular hole section
And is the area of the concrete section of the column;
A1 is the loaded area under the gusset Ac/A1<20
cL coefficient equal to 4.9 for circular piles and 3.5 for rectangular piles. In the case of pile
elements filled with concrete, the column's resistance to force is determined either by the
capacity of the steel component or by the capacity of the reinforced concrete confined by the steel pipe for a
grid pattern with lattices in which a compressed diagonal is formed inside the eaves. This model allows the
transversal reinforcement of the core to be taken into account in the case of piles filled with reinforced concrete.
C 7.6.8 Composite elements with steel section partially embedded in reinforced concrete C 7.6.8
Composite elements with steel section partially embedded in concrete are used for the advantages they have
in relation to steel columns, respectively:
- increasing the rigidity of the steel column by partially embedding it in concrete under the conditions
of keeping the gauge;
- partially preventing the buckling of the compressed areas of the hearts and feet. In the event that
cross-bars are welded, there is the possibility of reducing steel consumption by increasing the limit
flexibility by up to 50% under the conditions provided for in this paragraph;
- reduction of the surface that must be protected from fire;
- easy possibility of subsequent intervention on the non-integrated face of the floors;
The contribution to the flexural strength and to the strength of the embedding reinforced concrete is low and
therefore, as a rule, is neglected. If special measures are taken to mobilize the strength of the embedding
reinforced concrete by making transverse connections between the concrete and the steel beam, this strength
can be considered in the calculation.
In the case of composite columns with the steel section partially embedded in concrete, the verification of the
stress transfer between the steel loaded unilaterally by the reactions of the beams and the embedding concrete
leads, as a rule, to the obligation to have connectors or reinforcing bars welded to the heart of the steel profile .
The connectors contribute to the transfer of efforts through their ability to slide longitudinally PRd and through
the additional friction that they determine on the soles (1/2ÿPRd for each row of connectors and each sole).
C 7.6.9 Nodes of dissipative composite frames C 7.6.9 The
types of composite and hybrid nodes encountered in design practice are:

- reinforced concrete composite nodes with rigid reinforcement with BAR columns and beams;
- composite nodes with BAR columns and composite steel beams with plates;
- composite nodes with pipe columns filled with concrete and composite steel beams with reinforced concrete
slabs; - composite nodes with columns with steel section partially embedded in concrete and composite steel
beams with plates;
- hybrid nodes with BAR poles and reinforced concrete beams;
- hybrid nodes with columns from houses filled with concrete and reinforced concrete beams;
- hybrid nodes with columns with steel section partially embedded in reinforced concrete and reinforced concrete
beams;
- hybrid nodes with reinforced concrete columns and composite steel beams with plates or BAR.
The composite nodes in BAR are the nodes where each component (reinforced concrete and steel) of the
elements can directly transfer its efforts between beams and columns. In the conditions where the balance in the
node is respected for each of the components, the transfer between these components at the node level is
reduced.
The resistance capacity of the composite node is determined for a model with a diagonal system of efforts in
which both the rigid reinforcement and the reinforced concrete in the node participate.
The capacity of the composite node to force can be calculated by superimposing effects
with the real: Vwp,Rd = Vwp,c,Rd + Vwp,a,Rd
For the reinforced concrete component, the relationships from SR EN 1994-1-1 can be used, respectively:
Vwp,c,Rd = 0.85 Ac fcd sin

where
And = 0.8 (bc- tw) (h – 2tf) cos
= arctg [(h - 2tf) / z ]
bc is the lime of the concrete core;
h is the height of the pillar section; is the
tf thickness of the pillar base;
tw is the thickness of the core of the pillar;
With is the lever arm;
, reduction coefficient that takes into account the effect of longitudinal compression of the column at
from the column on the design strength of the heart panel shear =0.55[(1+2(Ned/
Npl,Rd))]1,1.
For the steel component of the Vwp,a,Rd node, sections 6.9 and 6.10 of chapter 6.6.3 of this code can be used.
The calculation shear forces in the node are shear forces associated with the plastic moments in the beams with
an overstrength coefficient Rd that ensures the protection of the node and the direction of the dissipative zones
to the beams.
Total calculation forces are determined with the relation:

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Vwp,Ed = Vwp,c,Ed + Vwp,a,Ed.
For the shear force transmitted by the reinforced concrete component Vwp,c,Ed, the relations from
chapter 5.3.3.4 will be used, respectively:
IN,, Edcwp VfAA

cydssRd1
2
For the shear force transmitted by the steel component Vwp,a,Ed, the relations from chapter 6.6.3 will
be used, respectively:
MM jRdpliRdpl
,, ,,
IN
,
Edwp Rd
h In
The node checks are carried out in terms of fortifying with the relation:
Vwp,Ed 0.8Vwp,Rd
The front connections of the rigid reinforcement of the column and the beam are recommended
to be made in areas of lower sectional stresses and not in front of the node.
All joints made with welding or screws between the elements of the node will have a resistance capacity
with a degree of assurance higher than 50% compared to the capacity of the elements that are joined,
according to relation 7.19.
When constructing the knot joint of the rigid reinforcement, the conditions for pouring and compacting
the concrete will be ensured: the horizontal stiffeners will be slightly developed and will be replaced by
vertical stiffeners. In the case of nodes with composite steel beams with reinforced concrete slabs, the
transmission of compressions and stretches from the upper fiber of the composite beams to the column
is done at the level of the reinforced concrete slab. These compressions depend on the composition of
the slab and the column in the node: whether or not there are beams or additional transverse elements
completely connected to the slab, if the slab surrounds the column, if the reinforcements are properly
anchored, if there are additional reinforcements in the immediate vicinity of the node to take the resulting
strains from the deviation of the path of compression efforts. All these elements condition the values of
the effective plate limit given in table 7.5.
The reactions of the composite steel beams with plates are transmitted to the concrete of the BAR
columns through local compressions on the cover concrete and by transfer from the rigid reinforcement
to the surrounding reinforced concrete. It is recommended that vertical concrete steel bars in the column
be welded to the beam bases to increase the capacity of the concrete to absorb these reactions.
In order to increase the capacity of the reinforced concrete component of the columns in the pipe filled
with concrete, the transfer of the reactions of the beams from the steel pipe to the concrete core will be
ensured over a transfer length equal to 2d or L/3 where d is the minimum size of the column and L
height of the level.
It is recommended for the same purpose, as elements of the beams: steel , the heart or the whole
section reinforcements to pass continuously through the concrete core of the
node. In the case of composite nodes with composite steel beams with BAR slabs and columns, the
reactions of the composite steel beams with reinforced concrete slabs are transmitted to the concrete
of the BAR columns by local compressions on the cover concrete and by transfer between the rigid
reinforcement and the surrounding reinforced concrete.
In the case of hybrid nodes with reinforced concrete columns and composite steel beams with plate,
these reactions of the composite beams are transmitted directly and exclusively to the concrete in the
node. In this case, it is recommended that the steel beam passes continuously through the node and
there are vertical concrete steel bars welded to the bottoms of the beams to increase the local
compression capacity of the reinforced concrete in the node.
In order to increase the strength capacity of the reinforced concrete component of the node in the
two situations above, it is recommended that the beam be provided with vertical stiffeners located on
the outer face of the column. In the area of the node, a suitable confinement will be provided with
stirrups (chap. 7.6.6) whose branches will pass, if necessary, through holes provided in the steel
elements of the node.
In the case of hybrid nodes with composite columns and reinforced concrete beams, the continuity
of the reinforcement of the beams through the column will be ensured. For this purpose, it is
recommended to increase the width of the beam in the area of the node to extend the surface for
directly taking over the reactions from the beam to the reinforced concrete component of the column
and to provide support seats for the concrete-filled tube columns.
Hybrid nodes are not recommended in areas with high seismicity due to the difficulty and uncertainty
of the transfer of efforts between the two components.
C 7.7 Design of composite frames with braces C7.7 Central

composite braces are usually made of concrete-filled slabs. These bracings, through their
increased rigidity, allow the dissipation of energy as stretched and possibly compressed
elements (as for example in the case of the diagonals in the steel plate embedded in a pipe
filled with concrete). In the case of eccentrically braced frames, the dissipative elements can be
areas of the composite beams (horizontal dissipative elements) or composite vertical elements
as a component part of the diagonals in V. The dissipation is carried out by torsion or bending
moment in the critical areas of these elements.
The composite elements of the frames: the columns and the composite beams will comply with
the corresponding provisions for these elements in this code.
The overstrength factors applied in the calculation of non-dissipative elements are
, determined
for the set of dissipative elements at a certain level of the frame or structure.
C 7.9 Designing structures with composite beams

C7.9 Composite walls are made up of composite elements such as: bulbs or composite catch
areas, composite belts, reinforced concrete field areas with rigid reinforcement in the form of
diagonals or steel panels, composite coupling beams.
The result is a rather broad typology of structures with pear composition, respectively:
- walls composed of reinforced concrete with rigid reinforcement with catch areas, belts and
field areas of BAR. Composite walls can be without gaps (or with small gaps that do not
influence the overall behavior) or coupled (with large gaps) by means of composite coupling
beams;
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- composite walls with BAR bulbs, with reinforced concrete field areas, with composite steel
coupling beams with plates;
- composite walls with steel end areas or steel section partially embedded in concrete and
reinforced concrete field areas; - reinforced concrete walls with composite or BAR coupling
beams.
Composite walls recommended for their favorable behavior to strong seismic actions are reinforced
concrete walls with rigid reinforcement, having the section with bulbs or soles at the ends or BAR
walls forming closed tubes.
The phenomena for which verifications are necessary in the case of composite walls are: -
Ensuring the takeover of slips between the end areas and the field areas.
The transfer of tangential forces between the areas at the ends and the reinforced concrete panel
of the heart of the wall will be realized through connectors, welded bars or passed through the
holes of the rigid armature of the column. In the case of BAR walls, the rigid reinforcement in the
belt has an important contribution in taking over this slippage.
- Ensuring the cooperation between the reinforced concrete and the rigid reinforcement in the
heart of the wall. Both on the surface of the diagonals and on the surface of the steel panels
embedded in the concrete in the heart of the wall, connectors are welded with the role of stabilizing
the steel element and mobilizing the concrete on either side of the rigid reinforcement. The solution
of replacing the diagonals made of laminated steel with a distributed diagonal reinforcement
welded to the frame formed by the rigid reinforcement of bulbs and belts represents a favorable
solution from the point of view of cooperation and the uniform taking over of the diagonal stress
fields in the heart of the wall.
C 7.9.1 Calculation of structures with composite walls
C7.9.1 Stiffnesses of composite walls can be calculated considering an equivalent reinforced

concrete section that takes into account the contribution of embedded rigid reinforcement. For the
composite walls, the area stretched by the concrete being cracked, the stiffness conferred by the
concrete decreases according to relations 7.23 and 7.24.
For the stiffness calculation, when checking the lateral displacements in the case of the service
limit state, the seismic action reduction factor, which takes into account its shorter
, andrecovery
the stiffness
period,
of the walls considering the cracked concrete will be considered.
The design sectional stresses of composite walls are determined to impose a favorable dissipation
mechanism with dissipative zones in the tie bars or beams adjacent to the wall and at the base of
the wall. For MEd design moments, the moment diagram from chapter 5.2.3.3.2 shall be considered.
The calculation of the bending capacity with axial force of the composite walls is usually carried
out by the general method with the help of automatic calculation programs due to the complexity
and variability of the input data. Regarding the bending calculation of long composite coupling
beams, the provisions of chapter 7.6.5 shall be observed.
The calculation of the strength of reinforced concrete composite walls with rigid reinforcement is
based on the lattice beam model in which the compressed diagonals that form in the heart of the
wall are made of reinforced concrete or BAR. This model can be
assimilated with the panel model reinforced in a frame formed by the end zones and the BAR
belts. The tensile strength of the rigid reinforcement in the heart of the wall overlaps with that of
the reinforced concrete panel.
The tensile failure of the composite walls is achieved by the failure of the compressed reinforced
concrete diagonal with the mobilization of the reinforcement in the heart of the wall. The ultimate
diagonal force is conditioned by the resistance capacity of the bulbs and the marginal belts. If the
diagonal crosses bulbs or inner belts of the wall, their resistance capacity contributes to taking
over the torsional force.
For the calculation of the strength resistance capacity of the reinforced concrete component of
the walls, the relations provided in SR EN 1998-1 can be used.
The strength check of the composition walls will be done with the relation: VEdVRd. In
the particular case of composite steel coupling beams with reinforced concrete slabs of some
reinforced concrete walls, the corresponding provisions of chapter 7.9.1 -(11)-(13) ensure the
transmission in good conditions of the reactions of the coupling beam (associated reactions
dissipation mechanism) in the catchment areas of reinforced concrete walls.
The ductility requirements in the dissipative zones at the base of the walls, the length of which is
determined with relations 5.18 and 5.19 of this code, are ensured if the requirements of SR EN
1998 -1 and those of this code are respected.
C 7.10 Designing the foundations of composite structures

In the conditions where the foundation system of composite structures is designed as a non-
dissipative system, the calculation forces are determined with an overstrength factor in relation
to the forces associated with the limit stage corresponding to the dissipation mechanism of the
superstructure. It is recommended to make rigid boxes at the level of the infrastructure, the
continuity and the appropriate anchoring of the reinforcements of the composite vertical elements.
The increase in rigidity at the level of basements is ensured, in general, by substantially increasing
the area of the composite walls in the basement compared to the superstructure.
The effects of the MFd, VFd, NFd action on the foundations are determined with relation 4.23 from chapter.
4.6.2.4. In order to take over in good condition the calculation efforts transmitted to the rigid
reinforcement foundations of the composite columns ( Ma,Fd , that Va,Fd,
its base
Na,Fdplate
), it is
benecessary
below the
theoretical embedment level. Anchoring in the foundation of the rigid reinforcement of the
columns is done at the height of the embedment by developing reactive pressures in the
surrounding concrete, through connectors or horizontal reinforcements passed through the holes
of the rigid reinforcement and through the anchor bolts at the level of the base plate.
In this way, the moment requirements, axial force and torsional force at the level of the base
plate are reduced in relation to the embedment section, resulting in a protection of this section.
The rigid reinforcement in the end zones of the walls is stretched and compressed practically
centrically to its full capacity. This results in relatively large forces that must be anchored in the
foundation system. The anchoring of the rigid reinforcement of the walls is done by adhesion,
sewing reinforcements passed through the holes in the rigid reinforcement and through the
anchoring screws at the level of the base plate. It is recommended that at the infrastructure level
there should be an extension of the composite walls in relation to the embedment section by
placing reinforced concrete or composite walls in continuation or adjacent to the composite wall
so that the forces from the rigid reinforcement can be distributed in good conditions to the
surrounding reinforced concrete .
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Bibliography
Ministry of Public Works and Territorial Development (1999), NP 033-99, Design code
for reinforced concrete structures with rigid reinforcement
SR EN 1992-1-1:2004 "Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Part 1-1: General
Rules and Rules for Buildings”
SR EN 1993-1-1:2006. "Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-1: General Rules
and Rules for Buildings"
SR EN 1994-1-1:2004 "Eurocode 4: Design of steel and concrete composite structures.
Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings"
SR EN 1998-1: 2003. "Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance. Part
1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings"
C 8. SPECIFIC PROVISIONS FOR MASONRY BUILDINGS
C 8.1 Generalities
C 8.1.1.Object and scope of

application C 8.1.1.(1) The main particularity of the design of masonry structures in
seismic zones results from the requirement that the structure be endowed with a
series of specific properties: ductility, energy dissipation capacity seismic, moderate
degradation of strength and stiffness under the effect of repeated alternating loads.
For this reason, the seismic design of masonry structures is conceptually different
from their design for dominant gravity loads for which safety is ensured only by
satisfying the resistance requirement obtained mainly by the compression resistance
of the masonry and mortar elements.
The seismic response of buildings is a complex phenomenon, difficult to schematize in a
sufficiently accurate calculation model, but also simple enough to be used, without particular
difficulties, in current design practice.
The size of the seismic forces depends, apart from the severity of the movement, expressed
by the acceleration of the ground, on the intrinsic properties of the building (stiffness,
damping, the level of stress from gravitational loads of the structural elements, etc.).
Another important particularity is that these characteristics can undergo important changes
during the earthquake depending on the intensity of the resulting demands.
The effects of the changes can manifest themselves favorably or to the detriment of
structural safety. For example, masonry buildings, characterized by small natural periods
(usually < 0.5÷0.6 s), are in the zone of maximum amplification of the acceleration spectrum
for all earthquakes (intermediate or shallow), but the degradation (cracking) of the masonry
leads to reducing the structural rigidity, which, for example, can move the structure away
from the area of maximum amplification. At the same time, the cracking is accompanied by
an increase in structural damping and, as a result, a decrease in the seismic force.
Repeated incursions into the post-elastic field, inherent in the case of strong earthquakes,
have the effect of degrading the rigidity, resistance and capacity to dissipate seismic
energy. Degradation phenomena are more important in the case of unreinforced masonry.
A B
Figure C 8.1. Hysteretic behavior (A) and degradation of strength and stiffness to repeated stresses (B)
[Tomazevic,M., Klemenc,I., Seismic Behaviour of Confined Masonry Walls Earthquake Engineering
and Structural Dynamics, vol.26, pp.1059-1071, 1997]
The sensitivities of the earthquake behavior of unreinforced masonry are highlighted by the
diagrams in figure C 8.1. and will be emphasized throughout this text, thus justifying the
recommendation to reduce the field of use of this constructive system.
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For the design of masonry panels reinforced in frames and non-structural walls, the provisions
of this Chapter are supplemented by the provisions of Chapter 10 of this Code.
C 8.1.1.(2) The provisions of this chapter must be respected, for all categories of masonry
construction elements, in correlation with the general principles of structural composition and
the rules of application detailed in CR 6. In particular, as regards regarding the design of
structures with structural masonry walls, it is a question of achieving the spatial character of
the structure by ensuring the cooperation, in all stress stages, of the walls on the main
directions of the building and the rigid planes. The spatial unit of the structure obtained in this
way is able to ensure the absorption of seismic stresses, whatever the direction in which they
act.
The efficiency of this collaboration has been verified by the satisfactory behavior of the
buildings that were designed in this way during the past earthquakes. Secondly, the favorable
effect of the regular composition in plan and elevation of the building should be mentioned.
The regularity in the plan favors the elimination / reduction of the effects of the overall twist.
The regularity in the elevation ensures, first of all, the uniformity of the resistance requirements
at the different levels of the building, eliminating the concentration of efforts that could result
from the deviation of the normal/direct route, towards the foundations, of the vertical and/or
horizontal forces. Buildings with structural regularity in plan and elevation also have the
advantage of being able to be analyzed with simple models and calculation methods.
The favorable construction rules established in CR 6, to which reference is made in this

Code, exploit the "natural" resistance reserves of masonry buildings with few levels and the
provisions for simple masonry buildings for which, according to the SR standard, are also
based on these EN 1998-1, chapter 9, it is not necessary to justify by calculation the
satisfaction of the requirement of resistance to the design seismic action.
The execution of masonry works is a fundamental condition for obtaining the safety levels
established by this Code and will be done in compliance with the technical regulations in
force regarding the execution of these works.
C 8.1.1.(6) Although the use of all the mentioned types of composition is allowed, it is
necessary that for each project, when choosing the type of composition, their qualities and
disadvantages must be taken into account, which can be summarized as follows:
A. Simple
masonry - Simple masonry (unreinforced) is a material capable of taking vertical loads
important.
- Due to the insignificant resistance to unitary stretching efforts, simple masonry
can be used for constructions where vertical and horizontal loads lead to reduced
sectional stresses resulting from unitary stretching efforts that can be neglected.
The characteristic failure by compression diagonal cracking from principal tensile
stresses is an illustration of this intrinsic deficiency.
- Under the combined effect of vertical and seismic loads, the breaking of
unreinforced masonry is of a fragile type, the physical integrity of the walls being
strongly damaged in the advanced stages of deformation.
- The capacity to dissipate seismic energy decreases as it increases

the intensity of the unit compression effort.
For the above reasons, to reduce the seismic risk of buildings with structural walls made of
unreinforced masonry, in this Chapter of P 100-1, the following measures were envisaged:
- The use of unreinforced masonry only for buildings with a small number of levels
above the embedment section and its prohibition in seismic areas with design
acceleration ag0.30g and for buildings of higher classes of importance.
- The introduction of a constructive system of reinforced concrete elements, vertical

and horizontal, with the aim of maintaining the integrity of the whole structure in
advanced stages of stress, under the effect of severe earthquakes.
- Determination of the equivalent static seismic force for small values of the behavior
factor q in order to limit the extent of incursions in the post-elastic field.
- Limiting the overresistance factor u/ 1 to 10% of the reference value

of the q factor .
B. Zidria armed
Reinforced masonry, as it is known today, is the result of the accumulation, over time, of the
practical experiences of associating fragile masonry with superior materials in terms of tensile
and compressive strength and ductility, and more recent theoretical developments.
In seismic areas, the use of reinforced masonry is recommended because the association with
steel gives the masonry the necessary properties to achieve superior seismic performance
(see also fig. C 8.1):
- ductility;
- seismic energy dissipation capacity;

- limitation of excessive degradation of strength and rigidity;
- maintaining, to a certain extent, the integrity of the walls after the production of a
severe earthquake.
Similar results can be obtained by combining masonry, through specific processes, with other
high-strength materials (fiber-reinforced polymers - FRP- and polymer grids, for example).
taking into account these qualities, this Code recommends the use of reinforced masonry in
advance, under one of the mentioned forms, establishing for them much wider fields of use
than for unreinforced masonry.
C 8.1.2. Reference documents

C8.1.2.(1) The technical regulations referred to in this chapter are those in force in Romania on
the date this version of P 100-1 was drawn up.
For the application of the provisions of this chapter, the designer must take into account all the
changes to the mentioned regulations that will be in force on the date of use of P 100-1.
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C 8.2.Component material
In order to assess the safety of masonry constructions, it is necessary to know its
mechanical strength and deformability characteristics in two significant moments:
- initial characteristics (at the time of finishing the work); - the

available features (at some point, during the life of a
construction).
The initial mechanical characteristics of masonry depend on three categories of factors:
- the mechanical and physical properties of the component materials, taking into account the
possible interactions between them (for example, the adhesion of the mortar to the
masonry elements); - the composition of the brickwork (the masonry); - quality of
workmanship.
In turn, the initial mechanical properties of the materials depend on: - the
quality of the raw material; - the manufacturing process (in the factory, for
the masonry elements, at the factory or at the warehouse for the mortar).
The available features, which are of particular interest for the expertise of existing buildings,
depend on:
- initial characteristics; - the
design provisions to ensure durability - the existence of
exceptional events during operation (earthquakes, fires), which required the masonry beyond
the effort limits considered in the design; - conditions of operation and maintenance after
execution.
All these factors have a very pronounced random character, which makes the mechanical
properties of the brickwork show a high degree of statistical variability. For example, from the
results of the experiments it follows that, in general, the properties related to adhesion (tensile
strength, initial shear strength), which have a decisive role for the resistance of masonry,
especially to seismic stresses, have a variability (spread) of even two times higher than the
compressive strength (which, in a limited view, is considered the most relevant property to
characterize the seismic performance of masonry).
The numerical values used in the technical regulations are most often values averaged over a
large number of tests and must be considered as such and, as the case may be, evaluated by
engineering judgement. This statement is illustrated by representing the results of tests to
determine the modulus of elasticity of the masonry and the resistance to bending perpendicular
to the plane. From figure C 8.2 it follows that in many cases the value adopted in the norms is
very far from the results obtained through tests.
(a) (b)
Figure C 8.2. Distribution of test values by masonry

(a) Ranges of variation of the modulus of elasticity for different types of mortar [Kaushik, HB,
Durgesh, CR, Jain, SH Stress-Strain Characteristics of Clay Brick Masonry under Uniaxial
Compression Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering © ASCE September 2007]
(b) Domeniile de variaie ale rezistenelor la încovoiere perpendicular pe plan [Lourenço, PB, Palácio,
K., Prieto, F. Implementation of a constitutive model for masonry shells as a stand-alone
subroutine Report 02-DEC/E-13 Universidade do Minho, Department of Civil Engineering,
2002 ]
C8.2.(1) In the current conditions of development of the industry of masonry elements and mortars and considering the
diversity of masonry execution techniques, the quality conditions and mechanical characteristics of the component materials
and of the masonry made with them must be established based on the tests carried out in a specific program to define the
values necessary for the design of masonry structures in seismic areas. These tests must be carried out using the procedures
established in the European standards adopted in Romania (SR EN). In addition, for certain characteristic demands (for
example, shear forces) the tests must illustrate as accurately as possible the stress state specific to the seismic action. In
this sense, the quasi-static tests with increasing alternating forces or the tests of models at a natural or conveniently reduced
scale, on seismic platforms that highlight the specific characteristics of the seismic response, are eloquent:
dissipation of seismic energy;
degradation of the strength and rigidity of the masonry
C8.2.(2) The values of the masonry properties must be based on the relevant results of a sufficiently large number of tests
that substantiate, with an appropriate degree of confidence, the mechanical characteristics and other properties necessary
for the design of masonry structures (in particular constitutive law -). As regards the values established by tests, they must
refer to similar products and must be carried out within a project or existing in a foreign database. For these tests, it is
necessary to know and validate the testing methodology and the interpretation of the results, taking into account the specific
conditions of stressing the masonry under the effect of seismic action (see, for example, the differences between the
methodologies used in Europe and in the USA for determining the resistance in shear and the modulus of elasticity). In the
case of elements for masonry, by similar products is meant, for example, elements having approximately the same values of
the dimensions, the volume of voids, the thickness of the inner and outer walls of the blocks with vertical voids, the same
profile of the vertical joints (in the case of elements with type joints "nut i feder"), etc.
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and which are put into operation, as a rule, in quality conditions similar to the average level of
workmanship in Romania.
Masonry made with elements with special shapes that allow vertical and/or horizontal
reinforcement (fig. C 8.3) is not currently used in Romania, although they present a large
number of advantages, in particular by increasing the resistance to force and increasing the
ductility .
(a) Elementally din argil ars (b) Elements of BCA

Figure C 8.3. Internally reinforced masonry (with specially shaped elements)
Regarding the use of special mortars (light mortar, mortar for thin joints), their production and
use technologies are not yet assimilated into current practice in Romania and, as such, their
use must be made only on the basis of the manufacturers' instructions and on the responsibility
them on the expected performances of the masonry (in particular regarding the earthquake
behavior).
C8.2.(3). The provisions of these paragraphs take into account the following considerations:
The designers and executioners must know exactly the properties of the materials used
for masonry. For this reason, all the data necessary for the design and execution of
masonry construction elements must be accessible
them.
For the design of masonry construction elements according to this Code and CR 6,
additional information is needed compared to that provided as mandatory in the CE
marking (constitutive law - for masonry, for example).
All this information must be communicated transparently so that the designers and
executioners can easily dispose of it in order to draw up the project specifications in
accordance with the provisions of CR 6, Annex I and for the purchase and
commissioning of only the products conforming to the specifications.
On the construction materials market, there is currently a very large number of products
originating both from the countries of the European Community and from outside it. For
this reason, there is a possibility that the information regarding their physical-mechanical
characteristics is based on test procedures that are different from those adopted in the
European Union and in Romania (SR EN standards).
As such, the responsibility for the accuracy of the information contained in the
databases made available to the designers and executions rests with the suppliers
(producers or importers) and the laboratories that tested the respective properties.
C8.2.(4) In this edition of P 100-1, the provisions of P100-1/2006 regarding the minimum
strength conditions of masonry elements and mortars considered individually (for fb,min
elements and for mortar ) have been replaced Mmin) with minimum resistance conditions
for masonry (in the wall).
This change takes into account the fact that the resistances of the masonry are the ones that
intervene directly in the calculations for the design of building safety:
compressive strength with the values corresponding to the actions perpendicular to the
opening joint (fk) and parallel to the opening joint (fkh)
tensile strength for sliding failure in horizontal joint (fvk0)
bending strength perpendicular to the plane of the wall (fxk1, fxk2)

Regarding mortars, the strength requirements are taken into account, separately, only from the
point of view of the durability requirements established in CR 6.
C 8.2.1. Special requirements for masonry elements

C8.2.1.(1) The products mentioned in the text represent, practically, all the elements for masonry
currently used in Romania and for which there is a significant experience of production, of putting
into operation and, in many cases, regarding their behavior to severe earthquakes. The provisions
of CR 6 and those of this Code have in mind, first of all, the design of masonry structures with
these elements.
The geometric and mechanical characteristics of the mentioned elements are, practically in their
entirety, in the requirements of the SR EN 1996 and SR EN 1998-1 standards and, as a result of
the assimilation of the respective European standards as national standards (SR EN 771 series),
they are usable only together with these.
C8.2.1.(2) Special regulations are required for masonry with silico-limestone or concrete elements,
as well as for stone masonry, because the existing information, necessary for the seismic design
of the masonry made with them, is incomplete or irrelevant. An important specific experimental
research effort is needed, both at the level of the respective elements and, especially, at the level
of the structural elements (structural walls) of this type of masonry. The retrieval, without
verification, of the values from the data banks from abroad was not considered acceptable for the
development of this chapter of P 100-1.
C8.2.1.(3) The lack of robustness of the elements is manifested by premature degradation

both in the case of reinforced panels and even in the case of reinforced masonry in the horizontal
joints (see also chapter C 10).
Figure C 8.4. Brittle failure details for masonry with reinforced vertical hollow elements
[Tomazevic, M., Bosiljkov, V., Lutman, M Masonry research for Eurocodes, Meeting
CIB W023, Wall structures, Padova 2003]
Limiting void volume to 50% aims to prevent the use of elements with large voids (clay or concrete
elements) which are usually used in non-seismic areas. The provision regarding the continuity of
the internal walls of the masonry element draws attention to the additional efforts that result if
they do not have continuity in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the wall. In case of lack
of continuity (figure C 8.5) the compression forces that develop in the plane
Machine
130
of the masonry wall produce the bending of the internal ribs of the element normal to the
plane of the wall.
Figure C 8.5 Eforturi suplimentare în pereii elementelor de zidrie cu goluri vertical [Tubi, N.
i alii Influence of short-term cyclic stresses on the mechanical performance of masonry
University of Ancona Institute of Science and Construction Techniques & Consorzio
Alveolater 1999]
The practical reasons for imposing restrictive conditions for the use of these elements in
seismic areas with high accelerations include, among others, considerations related to the
lack of practical possibilities to repair/consolidate specific damages (expulsion of external
walls and cracking of internal ones).
For this reason, CR 6 establishes the specific conditions for the design of structures and
non-structural elements with elements for masonry made of burnt clay with vertical voids
made during casting.
C8.2.1.(6) The limitation of the field of use of masonry with elements with horizontal gaps
as filler panels for structures in frames provided for in this paragraph (they are a constructive
solution widely used in some countries in Europe and Latin America), is due the fact that it
showed an unsatisfactory behavior even in some earthquakes of moderate intensity
(Bingol, Turkey, 1999, for example - figure C 8.6).
The extremely fragile behavior and low resistance of elements with horizontally arranged
perforations was also confirmed by other researches [Alcocer, SM, Aguilar, G. and Cano, G.
Determination of the mechanical properties of Vintex, Multex and Aremax extruded bricks Report
ES/01/95 CENAPRED, Mexico, March 1995] as a result, in several Latin American countries, the
use of elements with horizontal perforations in structural walls is not allowed.
The l'Aquila earthquake (Italy, 2009) showed the inappropriate behavior of elements with
horizontal gaps used in masonry panels reinforced in reinforced concrete frames.
Figure C 8.6. Destruction of masonry infill panels from elements with horizontal gaps
(Bingol, Turkey 1999)
C8.2.1. (8) The acceptance of the use of category II masonry elements, which are
characterized by a high variability of the mechanical properties of resistance and stiffness,
and therefore by a possible failure to meet the declared resistances, is an exception
allowed only for construction elements for that this risk is relatively low and can be accepted:
the structural walls of the buildings of importance exposure classes III and IV
in the areas where the share of efforts from the earthquake is relatively small
in the whole of the demands (areas with ag 0.15g); outbuildings and temporary
constructions in all seismic zones.
The possibility of using these elements, under the stated conditions, also has positive
economic effects because it allows the use of a large number of elements that, for
various technological reasons, did not meet the requirements to be included in
category I (they are avoided ).
The decrease in the safety level resulting from the use of elements whose characteristic
strength is defined with a higher probability of failure (the masonry elements of
category II, for which the probability of not reaching the declared compressive strength
is > 5%) is partially compensated by increasing the value of the safety coefficient for
the material, from = 1.9 used for the current cases of masonry
M elements,
with category
to = 2.2I for
masonry with category II elements. Through this provision, M it
average
is estimated
safetythat
level
the
obtained is approximately the same for masonry with elements from both classes.
Since the SR EN 771 standards do not define the upper limit of the probability of
failure (respective quantile), in order to be able to evaluate, on this basis, the level of
safety, it was considered appropriate to limit the use of elements from category II to
buildings of lower importance classes and to seismic zones with reduced accelerations
and the increase of the material coefficient
M.
C 8.2.2. Special requirements for

mortars C8.2.2.(1) The code contains provisions both for the use of masonry mortars
for general use (G) and mortars for thin joints (T) defined in CR 6, according to the SR
EN 998-2 standard.
Mortars for thin joints (T) defined in accordance with CR 6 are used for masonry with
BCA elements and for masonry made with fired clay elements with specially processed
aeration sheets (the processing can be done at the manufacturer or at the workshop).
It should be noted that the use of mortars for thin joints, between 0.5 ÷ 3.0 mm,
practically eliminates the possibility of placing round concrete steel reinforcements in
the horizontal joints, a constructive solution that is an advantageous method of
increasing the strength and ductility of masonry walls. In this case, only specially
produced steel reinforcements, with very small thickness, polymer grids or composite
materials (FRP) can be used for reinforcement, i.e., in general, strictly specialized
products with a very small distribution area on the market (and probably with high costs).
The use of glue -type mortars eliminates in most cases the need to reinforce the joints
due to the superior resistance to compression and, above all, due to the adhesion
which can even reach 2 N/mm2 . In order to be associated
effective, these
with mortars
elementsmust
withbe
high
compressive strength ( roughly fb 15 N/mm2 )
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132
(a) Steel rebars (b) Meshes of polymer grids (c) FRP products
Figure C 8.7. Reinforcement of thin joints
Compliance with the provisions of the SR EN 998-2 standard ensures both the
achievement of the mechanical properties specified in the project and the durability
properties corresponding to the environmental conditions of the site/masonry element. In
the case of masonry mortars for general use (G), manufacturing based on the reet
concept, i.e. the possibility of associating a standard composition (cement/lime/sand)
with a certain average strength of the mortar (M), involves performing demanding checks
regarding :
- compliance of the component materials with the respective standards;
- the accuracy of the dosage of the components; - compliance with the
rules regarding mixing and keeping fresh mortar.
If these technological conditions are not strictly respected, there is a high probability of
not achieving the resistance and the other specified properties (especially the adhesion
to the masonry elements). To avoid these situations, the recent editions of the American
regulation ACI 530 correlate the composition recommendations (recipe) with the
performance requirements (strength specification).
C8.2.2.(2). Special attention must be paid to the cases in which the masonry is executed
with mortars prepared on site. Masonry elements (bricks, burnt clay or concrete blocks)
are manufactured in industrial facilities, usually under strict quality control imposed by
the regulations in force. In most cases, however, the binding mortar has only modest
performances and especially with a high level of variability (inhomogeneity). In this
situation, the values of the mechanical characteristics that are given in the literature
should only be considered as informative, not being practically reached, systematically in
the masonry work. More realistic values could be obtained from a database, based on a
large/very large number of tests carried out in the average operating conditions
characteristic of the level of execution in Romania.
Comparing the values resulting from tests with those given in the literature can lead to a
more realistic assessment of the designed safety level.
The SR EN 998-2 standard specifies that previously prepared mortars do not fully
correspond to its provisions. As such, at the moment, the only applicable regulations for
the preparation of anti-aircraft mortars are Instructions C 17-82. These instructions are
technically outdated because, in the interval from their elaboration until now, new
materials have appeared (cements, additives) that have other properties than those
considered when drafting C 17-82.
The preparation of the mortar at the site, in the absence of adequate means of dosing
and quality control of the materials and the mixture, implies the acceptance of a high
level of uncertainty regarding its mechanical properties. The effect of these uncertainties
on the strength of the masonry is more important if mortars with high strength are
foreseen (it is considered that the realization of
mortars with resistance M10 present a high level of uncertainty and for this reason it
is not allowed by CR 6). For this reason, in this Code and in CR 6, the adoption of a
higher safety factor for the masonry executed with these mortars ( M = 2.5 for the
fundamental grouping and M = 2.2 for the seismic grouping) was considered and it
was foreseen their use only for buildings of lower importance classes and in areas
with weak/moderate seismic acceleration.
C 8.2.3. the brickwork

C8.2.3.(2) The provision regarding the complete filling of vertical joints between
masonry elements in buildings located in seismic zones is found in the technical
regulations of most countries with a seismic regime similar to that of Romania.
Although there are several inconveniences related to the filling of vertical joints,
among which the reduction of productivity during execution and the reduction of
thermotechnical performance in the case of elements with thin walls, the filling of
vertical joints is justified, both from the point of view of structural strength and from
other considerations (preventing moisture penetration to external walls, fire resistance).
Although there are several attempts to identify the specific failure mode under the
effect of alternating cyclic loading of masonry panels with unfilled vertical joints and
to establish an appropriate design procedure, the results obtained so far are not
conclusive and do not present a satisfactory degree of confidence.
In CR 6, in correlation with SR EN 1996-1-1, it was established that the provisions

relating to the determination of the characteristic compressive strength of the masonry
(and implicitly to all its associated characteristics) are valid only in the conditions
where the vertical joints of the masonry are filled with mortar. This provision also
takes into account the fact that in the case of unfilled vertical joints, the technical
regulations and in particular SR EN 1996-1-1 provide for a significant reduction in
the tensile strength of the masonry (in other words, they recognize the importance of
filling the vertical joints for good behavior during actions sides). Thus, the shear
strength for zero compressive stress (fvk0) of masonry with unfilled vertical joints is
estimated in SR EN 1996-1-1 at about 50% of the strength of masonry with completely
filled vertical joints, with the additional note that the reduced value is accepted only if
the joined elements are in direct contact. The requirement for direct contact, which
ensures the direct transmission of forces parallel to the horizontal joints of the
masonry and a minimum frictional force that opposes shearing in the scale, is
obviously conditioned by the correctness/precision of the execution. taking into
account the average level of masonry execution in Romania, and the need to ensure
a behavior corresponding to earthquake forces, this hypothesis cannot be accepted.
For the above reasons in CR 6 and in this chapter of P 100-1 the obligation to
completely fill the vertical joints was imposed.
C8.2.3.(3), C8.2.3.(4) Masonry elements designed to be joined with "nut i feder/lamb
i uluc" type mechanical connections present extremely different geometric
characteristics, specific to each product/producer. Figure C 8.8 illustrates only a few
cases of those encountered on the market of masonry elements.
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134
Figure C 8.8. Various "nut i feder" type

profiles Depending on the geometry of the vertical faces that are in contact, the resistance
to bending perpendicular to the plane of the wall (with a fracture plane perpendicular to
the horizontal joints) can have values that vary within very wide limits, from a product to another.
Since these values can only be evaluated experimentally, for each type of product separately,
in CR 6 and in this chapter of P 100-1, it was stipulated that the respective resistances must be
communicated by each producer, in the technical file of the product, based on own tests and
under the conditions provided for in CR 6. In the case of masonry elements from BCA in
accordance with the provisions of the SR EN 771-4 standard, reproduced below, the producer
is obliged to communicate the fxk1 and fxk2 values:
The declaration must give the characteristic bending strength of the

masonry in the plane of failure perpendicular to the expansion joints
or in a plane parallel to the expansion joints or both as relevant
together with the specification of the mortar for which the declaration
is valid
C 8.2.4. Minimum characteristic resistances of masonry to compression, shear

and bending
The characteristic strengths of the masonry for all demands will be established, as a general
rule, on the basis of the tests carried out by the producers of elements and mortars in accordance
with the test procedures and the interpretation of the results given in the standards of the SR
EN 772, SR EN 1015 and SR series EN 1052. The suppliers are obliged to declare all the
values of the mechanical characteristics that are necessary for the calculation of the masonry
construction elements according to the provisions of this Code and of CR 6. In the absence of
this declaration, the calculation will be made using the values established in CR 6. The geometric
characteristics and mechanical properties of the materials considered in the design are given in
synthetic form in a fi (specification) drawn up according to Annex A to CR 6.
The provision in projects of the minimum residences does not eliminate the designer's obligation
to verify by calculation the satisfaction of the safety conditions according to the provisions of this
Code and of CR 6 (with the exception of simple brick buildings).
C8.2.4.(1) Establishing the minimum compressive strength of masonry walls takes into account
the fact that its value cannot be defined by a single parameter (fb) but, in accordance with the
calculation methodology established by SR EN 1996-1 -1 and taken over in CR 6, depends on a
large number of parameters that can be set independently by the designer:
the compressive strength of the elements (fb and fbh) ;

the compressive strength of the mortar (M* ); type of
mortar (for general use - G - or for thin joints - T -);
construction method (with or without longitudinal

joints); treatment of vertical butt joints (filled / with mortar loca / nut and feder).
The minimum values established in this Code for the characteristic compressive strength
perpendicular to the aeration joints (fk) - table 8.2 depend on:
building height (number of levels above the embedment section);

acceleration of the land for design (ag) at the location of the importance-
exposure class of the building.
These minimum values of the characteristic compression resistance will be used only in the
design of buildings in the importance classes - exposure III and IV. For buildings of importance
classes II and I, the minimum values in the table will increase by 0.5 N/mm2 and 1.0 N/mm2 ,
respectively .
The use of the minimum values of the strength of the masonry instead of the minimum values
of the strength of the components (elements and mortars) is justified by the fact that due to
the method of composition and the type of materials used (elements and mortars) the
resistances of the masonry calculated with the specific relations from CR 6 (taken from SR
EN 1996-1-1) vary within very wide limits as can be seen from figure C 8.9.
Figure C 8.9. The variation of the characteristic resistance to compression depending on the type of
elements and the mortar and the method of installation
The minimum value of the characteristic resistance to compression (fk= 2.0N/mm2 ) adopted
for buildings with P+2E in areas with low and moderate seismicity (ag0.15g) corresponds to
the minimum requirements for the constituent materials recommended in the SR EN 1998-1
standard ( fb,rec= 5.0 N/mm2 and M5 mortar). We underline the fact that the value fk = 2.0 N/
mm2 also allows the use of masonry elements with fb values <5N/mm2 , as shown in figure
C 8.10. For buildings with one or two above-ground levels, values 15% lower than the
reference value (fk = 2.0 N/mm2 ) are accepted in areas with reduced seismicity
The strength of the mortar provided in the project to obtain a certain value of the characteristic
strength of the masonry, in accordance with the requirements in table 8.1, must be lower, at
most equal to twice the strength of the specified masonry elements (see CR 6).
Machine
136
Figure C 8.10. Chart for choosing masonry materials
By establishing minimum values of the brickwork, there is the possibility of choosing different
compositions that can present advantages from other points of view (fire resistance, thermal
insulation, sound insulation, etc.).
Keeping this margin in relation to the minimum value of the unitary compression effort favors
obtaining comparable conditions of ductility and energy dissipation (we remind you that the
simple comparison of the unitary compression efforts is irrelevant in the case of seismic
demands!).
The minimum values established in table 8.2 of this Code take into account, first of all, the
following requirements:
ensuring the necessary resistance to main compression efforts on the inclined

section under the simultaneous effect of vertical loads and the horizontal action of
the earthquake;
protecting the integrity of reinforced masonry panels in reinforced concrete frames in

the interface areas (avoidance of local crushing); for this purpose, the minimum
necessary values are established by the designer, in each individual case, based
on the calculation requests.
The values are differentiated according to the design seismic acceleration and the height
regime of the building. The values are calibrated taking into account the expected lateral
deformations of the respective structures designed in accordance with the provisions of this
Code. For buildings with higher performance objectives (of importance classes I and II), the
minimum values are increased accordingly .
C8.2.4.(6) The minimum values of the characteristic bending strengths perpendicular to the
plane of the wall (N/mm2 ) for masonry with type (G) and (T) mortars are used for the design
of non-structural walls and masonry panels reinforced in frames under the action charges
defined in CR 6, art.1.3.3. Considering the particularities of these loadings, the establishment
of a minimum value of the compression resistance of the elements (fb,min) has no relevance
for the calculation of the capable moment of the wall. The fxk1 and fxk2 resistances depend
on the properties of the mortar and in particular on its adhesion to the masonry elements.
The analysis of the breaking mode of the walls required by forces perpendicular to the plane
shows an obvious correlation between the qualities of the elements and those of the mortar.
In particular, the combination of a high-strength mortar with weak elements will lead to failure
by breaking the element. Inverse
for weak mortars, the break occurs through the joint (mortar yielding in the case of
normal joints or peeling in the case of thin joints). Currently, the characterization of
the mortar's resistance is done by the value of the compression resistance, a
quantity that can be easily determined by laboratory tests, on cubes or cylinders.
From the tests presented below, it results that, in the absence of data on the
adhesion to the masonry elements, the specification in the projects only of the
compressive strength is not enough to fully define the quality of the mortar.
Information about both characteristics (compressive strength and adhesion) is
necessary because, depending on the composition of the mortar, the ratio between
compressive strength and adhesion can vary within very wide limits. For high
dosages the ratio is 30 ÷ 40 and for weak mortars the ratio is only 5, as shown in
figure C 8.11a. [Clay Brick and Paver Institute Masonry Teaching Manual, Australia
2002]
Research has also shown that this relationship is also influenced by the water/cement ratio of the mixture -
figure C 8.11b [Isberner, A Properties of Masonry Cement Mortars Designing, Engineering and Constructing
with Masonry Products, F. Johnson, Ed., Gulf Publishing.
Houston Tx.1969].
Increasing the water/cement ratio, which favors workability, has two contradictory
consequences:
decreasing the compressive strength of the mortar;
increasing adherence.
(a) (b)
Figure C 8.11. Variation of compressive strength and adhesion depending on the a/c ratio
The bending resistance of the masonry perpendicular to the plane is also influenced by several
factors:
bending resistance of masonry elements; the tensile

strength (adhesion) of the mortar in the vertical joints; the ratio of
masonry; quality of execution (correct/complete filling of vertical joints).
Due to the many factors that generate the anisotropy of the masonry, the bending strength
ratio =fx2/ fx1 varies within particularly wide limits (see also figure C 8.3).
Thus for masonry with fired clay elements in [Baker, LR The Lateral Strength of Brickwork- An Overview Proceedings
of the Sixth International Symposium on Loadbearing Brickwork, London, 1977 ] and in [Lawrence, S Flexural Strength
of Brickwork Normal to and Parallel to the Bed Joints, Journal of The Australian Ceramic Society, Vol.11 May 1975]
values within very wide limits =1.5÷8.0 are indicated. The justification of these divergent results consists, above all, in
Machine
138
the existence of two fracture schemes in the case of bending with a fracture plane
perpendicular to the relief joints: fracture only through zigzag joints (on a longer route) or
fracture through vertical joints and elements.
Figure C 8.12. Breaking the brickwork from bending with a breaking plane perpendicular to the joints
Placing
As shown in [Drysdale, RG, Hamid, AA, Baker, LR Masonry Structures. Behavior and Design Printice
Hall, 2008] the variation of the ratio depends on several factors that influence, in particular, the value of
the resistance fx2:
The strength of masonry elements in relation to the adhesion strength of the mortar.
The void percentage of the masonry elements.

The value of the unitary vertical compression efforts.
The ratio of the dimensions of the masonry elements (length/height), especially in the
case of solid bricks.
In the conditions in which, at present, various types of elements are available for the
construction of the masonry, which differ, among others, by the length/height ratio, the
evaluation of the influence of this factor assumes a major importance for the most accurate
calculation of the resistance of the walls required by loads perpendicular to the plane .
The graph in figure C 8.13 [Hamid,AA, Effect of Aspect ratio of the Unit on Flexural Strength of Brick
Masonry Journal of Masonry Society, vol.1. no.1 1981] illustrates this important effect and thereby draws
attention to the need to continue research on this subject.
Figure C 8.13. Variation of the ratio = fx2/ fx1 depending on the

ratio of the dimensions of the masonry elements
If the masonry is simultaneously subjected to bending in both directions, a resistance capacity

higher than that determined for bending in one direction (vertical/horizontal) results. In the
current design the favorable effect of this interaction is neglected. In [Brencich, A., Gambarotta
L
. Mechanical response of solid clay brickwork under eccentric
loading. Part I: Unreinforced masonry. Materials and Structures, RILEM 38(276), 2005] based on the
test results, a parabolic relation is proposed to describe the breaking conditions under the effect of
bending in two directions.
2 2
1x 2x 1
f 1x,r 2x,r
where:
x1 i x2 are the unit stretching efforts in the masonry;
fr,x1 and fr,x2 are the tensile breaking strengths in the two directions.
The same paper shows that vertical compressive stresses increase the resistance capacity both vertically
and horizontally. In the case of non-structural walls and filler panels in frames, this increase represents
about 20÷25%. The increase in the capable moment due to the effect of own weight was also taken over in
CR 6.
The values indicated in table 8.5 of this Code are based on previous experience in Romania and on the
recommendations of SR EN 1996-1-1.
C 8.2.5. Concretes
C8.2.5.(1) Simultaneously with the establishment of the concrete strength class for the correct execution of
reinforced masonry, it is important to choose the appropriate consistency class (workability) because in the
vast majority of cases the reinforced concrete elements associated with the masonry have small dimensions
(pillars and the central layer of the ZIA) and there are not always possibilities for effective vibration and
control of concrete compactness. In the case of columns cast in stepped masonry, the complete penetration
of the concrete is an essential condition for achieving the collaboration between the two materials and is
achieved, mainly by providing a concrete with an appropriate consistency. For this reason, the consistency
class of the concrete must be specified in the projects (plans, specifications) for the different categories of
elements. CR 6 contains indications regarding the choice of concrete workability for different elements.
Figure C 8.14. Molding defects in the pillars (the lack of steps is also noticeable)
C 8.2.6. Armature
C8.2.6.(2) The provision is similar to the one in CR 2-1-1.1 and takes into account the brittle nature of the
breaking of cold-worked steels (drawn wire).
C 8.3. Buildings with structural masonry walls

C 8.3.1. Types of structural masonry walls
The provisions of P 100-1 in consideration of:
- The mechanical characteristics of the elements for brickwork made of fired clay and from
BCA i of mortars currently used in Romania, i.e.:
Machine
140
* elements for masonry with standardized resistance, defined according to SR

EN 771-1/SR EN 771-4, fb 15 N/mm2 ;
* mortars with medium strength, defined according to SR EN 998-2, lower than 15N/mm2
or mortars prepared in the air (which do not fully satisfy the provisions of SR EN 998-2).
- The average level of execution quality in Romania.
C8.3.1.(2) Casting of the reinforced concrete vertical elements can be done after the full execution
of the masonry of one level (procedure used, as a rule, for columns) or as the masonry is raised
(procedure used for masonry with reinforced core).
Casting of the belts is done only after the execution of the masonry up to the final elevation. Due to
these conditions, the behavior of the confined masonry under the effect of vertical and horizontal loads
is totally different from the behavior of filler panels reinforced in concrete or steel frames.
In the case of masonry with elements with a row height of 150 mm, the provisions of CR 6 regarding
the modulation of the masonry by height, aim to avoid some compromise solutions, often found on the
antieras of the ar (but also of the strintata) where, on the upper part of the wall , additions are made
with elements of a different height and even of a different type.
Obviously, in this composition, you cannot count on the cooperation between the masonry and the
concrete elements, neither in the case of the structural (load-bearing) masonry nor in the case of the
reinforced masonry panels.
Figure C 8.15. Unmodulated masonry panel, completed with another type of masonry elements
C 8.3.2. Conditions of use

C8.3.2.(1) For the establishment of the structural calculation model, it is considered that the embedding
section of the assembly of structural walls for the calculation of horizontal forces (the section in relation
to which the number of levels is defined) is above the assembly of structural elements that transmit
on the ground the demands of the structural walls.
In other words, in the concept of CR 6 and this Code, the embedment section can also be defined as
the section where the potential plastic areas of the walls are directed/located. In the particular case of
buildings with a masonry structure, the embedment section will
two:
- in the case of buildings without a basement: at the upper level of the plinths;
- in the case of buildings with a basement: * at the plane above the basement,
in buildings with thick walls ( honeycomb system) or in those with rare walls ( cellular system)
where, to increase the spatial rigidity, additional walls in the basement have been
provided, according to recommendations from CR 6; * above the level of the foundations,
in buildings with thin walls, where they were not foreseen
additional pears in the basement.
C 8.3.2.1. Conditions of use for structures with unreinforced masonry walls
C8.3.2.1.(1) See also comment C8.1.1.(3).

C8.3.2.1.(2) In order to satisfy these requirements, it is first of all necessary to adopt
some architectural parts with regularity in plan and elevation, which also ensures
the conditions of structural regularity.
The regularity conditions follow, first of all, the achievement of a direct and clear route of the
vertical and horizontal loads to the foundations and ensuring the spatial cooperation between the
masonry walls on the two directions and between the wall and the plane in all stress phases.
For this purpose, it is necessary to carry out the following constructive measures:
- ensuring the connections between the available walls on both main directions of
buildings;
- the provision of continuous foundations under the walls and the connection of the walls to
the foundations (avoiding the sliding of the wall on the foundation); - ensuring the
connection between the walls and the constructively arranged belts at the level of each
plane; - the provision of rigid planes in the horizontal plane (recommended also in the
case of the last level); - in the case of buildings with arpant, anchoring it to the belts from
the last one
level;
- anchorage of the walls in the cantilever above the last level (heels,
frontoane).
The reduced height regime that is foreseen in the Code (23 levels above the embedment
section) ensures, for the minimum wall thickness, unitary compression efforts in the range of
0.3fd0.5fd. At the same time, for locations with low and/or moderate design seismic acceleration
(approximately ag0.15g), the tangential forces in the horizontal joints of the masonry remain at
low values if the minimum constructive areas of the masonry provided for in the Code are
achieved.
The mechanical properties of structures with unreinforced masonry walls are largely influenced
by the execution conditions and, in particular, by:
- the ratio of beings; -

using the same type of elements and the same type of mortar for all walls
a level;
- simultaneous execution of the walls on both main directions; - making
horizontal mortar joints with thicknesses between 8 and 15 mm and completely filling all
vertical joints; - treatment of the masonry after execution (avoidance of premature
loading, stresses
dynamics, measures in cold weather, etc.).
C8.3.2.1.(4) The provision of pillars and belts with the role of ensuring the integrity of the building
assembly in advanced stages of stress under the effect of severe earthquakes is based on the
analysis of the effects of past earthquakes. The expulsion of masonry from the corners is a well-
known phenomenon that has been encountered in ZNA buildings even in single-level buildings.
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142
(a) (b)
Figure C 8.16. (a) Damage specific to the ZNA building without columns at the corners
i without belts (b) Positioning of the constructive pillars
The presence of the belts also has the role of limiting the expansion of cracks between adjacent levels.
This type of failure can lead to the collapse of the wall under the combined effect of seismic action in the
plane of the wall and perpendicular to the plane.
C8.3.2.1.(5) The criteria that were the basis for establishing the parameters in the table were the following:
- limiting the intensity of the average normal compressive unit effort on the structure to a moderate
value: 00.5fd0.20fk; - limiting the intensity of the average tangential unit effort on the structure
produced by
design seismic action at a moderate value: 0,max 0.5fvd0.20fvk;
- the value p= 6% was considered as the upper limit of the density of the walls, beyond which the
resulting spaces can no longer be used properly, even for modest dwellings, or it is necessary to
excessively thicken the walls.
The severe limitations proposed in the Code are based on the following considerations:
- For masonry made of fired clay elements with vertical perforations from group 2S: * brittle behavior
when breaking under the effect of vertical
strengthloads
and stiffness
(centric compression);
for cyclic lateral
* rapid
loadsdegradation of
alternating;
* the low value of the relative level displacement at which the extensive cracking of the masonry
occurs; * the degradation of the integrity of the walls in the advanced stages of stress through:
the pronounced opening of the vertical joints, the expulsion of the outer face of the elements, etc.;
* the practical impossibility of repairing damages (as they are shown in figure C 8.17 for drift
values accepted in P 100-1).
A confirmation of these particularities was highlighted by the tests carried out at UTCB (2005) partially
published in [Frumento, S., Magenes, G., Morandi, P., Calvi, GM
Interpretation experimental shear tests on clay brick masonry walls and evaluation of q- factors for seismic
design IUSS Press, Pavia Italia, 2009].
Figure C 8.17. Degradation of masonry panels with elements from the 2S group in advanced
stress stages [Frumento, S., Magenes, G., Morandi, P., Calvi, GM Interpretation experimental shear
tests on clay brick masonry walls and evaluation of q-factors for seismic design IUSS Press, Pavia Italy, 2009]
- For BCA elements: * in the

absence of eloquent experimental data regarding the behavior of structural
masonry walls with BCA elements in strong earthquakes, there are no
sufficiently reliable calculation models.
* for this reason, in the USA, for example, the use of structural walls with BCA elements is
limited by the latest edition of the American regulation
[ASCE 7-10 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, 2010] dup
as follows:
- simple (unreinforced) masonry wall structures for seismic zones with

ag0.13g (without height limitation); - structures with ordinary reinforced
masonry walls for seismic zones with ag0.13g (without height limitation) and
for seismic zones with ag0.20g (with height limitation at 10.50 m)
C8.3.2.2. Conditions of use for structures with reinforced masonry walls

(ZC,ZC+AR,ZIA)
C8.3.2.2.(1) Confined masonry is the most widespread type of reinforced masonry

used mainly in Southeast Europe, in China, in Latin America. In Romania, confined
masonry (ZC) and reinforced in horizontal joints (ZC+AR) is the most common type of
reinforced masonry construction. Reinforced core masonry (RCM) was used for
several buildings in Bucharest and Ploieti that behaved differently in the 1977
earthquake. With all its advantages, in particular, the increased ductility and the total
elimination of thermal punches, the process is practically abandoned nowadays,
mainly because of the high volume of work.
The presence of vertical confining elements qualitatively and quantitatively improves
the behavior of masonry walls before and after cracking (in the post-elastic range):
- ensure the necessary ductility in case of seismic demands; -
prevent the loss of stability (overturning) of the walls under the effect of normal
horizontal loads on the wall plane; - I ensure the integrity of the masonry panels
in advanced stages of damage (after cracks/fractures have occurred with movement
in the plane of the wall and/or perpendicular to the plane).
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144
-
Figure C 8.18. The vulnerability of the corners of brick buildings
[Petrovici, R., Theory of structures for architects - Course UAUIM Bucharest, 2004]
At the same time, the presence of pillars at intersections, corners and branching walls
effectively contributes to the connection between the walls on the two main directions of
the building and thereby to the spatial cooperation of the vertical structural subassemblies.
The cooperation between the pillars and the masonry is improved by the execution of the
masonry in steps and by the provision of connecting reinforcements in the horizontal joints.
Figure C 8.19. Expulsion of the masonry at the corners of the masonry without pillars
By comparison with the pillars made in the walls with special elements (section with large
voids) the pillars cast in the formwork are more efficient because they have a larger area and
can receive more reinforcements [Alcocer, SM and Zepeda, JA Behavior of multi-perforated
clay brick walls under earthquake-type loading. Proc. of the 8th North American Masonry
Conference, Austin, Texas, 1998].
Another advantage is that, in confined masonry and reinforced core masonry, vertical
loads are transmitted directly to the masonry panel (the plane is tied with the belt that is
poured directly onto the masonry). In these conditions, the shear resistance of the panel
increases, taking into account the effect of the frictional force that develops on the
compressed area (see CR 6).
The horizontal confining elements (belts) contribute to achieving the spatial cooperation of
the walls by:
- connecting the walls from the two directions;
- the creation of a space shell with reinforced elements, by connecting all the pillars at
the level of each plane; - increasing the in-plane rigidity of the planes; - carrying
out the transfer of seismic forces from the planes to the structural walls.
Apart from this, the belts constitute horizontal supports for the walls required by the normal
loads on the plane (seismic or even from the wind).
The criteria that were the basis of table 8.3 are similar to those mentioned in C8.3.2.1.(2),
with the following observations:
- the values of the capable moments were estimated taking into account the contribution of the
reinforcements in the columns, with the minimum values established in the Code; - the average
tangential unit effort was increased taking into account the presence of reinforcements in the belts
and in the joints of the masonry (if any), with the minimum values established in the Code.
Considering the sensitivities mentioned in C8.2.1.1.(3), the use of masonry with fired clay elements from
group 2S is allowed only for buildings with a reduced number of levels, differentiated according to the
seismic zone and only for buildings in classes less important. The measure mainly considers the limitation
of the unitary shearing efforts and the associated angular deformations to ensure a sufficiently large
margin in relation to the limits at which the damage to the walls becomes generalized and practically
irreparable.
Since the compression fracture of the masonry with elements from the 2S group is associated with small
values of the specific deformation (usually 1.21.7‰), the resistance capacity of the concrete in the columns
can only be partially used (0.600.75%). In the conditions where the bollards are placed only at the
intersections and at the corners (as was foreseen in the Regulation P 2-85 -currently repealed) or if the
edging of the gaps is mandatory only for large surfaces of the gaps, most of the mountains are of made of
unreinforced masonry. In the case of "A" type spars, their behavior is of the "unreinforced wall" type: "X"
break that continues in the central column (placed at the intersection with a transverse wall).
(a) Conforms P 2-85 (b) Conforms SR EN 1998-1
Figure C 8.20. Positioning of the pillars in the confined masonry
Figure C 8.21. Earthquake failure of type "A" spars from figure C 8.20(a) [Brzev,S.,
Earthquake -Resistant Confined Masonry Construction NICEE Indian Institute of Technology, 2007]
The belt system participates in ensuring the spatial character of the structure by:
- connecting the walls from the two directions; - the
creation of a space shell with reinforced elements, capable of taking on stretching efforts, by
connecting all the pillars at the level of each plane;
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146
- increasing the rigidity in the plane plane;
- carrying out the transfer of seismic forces from the planes to the structural walls.
Apart from this, the belts constitute horizontal supports for the walls required by the normal loads on
the plane (seismic or even from the wind). In the case of planes made of wooden beams/metal
profiles, the resistance elements must be effectively connected to the belts (by embedding at least the
width of the belt or by anchoring in the belt, but without interrupting the reinforcement in the belts). In
order to achieve the most uniform transmission of vertical loads, the belts are executed over the entire
length of the wall (with a possible reduction for the application of thermal protection to the facade
walls).
The earthquake behavior of confined masonry has been an important concern for researchers in
countries where this procedure is used on a large scale
Thus, in Mexico [Meli, R., Structural masonry. In practice, la investigacion y el comportamiento

seismico observado en Mexico CENAPRED] the following main conclusions regarding the behavior of
confined masonry walls were highlighted:
- The lateral force that produces diagonal cracking varies very little depending on the function
wall reinforcement;
- The amount and details of the reinforcement in the columns significantly affect the ductility
but do not significantly change the strength of the wall;
- The capacity increases linearly depending on the level of the axial compression force (in
the field of specific efforts of buildings with few levels);
- The ductility of the walls is high if the failure occurs from bending, but also for walls that fail
from force; the ductility decreases for high vertical loads.
Another research [Sánchez, TA, Diseño y construccion de estructuras de mamposteria - CENAPRED]

shows that, in the conditions in which the provisions of the regulations were respected, the confined
masonry behaved satisfactorily during the earthquakes in Mexico:
- the pillars provided the wall with a superior lateral deformation capacity and improved the
connections between the walls in the two directions and between the wall and the plane;
- sudden brittle breakage was avoided, but not the formation of diagonal cracks (the resistance
to diagonal stresses of the masonry is not significantly increased by the presence of pillars
and belts)
C8.3.2.2.(3) Considering the lower level of the seismic acceleration expected in the seismic zones
with ag=0.15g and ag=0.20g , it is allowed that a structure is considered with confined masonry if at
least 75% from the second floor is taken through the masonry wall with pillars at both ends. For
seismic zones with ag0.25g , the floor shear force must be fully absorbed by the edge walls with
concrete columns at both ends (this measure also conditions the possibility of anchoring the
reinforcements in the horizontal joints)
C8.3.2.2.(4) The provision takes into account the request/behavior particularities

of reinforced masonry buildings that have rooms/spaces with reduced volume
(attic) above the last current level.
The provisions of the Code consider the following characteristic elements:
I. The attic area has a significantly lower weight than the weight of the current level resulting
from the following conditions / provisions:
- the roof is supported on a wooden frame whose weight can be
up to 34 times less than the weight of a concrete plane;
- the height of the perimeter structural walls is about ½ of the height
walls at current levels;
- the interior compartments are to be made with light walls (plasterboard type) so that
their equivalent weight is less than 0.5kN/m2 .
II. All the walls on the contour are bounded by the continuation of the pillars on the lower level
and by a belt of reinforced concrete on the upper part; through these measures, the area of
a masonry panel between the confining elements becomes approximately equal to ½ of the
area of the panel on the current floors.
III. The density of the walls on the ground floor must be higher than that foreseen for current
buildings by 1520%, which means that the unitary compression and shearing efforts in the
masonry on the ground floor remain within the same limits as in a similar building without an
attic.
From a practical point of view, increasing the density of structural walls by 1% can lead to
disadvantageous architectural solutions or with important additional costs. In this situation, the
designer must appreciate the possibilities of adopting a solution with increased strength and
ductility from masonry or switching to a reinforced concrete or steel structure.
C8.3.2.2.(7) The provisions take into account, in some special cases, the possibility of deviating
from the number of levels in tables 8.38.5 , respectively the reduction of the minimum
constructive density of the structural walls, in the conditions of the use of masonry materials
with high resistance and only if the safety of the structure is checked with a non-linear static
calculation procedure that takes into account all the strength reserves specific to the respective
structural composition.
C 8.3.4. Behavioral factors

C8.3.4.(1) The values of the behavior factors given in table 8.10 take into account:
- the regularity of the building in plan and elevation (the values for buildings with irregularity
in plan and elevation are reduced by 10-15% less than those for regular buildings - the
biggest reductions are for ZNA)
- the post-elastic behavior resources that decrease from the ZNA to the walls
armies.
C8.3.4.(2) The structural overstrength factor (u/ 1) takes into account the expected post-elastic
behavior of the structure. In the case of masonry buildings, the main sources from which the
safety reserves (strength supplement) can come are:
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148
- the value of the design seismic force determined by the equivalent static method is
always higher than the force resulting from the calculation with the response spectrum;
- the resistance capacity ensured by some constructive provisions exceeds, in many

cases, the requirements resulting from the calculation;
- the redundancy of the structural system resulting from the fact that the joints are plastic
from the base of the mountains are not produced simultaneously,
- reinforcement overstrength;
- material ductility of the masonry (mu>>m1)
- the redistribution of efforts in the post-elastic field which can be achieved through the
spatial cooperation of the irs of mountains/washes in the case of masonry with the
diagram - with post-elastic bearing (mu>>m1); cooperation is not possible if the planes
do not have significant rigidity in the horizontal plane
Concerns related to the assessment of overstrength factors can be found in several works
[Anastassiadis, K., Avramidis, IE, Athanatopoulou,
sections 3 andA.4, Critical
draft 1, comments
May 2000,on Eurocode8,
Paper 095, 12th
ECEE, London 2002]
[Sophocleous, AA, Syrmakezis, CC The Influence of Overstrength to the Structural Reliability
of Structures, Paper no. 689, 12th ECEE, London, 2002]. A more recent study [Magenes, G.,
Masonry Building Design in Seismic Areas: Recent Experiences and Prospects from a
European Standpoint First European Conference Earthquake Engineering & Seismology,
Geneva, Switzerland, 2006] presents the results of numerical analyzes carried out at the
University of Pavia (Italy ), on reinforced and unreinforced masonry buildings, with the
architectural-structural typology specific to Italy. This study showed important resistance
reserves beyond the limit represented by the damage or failure of the most requested
element. These reserves are represented in figure C 8.22 by the ratio between the ultimate
force (Fy) and the force corresponding to the yielding of the most requested element (Fel)
which exceeds the value of 1.5 in 95% of the studied cases.
The mentioned work does not specify the mechanical characteristics of the masonry of the
examined buildings, which makes it difficult to interpret the results.
Figure C 8.22. The variation of the overstrength factor for specific buildings in Italy
In the case of fragile masonry, with a linear constitutive law with mu m1 (see fig. 4.3a of CR 6),
there are no reserves of post-elastic strength, so the overstrength factor will be taken as u/ 1 =
1.0 for all types of elements for brickwork from burnt clay and from BCA, and the behavior factors
"q" will be taken, independently of the geometric and structural regularity of the building in plan
and elevation, with the nominal values.
According to the data presented above, for the case of masonry executed with elements
from groups 1 and 2, the values of the structural overstrength factors for correcting the
reference values of the behavior factors q, are as follows:
- for unreinforced masonry u/1=1.10; - for

confined masonry u/1=1.25.
For the masonry whose constitutive law is of fragile type, in all cases, it must be considered
that there are no such reserves (u/1=1.0).
C 8.4. Seismic calculation of buildings with structural walls made of
masonry C8.4. (1) Considering the specific characteristics of buildings with structural walls
made of masonry, especially the reduced height and the inherent rigidity of the walls, the
seismic calculation is done according to the general principles and rules of this Code ,
paragraph 4.5 and of CR 6, paragraph 6.1. with the simplifications / systematizations from
this Chapter and from CR 6.
C8.4.(2) Although specialized literature mentions fractions of critical damping of 10% for
masonry buildings, in this Code a moderate value of the fraction of critical damping was
adopted so that the seismic forces remain within the limits set by the SR standard EN 1998-1
(see also comment C8.3.4.(1)) .
C 8.4.1. General conditions

C8.4.1.(2) In the case of walls with overlapped gaps, for the calculation of sectional forces,
several procedures based on the schematizations indicated in figure 8.23 can be used.
Figure C 8.23. Calculation models for hollow walls
The model with linked brackets is used in cases where the coupling rules do not exist (the
gaps are high and the connection is made only through the belt/plane plate) or, in the case
of the evaluation of existing masonry constructions that have wooden or masonry lintels.
A simplified version of the model with linked brackets [POR / Italy method], figure 8.24., takes
into account only the deformations from shearing and bending of the vertical elements
considered doubly embedded in the planes (with rotation prevented).
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Figure C 8.24. Schematic of the wall in the POR method
The simplified POR model allows a fast calculation (even manually), but the proposed schematic
does not take into account the deformation/damage mechanisms of the horizontal elements
(coupling rods) and for this reason the results provided are approximate (the stiffness of the
structure is overestimated and the ductility is underestimated).
One of the first proposals for assimilation, for calculation, of the masonry wall with rows of
voids superimposed with a planar frame was made in the work [Morlando, G. and Ramasco,
R. Regarding the seismic verification of pickled buildings. Quadreni di Teoria e Tecnica delle
structurete University of Naples - Istituto di Tecnica delle Costruzioni no 562, 1984 ].
A replacement frame was proposed with rigid segments at the ends of the vertical and horizontal
bars so that the respective areas present bending and shear deformations of the same order of
magnitude. Between these areas, the ridges and horizontal fills in the masonry are modeled
with the respective elastic (geometric and mechanical) properties (figure 8.25).
Note. A similar procedure, for structural walls with large gaps (walled-frames) made of reinforced
concrete was proposed in [Muto, K., Butler, DW: Lateral Force Distribution Coefficients and
Stress Analysis for Walled Frames (1951)]
Figure C 8.25. Frame type model for hollow structural walls
More recent research has extended the use of this model to take into account the non-linear
behavior specific to masonry structures [Lenza, P., Non linear behavior of masonry buildings
under seismic actions 11th WCEE, Paper no 1833].
Starting from the examination of the specific earthquake behavior of the main components of a
masonry wall, the schematization in the form of the "substitute frame" can be achieved using
macro elements (figure 8.26.).
1- nod, 2 - plin orizontal, 3 - spalet

Figure C 8.26. Schematic of the wall with macro elements
The macroelement represents an entire panel of a wall, defined according to the characteristic
properties (stripe, horizontal solid and node) and thus allows the balance equations of the assembly
to be written with a smaller number of unknowns.
The contour conditions also allow the identification of elastic and post-elastic deformation mechanisms
(identification of the level of damage)
The macroelement represented in figure C 8.27. (a) is a panel with size b and thickness s consisting
of three segments:
(note 1(under the

- the two areas/elements at the ends with thickness i 3) model the axial deformability
effect of the axial force N and the bending moment M) and are considered infinitely rigid
under the action of the torsional force T; - the central zone/element of height h models the
angular deformability (under the effect of the torsional force) but is considered infinitely rigid
under the action of the axial force and the bending moment.
The complete kinematic model for an element must consider three degrees of freedom at nodes i and
j and all three degrees at the interfaces of elements 1&2 and 2&3 respectively
Figure C 8.27. Definition of structural macroelements - efforts and deformations

Calculation of structures using modeling with microelements finite elements of the surface involves
the use of specialized calculation programs.
The accuracy of the results depends, to a large extent, on the definition of the model, in particular on
the level of detail of the network, which implies an important modeling effort and a relatively long
calculation time.
The main advantage of the method consists in the possibility of following the degradation of the
masonry by reducing the resistance of the damaged elements according to a non-linear constitutive
law until the collapse situation is reached.
The complexity of the procedure for interpreting the calculation results is also emphasized.
The local deviation of the limit values of the unit efforts does not mean breaking the panel because
local redistributions are possible that must be evaluated (for example by
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152
mediation/integration on certain areas) in order to determine the level of sectional stress that
actually produces the breaking of the masonry.
The definition of the constitutive law requires the most accurate knowledge of the mechanical
properties of masonry. In the case of the design of new buildings, the constitutive law can be
taken according to the data from the relevant technical regulations or according to the
manufacturer's attempts. In the case of existing buildings, however, extensive in-situ and
laboratory research/testing is required.
C8.4.1.(3) The lateral stiffness of a masonry panel depends on :

- panel geometry; - static
conditions at the ends: double recessed, in console, or appreciated situations
by the designer as intermediary;
- the deformability properties of the masonry: longitudinal elasticity modules
i transversal.
The stiffness of a masonry panel subjected to bending with force is defined as the value of
the force that produces a displacement of the ends () equal to unity
R V (=1)
For the displacement calculation, bending deformations (M) and force deformations (
IN)
= M +V
The value of the two components depends on the static scheme (fixing conditions at the ends).
1. Wall (pillar) in console 2. Recessed double slat

(attached only to the base): (fixed at both ends):
3 3
VH VH
M M
3 IE 12 IE
pz pz
VH VH
IN
k IN
k
AG
pz
AG
pz
1 1
R R
3 3
H H H H
k k
3 IE AG 12 IE AG
pz pz pz pz
With the notations:
- V - warning force
- H - height of the panel (post/slat) lp - length of the panel

-
tp - thickness of the panel
-
- Ap - the area of the wall panel
- Ip - moment of inertia of the wall panel
- Ez - the longitudinal modulus of elasticity of the masonry
- Gz - the transverse modulus of elasticity of the masonry - k - shape
coefficient; k = 1.2 for rectangular sections, k = 2.02.5 for I sections

In the case of rectangular sections with the thickness of the masonry panel tp and taking into account the
relations Ez=1000 fk and Gz = 0.4 Ez the expressions become:
tE
pz
1. Wall in console R kTe
p 2 pMpz
p
)43( p
tE
pz
2. Recessed double shoulder R ktE
p 2 pSpz
p
)3( p
H
where is the panel form factor (panel slimness)
p l
p
Figure C 8.28. The variation of the rigidity of the rectangular masonry panels depending on their proportion
In the case of walls composed of montani and spali, the total stiffness (equivalent) is equal to the sum of the
stiffnesses of the component panels
Rtot = New
Figure C 8.29a The stiffness of the wall composed of several mountains
In the case of walls whose stiffness decreases vertically from one floor to another (for example, as a result of
increasing the dimensions of the gaps or reducing the thickness of the walls) a stiffness equivalent to the
relation can be defined
11
R echiv
Ci 1
Ri
where Ci is the relative displacement of the wall at level i and Ri is the stiffness of the wall at this level.
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154
Figure C 8.29.b Equivalent stiffness of the wall with variable height stiffness
For the calculation of rigidity, the most controversial problem is the determination of the
deformability characteristics of the masonry whose values are influenced by many factors.
Thus, the longitudinal modulus of elasticity of the masonry (Ez) depends, among other things,
on: the strength of the elements and the mortar / grout, their specific weight, the volumetric
weight of the masonry components and the material from which the elements are made (fired
clay or concrete of different types ). Also, the modulus of elasticity is influenced by the
dimensions of the elements and the type of mortar. To establish the influence of each of
these factors on the Ez value , a very laborious analysis is necessary, practically impossible
to achieve with a satisfactory degree of confidence.
bearing in mind, however, that during execution a wide variability of materials, workmanship
and control over them can be encountered, the more exact determination of Ez is not
necessary and should even be considered unrealistic. For the application of advanced
calculation methods (biographical -pushover- calculation methods, for example) knowing
the Ez module as accurately as possible is still of major interest.
Attention is also drawn to the fact that the definition of the longitudinal modulus of elasticity,
in compression, of the masonry is given differently by the technical regulations. For this
reason, to compare Ez values, it is necessary to know exactly how to define it.
In the vast majority of technical regulations, the longitudinal modulus of elasticity of masonry
is defined as the secant modulus. What differs, from case to case, is the position on the
curve - of the reference points. In the American standard [ACI/ASCE/TMS Masonry Code,
2008] and in the Nordtest method (Finland) the Ez module is defined between the
values 0.05fk 0.33 fk where fk is the characteristic strength of the masonry.
Italian norm [Italy DM. 20.11.1987] stipulates that Ez is determined as the secant
modulus between unit efforts 0.1fk 0.4fk. In SR EN 1996-1, the value Ez=1000fk
was adopted, measured between the unit efforts = 00.3fk and the corresponding
specific deformations.
The value Ez=1000fk was also adopted in CR 6 for the calculation of the dynamic
characteristics of the structures and is also used in P 100-1. In addition, in CR 6,
according to the current practice in Romania, it was provided for the masonry with
BCA elements and the value Ez=800fk for the calculation of the deformations at ULS
(the value is also used for the calculation of the capable shear force in the case of
infill masonry panels required by seismic force, in accordance with P 100-1).
Nor is there a unitary method for determining the transverse modulus of elasticity of masonry
(Gz) .
Most technical regulations, including the SR EN 1996-1 standard, provide for the use of the link
Gz = 0.4Ez
which was also taken over in CR 6.
The differences between the Gz values in the various norms are largely due to the differences between
the methodologies for determining this value.
Thus, the value of the transverse modulus of elasticity (Gz) can be determined on small masonry
samples, either by a shear test under compression stress (regulated in Europe - SR EN 1052-1), or by a
diagonal compression test, static or cyclic (regulated in the USA - ASTM C 1391
[ASTM C1391 Standard test Method for Diagonal Tension (Shear) in Masonry Assemblages,
American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA]).
Figure C 8.30. Determination of the transverse modulus of elasticity of the masonry
Tests performed according to SR EN 1052-1 [Bosiljkov, V., Zarnic, R., Bokan-Bosiljkov, V.

Strength and deformation properties of the URM brick wallettes under compression ] confirmed the
relationship Gz=0.4Ez for the case of walls where the axial force is significant. The use of the ASTM
method provides values close to those given by the relationship Gz = 0.4Ez in the case of masonry with
burnt clay elements or concrete made with all types of mortars (the best agreement is obtained in the
case of rigid mortars). Diagonal compression testing is not recommended for reinforced masonry.
Due to the large distribution of values of the modulus of elasticity of masonry, some authors [Drysdale,
RG, Hamid, AA, Baker, LR Masonry Structures. Behavior and Design Printice Hall, 2009], I recommend
that a more accurate calculation be made with at least two values of the modulus of elasticity in order to
check possible stress increases in different structural elements.
Note. Trying walls with dimensions close to those currently encountered in construction is rarely used,
mainly due to cost considerations.
C8.4.1.(5) In the concept of CR 6 and of this Code , isolated walls are considered masonry walls
(mountains) that are connected to each other, at the plane level, only by boards or by belts with
insignificant bending stiffness (for example, the belts with the minimum dimensions provided for in CR
6). The resistance of these walls to the seismic force in a certain section is ensured by the capable
bending moment of the section in the presence of the corresponding axial force. In this case, inelastic
deformations develop
only at the base of the mountains.
If the connection between the uprights is made with reinforced concrete elements with significant bending
and shear stiffness between the uprights, a materialized coupling is created by reducing the bending
moments and changing the axial forces in the uprights. The coupling effect can be quantified by the ratio
between the sum of the bending moments taken over by the mounts (Mi) and the total bending moment
(M) related to the wall.
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156
In the case of a wall with a number of gaps, the coupling coefficient can be defined with the relation
MM
21
Cc
1
M
Small values of the Cc coefficient indicate weak coupling .
(1) (2)
Figure C 8.31. The effect of the coupling
bars In the case of wall 1 in figure C 8.31, the rigidity of the coupling bars is weak in relation to that of the
piers and the capable moment of the wall (M) is close to the sum of the moments of the two piers, M1 and
M2 ( weak coupling Cc 0) . The coupling bars of wall 2 are short and have significant
capablestiffness
moment and
of the
the
wall is close to that of the solid wall ( strong coupling Cc 1). In the conditions where, through specific
dimensioning/reinforcement measures, the development of inelastic deformations in the coupling elements
occurs before the mountains reach the limit of the elastic range, the structural system with the coupled
walls allows the dissipation of seismic energy at each level before the development of inelastic
deformations in the sections from the bases of the mountains.
C8.4.1.(9) For the seismic calculation, the planes of masonry buildings are identified from the point of
view of rigidity in the horizontal plane according to CR 6,
A-axis frame B axis frame Total displacement
Figure C 8.32. Plane deformations in the horizontal
plane In [Jain, SK A Proposed Draft for IS 1893. Provisions on Seismic Design of Buildings:Part II: No.2
, July
Commentary and Examples Journal of Structural Engineering, vol.22 it is necessary
1995] ittoisthe
stated
flexibility
that of
the plane in the horizontal plane is taken into account if there is a relationship
5.1 31
2
2
with the notations from figures C 8.32. and C 8.33.

Figure C 8.33. Notations for checking the condition of the plane's rigidity in the horizontal plane
C8.4.1.1.(11) The purpose of the provision is to eliminate overall structural compositions

that may give rise to unfavorable effects due to the introduction of planes/connections
at intermediate levels.
Mainly these effects consist of:

- overall twisting due to the different stiffnesses of the subassemblies
structural from the two areas of the building;
- the production of important efforts in terms of the common roof.
The designer can choose one of the two proposed options based on the particular conditions
of each construction.
C 8.4.2. Calculation models and methods for establishing design seismic forces
C8.4.2.(1) The satisfaction of the fundamental requirement to limit degradations for the effects
of seismic action and other actions included in the seismic design situation is achieved mainly
by limiting relative level displacements. In the following, some limit values proposed by
different researchers or established in the technical regulations of some countries for confined
masonry buildings are presented
Provisions of the regulation of Mexico DF

The following limitations are provided:
Portani piers from masonry confined with solid elements, with horizontal reinforcement
or 5‰ mesh
Portani piers from masonry confined with solid elements, masonry confined with
hollow elements, with horizontal reinforcement or with 4‰ nets
Masonry portani piers that do not meet the requirements for confined masonry 1.5‰
More detailed proposals of seismic performance criteria for ZC buildings with full fired clay
elements are given in the work [Alcocer,SM,Arias,JG/, Flores,LE
Some Developments on Performance –based Seismic Design of Masonry Structures ]
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158
The performance criterion Final crack Floor drift

Limit state
masonry opening (‰)
Pillars
Initiation of the
inclined crack of the
Exploitative
-------
0,1mm 1,5
masonry (crack
resistance)
Diagonal cracking fully Fine cracks

developed on the (hairline) in
Repairability surface of the pillars; 2,0mm 2,5
wall; the beginning of
the crushing of the masonry
Flow resistance of the shear reinforcement of

the wall. from columns from the
frominclined cracks
the torsional
force. the masonry penetratescrushing
the Initiation of ends
of the the
For sure 5,0mm 4,0
of the concrete in the pillars
It is mentioned that the drift values given above are indicative and depend, among other things, on the type
of masonry elements and the ratio between the bending and shear resistance capacity.
C8.4.2.(4) For the detailed calculation of these forces, see the Comments from chapter 10.
C 8.4.2.1. Calculation with equivalent static seismic forces
C8.4.2.1.(4) Relation (8.7) from this Code takes into account the fact that for current masonry buildings, the
natural period of the fundamental mode of vibration calculated with relation (B.3) from Annex B to this Code
results in T1 <0.7s. therefore, for all buildings, the value = 2.50 is reached (figure C 8.34).
0
P 100-1
Figure C 8.34. Values of the elastic spectrum for buildings with structural masonry walls
It is accepted that the period of the fundamental vibration mode (T1) can be estimated accurately enough with
the simplified formulas proposed by the SR EN 1998-1 standard:
i. T1 = CtH0.75
where
Ct = 0.05 for buildings with structures with masonry walls;
H is the height of the building from the foundation or top of the basement
stiff, in m.
In the case of current masonry buildings with 1÷5 levels having the level height het = 3.0 ± 0.20 m, the T1
values can be determined from figure C 8.35.
Figure C 8.35. The graph for calculating the proper period T1 of brick buildings
ii. As a more accurate alternative to the relationship from (i) for structures with masonry walls, the
value of the coefficient Ct can be calculated with the relationship:
.
0750
C t
A c
in which
Ac is the total effective area of the structural walls on the first level of the building, in m2 calculated
with the relation
l wi
2.0AA
c i
where
Ai is the effective cross-sectional area of the structural wall i in the direction considered at the first
level of the building, in m2 ;
lwi is the length of the structural wall i at the first level, in the direction parallel to the applied force,
expressed in m, with the limitation of lwi / H 0.9.
Regarding the total mass subjected to seismic action, it is specified that in the case of masonry buildings, its
value is composed, in different weights, of the mass of the vertical elements and of the mass related to the
planes. In the case of buildings with structural masonry walls, the own mass of the vertical structural elements
represents an important part of the total mass of the building, which depends on:
the density of the structural walls; level

height; the specific weight of the
masonry
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The mass ratio of the two component sub-assemblies depends on the composition of the
construction between the following limits:
in the case of buildings with walls made of solid ceramic and flat wooden elements, the
mass of the masonry per level is higher than the mass of the plane; in the case of masonry
with BCA elements and flat concrete, the mass of the plane is higher than the mass of the
masonry
This peculiarity of masonry buildings makes the classic dynamic model, with masses concentrated
at the level of the planes and with vertical elements lacking their own mass, represent, in some
cases, only a relatively rough approximation of the real dynamic behavior of the building.
A more realistic modeling of the floor masses subjected to seismic action in the case of buildings
with 2 ÷ 3 levels is given in figure C 8.36.
Figure C 8.36. Mass modeling in masonry buildings with few levels (variant)
Mass M1 is made up of 1/2 of the mass of the vertical structure of levels 1 and 2 to which is added
the mass of the plane above level 1 (which also includes the fraction of useful loads)
The mass of the vertical structure on 1/2 of the height of the first level (with hniv,1) is neglected as
it is considered solid with the rigid foundation of the building. In the case of multi-level buildings,
the mass of the intermediate levels is determined analogously.
Mass M2 is made up of 1/2 of the mass of the vertical structure of the last level and the mass of the
arch and the covering to which the mass of the plane above the last level is added. This scheme
can be accepted because the structure of the arch is, as a rule, rigid enough for its own deformations
to be neglected.
Also to take into account the real distribution of the mass in the building, in the case of single-level
masonry buildings with a light roof (wooden or steel), or in the case of buildings with particularly
thick walls (as in the case of some buildings monuments or churches), the structural scheme can
be established using the known expression of the equivalent mass which leads to the same value
of the proper period of oscillation of the console
M = 0.25 mzidhzid + Macop
In the above formula mzid is the mass of the vertical structure per 1 linear meter in elevation.
Figure C 8.37. Mass modeling in the case of single-level masonry buildings
In the case of flexible planes in their plane, they are included in the structural model, with the
corresponding stiffness values and additional dynamic degrees of freedom,
results from the oscillation of planes in the horizontal plane. In this case, since non-
deformable connections are not made between the structural walls, the mass of the
plane related to each wall and its own weight will be concentrated, at each level, in the
intersection points of the wall with the planes.
C 8.5. Principles and general composition rules specific to constructions with

structural masonry walls

C8.5.1.(2) The general provisions and composition details given in CR 6 and in this
chapter ensure the realization of a structural assembly with spatial rigidity (rigid box)
able to take over at the same time, the vertical, permanent and useful loads, as well as
the demands seismic regardless of their direction of action.
As a result, the dominant stresses in the structural walls, due to the earthquake, are the
following:
- walls parallel to the design seismic force direction: sectional forces i

deformations in the wall plane;
- walls perpendicular to the direction of the design seismic force: sectional forces and
deformations perpendicular to the plane of the wall and, possibly, sectional forces
and deformations in the plane of the wall resulting from the general twisting of the
building.
The absence or insufficient resistance of the connections between the structural walls on
the two directions represent an important structural flaw:
- the resistance capacity of the structure is reduced because the contribution of the
"floors" of the compound walls (L,T,I) is missing; - increases the risk of loss of stability/
serious damage to the walls due to the seismic action perpendicular to their plane
because the vertical connections at the ends are missing.
C 8.5.2. Superstructure design

C 8.5.2.1. Structural walls
C 8.5.2.1.1. General conditions

C8.5.2.1.1.(1) All masonry walls that simultaneously meet the following conditions are
considered structural walls:
- have the minimum dimensions (length and thickness) given in CR

6; - have continuity up to the foundations; - they are made from the
materials mentioned in CR 6 and 8.2 of this Code.
- If the arrangement of the gaps in the wall is irregular in height (different from floor to floor),
to establish the calculation model it is necessary to identify the panels with vertical continuity
and which have at least the minimum dimensions established by CR 6 (active panels) .
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Figure C 8.38. Identification of the structural walls (active

areas) (the gray areas may not participate in the absorption of seismic forces)
C8.5.2.1.1.(2) The term "non-structural walls" has the meaning given in CR 6. These walls, which
are not part of the spatial ensemble of walls that make up the main structure (the structure that
ensures the mechanical resistance and stability of the entire building) must satisfy the essential
requirement of mechanical strength and stability defined in Law no. 10/1995, with subsequent
amendments and additions, under the effects of related loads specified in CR 6.
The design seismic force perpendicular to the plane is determined according to the provisions of
this Code, Chapter 10. The calculation of the resistance of non-structural walls to the seismic
action perpendicular to the plane is done with the general procedure established in CR 6.
C 8.5.2.1.2. Masonry areas and requirements regarding the geometry of the walls
C8.5.2.1.2.(1) In all cases, the required values of the masonry areas on both main directions of the
construction are determined by calculation, but they cannot be lower than those that achieve the
minimum constructive density of the walls (p%) given in tables 8.28.4, depending on the design seismic
acceleration. In the case of buildings with regularity in plan and elevation, the minimum values in tables
8.28.4 ensure, as a rule, the satisfaction of the resistance requirement. In the case of buildings without
regularity, the values in the tables must be considered as reference data for the preliminary design.
The provision in projects of masonry areas that ensure the minimum constructive density (p%)
in each main direction does not eliminate the designer's obligation to verify by calculation the
satisfaction of the requirement of resistance to the action of seismic design forces.
C8.5.2.1.2.(3) The limitation of the "empty/full" ratio aims to avoid the exaggerated weakening of the
structural walls through door and window gaps. The values of the empty/full ratios are correlated with the
average values of the unitary shearing efforts that can develop in the building walls depending on the
number of levels and the seismic zone. The higher values allowed for the exterior walls also take into
account the need to illuminate the rooms and the possibility of obtaining more special architectural
images. The values in the table refer to buildings with regular height (with overlapping gaps). If the
regularity conditions are not satisfied, the values in table 8.5 are only indicative (for the preliminary
design) and it is recommended to carry out a non-linear static calculation to check if there are no
elements susceptible to premature failure.
C 8.5.2.1.3. Masonry sections weakened by voids and gaps

C8.5.2.1.3.(1) Referral to CR 6. refers to the verification of walls where the door and/
or window openings are located in staggered positions on the adjacent floors. Through
this arrangement, when it is allowed by the architectural project, certain structural
advantages are obtained (reduction of efforts and increase of rigidity). If the staggered
voids are arranged irregularly, gross deviations of the normal path of gravitational and
seismic loads and concentrations of unitary compression and shearing efforts with
values much higher than the average on the respective level may result, locally.
The verification of the strength of the walls is done on a "beam with lattice" scheme as
for reinforced concrete walls (see, for example, CR 2 -1-1.1).
Referral to CR 6. refers to the verification of weakened sections of vertical beams.
The check is mandatory if the depth of the hole is greater than the limit provided in
CR 6, but it is also recommended if this limit is respected, especially for walls with
a compound section (L, T, double T), with slabs developed close to the value
maximum allowed by CR 6, of buildings located in seismic areas with high design
accelerations ( roughly ag0.25g).
C8.5.2.2. I planned
C8.5.2.2.(2) The provision of rigid planes in the horizontal plane aims to ensure the
spatial cooperation of the walls on the two main directions and the possibility of
redistributing the efforts between the walls in case the resistance capacity of some of
them is exceeded . The provision in projects of rigid monolithic or prefabricated
reinforced concrete planes (with appropriate connections between the prefabricated
parts and between them and the structural walls) constitutes a general rule for
masonry buildings located in seismic zones. The provided exceptions are allowed only
for buildings with few levels, from the lower importance classes and which are located
in areas with low design seismic acceleration.
C8.5.2.2.(5) The rigidity and strength of the planes in the horizontal plane can be affected by
disposing large gaps in unfavorable positions (see, for example, CR 6)
If such situations cannot be avoided, it is recommended to carry out a spatial calculation that
takes into account the effective rigidity, in the horizontal plane, of the planes in the areas with
large gaps.
C 8.5.3. Infrastructure design
C8.5.3.(3) The purpose of the provision is to ensure the extension of the principle of the ranking
of resistance capacities up to the level of the foundation land, thus avoiding the collapse of the
infrastructure in the case of severe earthquakes with consequences that cannot be assessed
with sufficient accuracy
C 8.5.3.1. Foundations of structural walls

C8.5.3.1.(1),(2) The provision from (1) aims to ensure a direct route of vertical and horizontal
loads to the foundation land, a condition of regularity recommended to ensure a favorable
seismic response. The exception allowed in (2) is based on the fact that, in some situations,
foundations of the "continuous sole" type can acquire dimensions that far exceed the required
scale and become expensive, as a result of some constructive conditions (generated, for
example, by the scale minimum of splits in years).
This situation occurs especially in buildings with 12 levels located on land
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164
normal foundation conditions for which the pressure on the sole of continuous foundations
(with boundaries that exceed the thickness of the walls by 510 cm) is, in general,
the conventional
below ¾ of
pressure. Due to the reduced height of the buildings and the reduced intensity of the seismic
loads for which the proposed solution is accepted, the efforts in the beams that support the
structural walls in the elevation can be maintained, without constructive difficulties, in the
elastic field of behavior.
C 8.5.3.2. PLINTH
C8.5.3.2.(1),(2) The use of reinforced concrete is recommended to prevent possible brittle
breaks of the plinths under the effect of the sectional forces generated by the seismic action at
the base of the walls (with the elastic sectional forces, calculated with the behavior factor q=
1). The exception from (2) considers the cases where, under the conditions mentioned above,
the sectional efforts in the footings have values that can be taken over by plain concrete. It is
recommended that the designer examine at the same time the opportunity to arrange some
minimal reinforcements to prevent the effects of concrete shrinkage (in these conditions the
class of concrete will be established to ensure the protection of the reinforcements).
C 8.5.3.3. Basement walls

The purpose of the constructive measures is to create at the basement level a sub-assembly
with spatial strength and rigidity superior to that of the superstructure, capable of ensuring the
transmission of efforts to the foundation ground without exceeding the range of elastic behavior
of the materials and the foundation ground.
C8.5.3.3.(2) The exception from (2) considers the cases where, under the conditions mentioned
above, the sectional efforts in the basement walls have values that can be taken over by plain
concrete. At the same time, the designer will examine the opportunity to arrange minimal
reinforcements to prevent the effects of concrete shrinkage (under these conditions, the class
of concrete will be established to ensure the protection of the reinforcements).
C8.5.3.3.(4) See also C8.5.3.3. For the calculation of walls with weakened areas, the provisions
of 8.5.3 (3) will be taken into account.
C 8.5.4. Specific design rules for constructions with structural masonry walls
C 8.5.4.1. Specific design rules for constructions with structural walls made of
unreinforced masonry (ZNA)
Regarding these provisions, the following clarifications are
made: (1) The belt system participates in ensuring the spatial character of the structure through
the connections between the structural walls on the two directions and between the walls and
planes. In the case of planes made of wooden beams/metal profiles, the resistance elements
must be effectively connected to the belts (by embedding at least the width of the belt or by
anchoring in the belt, but without interrupting the reinforcement in the belts). In order to achieve
the most uniform transmission of vertical loads, the belts are executed over the entire length
of the wall (with a possible reduction for the application of thermal protection to the facade
walls).
The belts also contribute to limiting the propagation of inclined cracks from one level to another
(figure C 8.39.). The contribution of belt reinforcements is not taken into account when
calculating the tensile strength for ZNA buildings.
Figure C 8.39. Crack propagation in unreinforced masonry buildings without belts
Over the door and window openings, reinforced concrete lintels must be provided, which can
be tied with the belt at the plane level, if the total height does not exceed 60-70 cm, or they can
be independent for higher heights. If the lintel is connected with the plane belt, its reinforcement
will be continuous (embedded in the upper part of the lintel) and in the lower part there will be
a reinforcement equal to a maximum of 0.1% of the entire section. This provision is
comprehensive, because it limits/eliminates the favorable effect of reducing the bending
moment in the mountains due to the coupling. If the lintel reinforcement
is separated from
will be
thedone
belt, only
its for the
related vertical loads, with the minimum percentage of the regulations in force for elements
that do not participate in taking over the seismic force.
Since in the case of unreinforced masonry (without pillars at the corners) the connection
between the perpendicular walls is ensured only by braces, for the areas with ag0.15g it was
foreseen, as an additional insurance measure, the installation of connection reinforcements in the joints.
C 8.5.4.2. Specific design rules for constructions with structural walls from
confined masonry (ZC)
The efficiency of all categories of reinforcement in the masonry (in the confining elements, in
the horizontal joints and in the middle layer of the masonry with a reinforced core) depends on
how they are anchored and supported. In CR 6, all the reinforcement details were provided
according to the regulations in force for reinforced concrete.
C 8.5.4.2.1. Provisions regarding pillars C8.5.4.2.1.

(1) The provisions regarding the layout of pillars are detailed in figure C 8.40.
S1- at corners and intersections; S2 - intermediate, when the distances between S1 exceed 4.0 m for buildings in a cellular
system and 5.0 m for buildings in a honeycomb system S3- along gaps
Figure C 8.40. The placement of pillars in confined masonry buildings according to CR 6

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166
C8.5.4.2.1.(5) The SR EN 1998-1 standard establishes for all confining elements the minimum percentage
of longitudinal reinforcement of 1% and the condition that the area of the longitudinal reinforcement is 300
mm2 Anyway, for the minimum size of the pillars (25x25cm), with the minimum percentage of 0.8%, result
.
Aa= 5.0 cm2 . Since 412=4.52cm2 <Aa,min, the provision in the Code leads to 414 = 6.16 cm2 , which
practically corresponds to the minimum percentage of 1%.
For larger column sizes, the minimum percentage in SR EN 1998-1 leads to significant increases in
reinforcement compared to current practice (this aspect is particularly relevant for columns whose
dimensions result from constructive conditions - for example, from the need for modulation according to CR
6).
The provisions regarding the transverse reinforcement of the columns given in CR 6 correspond to the
requirements of SR EN 1998-1 and the current practice in Romania.
The provisions regarding the edging of the gaps with pillars and the constructive increase of the dimensions
of the pillars (and, implicitly, the amount of reinforcement in them) lead to a significant increase in the
capable moment of the walls and, consequently, to an increase in the shear force associated with this
moment. For this reason, most of the time, in order for the masonry to take over the resulting shear force, it
is necessary to provide in the projects elements for masonry and/or mortars with adhesion strengths higher
than the minimum required by CR 6 and/or masonry reinforcement in horizontal joints.
C 8.5.4.2.2. Provisions relating to belts
C8.5.4.2.2.(1) The provision of intermediate belts in buildings with thin walls and in "hall/hall" type buildings
aims to increase the resistance of the wall to: - scale breaking from shear force (concentration of a significant
amount of
armor in this intermediate belt); - the seismic
action perpendicular to the plane of the wall.
C8.5.4.2.2.(3) The purpose of the provision is to ensure the effective operation of the masonry belt
system in order to maintain the integrity of the masonry walls under the simultaneous effect of
seismic loads in the plane of the walls and perpendicular to this plane. In particular, through the
continuity of the belt in the span of the house, it is ensured that the stretching force from the
horizontal diaphragm is taken over in this section. In the absence of the belt, the lever arm of the
efforts in the plane is greatly reduced (sometimes to ½ of the total value) which leads, especially in
the case of structures with rare walls, to the need for strong reinforcements at the inner limit of the
building.
C 8.5.4.2.4. Provisions regarding the reinforcement of masonry in horizontal joints
The introduction of reinforcements in the horizontal joints of the masonry contributes to increasing
the resistance of the confined wall to the shear force and the ductility of the wall.
(a) static demands (b) cyclical demands
Figure C 8.41 Effect of reinforcement in horizontal joints

[San Bartolomé,A.,Quiun, D., Mayorca,P. Proposal of a standard for seismic design of confined
masonry buildings Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Bulletin of ERS, No.37]
[Alcocer,S.M.,Arias,J.G/, Flores ,L.E. Some Developments on Performance –based Seismic Design of
Masonry Structures ]
Examining the two diagrams in figure C 8.41 shows that in the first phase, in both tested
samples, the behavior of the wall was linear, until the first inclined crack occurred. The
subsequent requests, with larger imposed displacements, led to the increase of the opening
of the main crack in the area of the compressed diagonal, which caused the wall to be
practically separated into two parts with a triangular shape. At this stage the rigidity of the
wall is considerably reduced and the resistance is provided by friction, by the mechanical
interlocking between the masonry elements and by the shear resistance of the reinforced
concrete pillars. Further, the tensile strength of the confined masonry wall decreases severely
as a result of the degradation of the elements (local crushing) and the shearing of the sections
at the ends of the columns. In the case of walls with profiled reinforcements, with high
resistance, arranged in the aeration joints, a better behavior is observed in terms of resistance,
energy dissipation and deformation capacity. In this case, the tests showed that the cracking
of the masonry is more evenly distributed and the cracks are finer, which suggests the
existence of a compressed area with a larger size that is balanced by the stretching efforts
from the horizontal reinforcements.
As it results from table 8.4., the behavior factor q for masonry confined and reinforced in
horizontal joints is 20% higher than that for masonry without reinforcement in horizontal joints.
In the conditions of inclined crack production, the steel bars intersected by the cracks oppose
the distance of the two sides of the crack and capture the longitudinal deformations. The
stresses that develop in the reinforcements increase as the deformations increase, but only
as long as they remain in the elastic range (for steels without reinforcement - type OB37 and
PC52). The corresponding force represents a part of the total resistance capacity of the wall.
Numerous tests carried out, both on solid elements and on elements with vertically arranged
perforations, have shown that, for walls subjected to reinforcement in their plane, the
presence of reinforcements reduces the strength degradation process after reaching the
maximum value and at the same time reduces and evens out wall cracking. These effects
depend on the amount of reinforcement placed in the joints and the anchoring conditions at
the ends of the bars. Some tests have shown the effectiveness of the reinforcements in the
horizontal joints even for small percentages (0.05%), made concrete by increasing the ratio
between the maximum shear force and the shear force corresponding to the crack.
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168
In order to reduce the risk of breaking the masonry from the main compressive stress (resulting
from the overlap of the normal stress from the axial compression with the tangential stress from
the shear force), the amount of longitudinal reinforcement in the joints must be limited.
Thus, in the case of masonry with elements with vertical perforations, in [Alcocer, SM and Zepeda,
th
JA Behavior of multi-perforated clay brick walls under earthquake-type loading. Proc. of the 8
North American Masonry Conference, Austin, Texas, 1998] it is recommended that the maximum
percentage of horizontal reinforcement be limited depending on the compressive strength of the
masonry (fk) and the steel strength (fy) to the value
f
p 15.0 f k
h max,
and
In the case of confined masonry, the effect of joint reinforcement is improved if the bars are
anchored in the edge columns. The efficiency of horizontal joint reinforcement depends largely
on the quality of the masonry, especially the quality of the mortar, because during alternating
seismic loading, the bond between the reinforcement and the mortar can be damaged. In this
situation, the efforts in the steel remain limited, without affecting the flow, and, consequently, the
dissipation of seismic energy is no longer produced in this way.
C 8.5.4.3 Specific design rules for constructions with masonry walls with
reinforced core (ZIA)
C8.5.4.3.(4) The provision takes into account the fact that, due to the way steel is manufactured
(by annealing), the post-elastic deformation capacity of steel from welded meshes (cold drawn
wire type) is much lower than of steels from strength category I (type OB 37) and from strength
category II (type PC 52).
For this reason, the use of nets is not allowed at the first level where, under the effect of the
seismic action corresponding to the design acceleration, the development of post-elastic
deformations is directed, by design. For the other levels, the dimensioning of the mesh bars must
be done so that the steel remains in the elastic range of behavior for the shear force associated
with the capable moment of the wall (calculated with the overstrength of the reinforcements if at
the ends of the wall there are columns reinforced vertically with steel from strength categories I
or II ).
C 8.6. Safety check

C 8.6.1. Strength requirement in relation to ultimate limit state (ULS)
C 8.6.1.1. Strength requirement for earthquake effects in the plane of the wall
The formation of the seismic energy dissipation mechanism by locating the potential plastic
zones at the base of the mountains, according to CR 6, is favored by the fact that in the case of
regular buildings it can be demonstrated that the value of the ratio between the capable moment
in a section at day elevation and the capable moment in the section of embedment is higher than
the value of the ratio between the overturning moment in the respective section and the
overturning moment at the base
( zM
cap
) zMr )
cap
)0( zM zMr ( )0(
The existence of this relationship represents a prerequisite for achieving the

requirement of directing the areas of development of inelastic deformations in the
base section. The degree of coverage of the overturning moment diagram depends
on the value of the ratio between the compressive unit stress from vertical loads () and
0
the design compressive unit stress (fd) and is higher in the case of buildings with 3 levels
C8.6.1.1.(1) The breaking of a masonry panel under the combined effect of vertical
and horizontal loads can occur in one of the following ways:
(a) V=0 Concentric compression

failure (b) Eccentric compression failure (detachment in the joint and/or crushing of the
compressed masonry) (c) Torsion failure (sliding in the horizontal joint) (d) Forion failure (in
ladder, only by joints/ by joints and elements)
Figure C 8.42 Schemes of breaking masonry panels from compression and force
The schemes in figure C 8.42. - with the same notations - can be found in the images in figure C 8.43.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure C 8.43 Breaking of masonry panels - examples

C8.6.1.1.(9) The condition refers to the structural walls for which the capable moment is greater than
the bending moment that belongs to the wall in the assumption of the elastic behavior of the structure
to the action of the design earthquake. This is often the case of some walls in buildings with few levels,
located in seismic zones with low ag values , which, for architectural/functional reasons, have long
lengths (for example, the heel wall, at the property boundary, or the wall which separate the apartments
in the case of attached dwellings). In this case, the design resistance to shearing force must not be
greater than the value of the elastic shearing force (q=1).
The presence of these walls, if they are placed in an eccentric position, leads, as a rule, to overall
twisting efforts that amplify the stress on the contour walls.
C 8.6.1.2. The resistance requirement for the effects of the earthquake perpendicular
to the plane of the wall
C 8.6.1.2 (1) The provisions of CR 6, which account for the anisotropy of the masonry, apply.
The correct determination of the sectional forces in the wall under the effect of loads perpendicular to
the plane of the wall is conditioned, to a large extent, by the identification of the actual conditions of
attachment/fixation on the contour of the masonry panel (simple support, elastic embedment from
continuity, free side). It is emphasized that modeling ca
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elastic board (accepted in older regulations) can provide unrealistic results in the
case of walls with pronounced anisotropy (with unfilled vertical joints or with
mechanical joints - "nut and spring" type).
8.7.6. The design resistance of walls subject to bending perpendicular to

the median plane
The design resistance of walls subjected to bending perpendicular to their plane
is determined for all categories of masonry walls:
- structural walls -
non-structural walls -
masonry panels reinforced in frames.
The resistance to bending perpendicular to the plane can develop through two mechanisms
(figure C 8.44.):
1. Bending tensile strength of the masonry - according to CR 6.
2. The arch effect - side leaning wall and top and bottom leaning wall.
C- compression force from the spring effect

Figure C 8.44. The resistance of masonry to bending perpendicular to the plane
Masonry under normal stress on the plane behaves elastically until it cracks. After cracking,
the bending resistance is achieved by the reduced section, analogous to plain concrete ( Wpl
1.75 We can be accepted) and then decreases relatively quickly if the spring effect does not
develop.
The existence of the resistance mechanism through the spring effect depends on the
fulfillment of several conditions, among which the existence of direct contact between the
panel and the frame is mentioned in the first place. Also, the development of the arch effect
is limited by the stability condition of the wall under the effect of the compression force (for
this reason, in some works, it is considered that the effect can be taken into account only for
walls whose slenderness coefficient is 25) and of a certain level of rigidity of the frame
elements (beams and columns).
Since the formation of the arch effect presents a high level of uncertainty regarding the
achievement of the contact between the panel and the frame, in CR 6 it is considered that
the resistance of the walls to the action of loads perpendicular to the plane is ensured only by
the tensile strength from bending of the masonry. In these conditions, the seismic design
force of the structural walls under the effect of seismic loading perpendicular to the plane
are determined according to 8.4.2.(4) of this Code and the resistance calculation is
done taking into account the overlap of the effects of vertical loads with the normal
seismic action on the plane calculated according to Chapter 10 of this Code. In some
cases, the design resistance of solid panels can be expressed by the value of the
normal force on the plane that the respective wall can take. To verify the safety
requirement, this value should be compared with the value of the design force
calculated according to chapter 10. In the case of panels with gaps where Agol > 0.2
Apanou, the force determined as above is reduced, for a panel, by a subunit
coefficient which multiplies the force determined for the entire panel:
to
goal
goal
125.1)(
A
panel
If Agol0,2Apanou the existence of the gap can be neglected.
C 8.6.2. Rigidity requirement
The requirement is justified by the fact that, currently, there is a large number of products from
the 2S group , each characterized by specific constitutive laws (- /- ). The data provided by the
manufacturer must serve the designer to assess the drift (the ratio between the relative
displacement of two consecutive planes and the height of the respective level) limit, acceptable
for each individual product, so as to satisfy both the requirement of limiting degradation and
the requirement of safety of life. Tests carried out abroad and in the country, on masonry with
elements from the 2S group, showed that damage that can be considered irreparable occurs
at drift values between 0.81‰.
The severity of their damage is less for walls confined and reinforced in horizontal joints.
C 8.6.3. Stability requirement
The provision refers to the stability of the wall under the action of vertical loads and the seismic
force acting in the plane of the wall. The stability of the masonry walls for the seismic action
perpendicular to their plane will be checked for the seismic forces determined according to the
provisions of Chapter 10.
C 8.6.5. Strength requirements in relation to the service limit state (SLS)
C8.6.5.(1) For buildings of importance classes I and II, taking into account the direct and
indirect costs that may result from damage to the masonry walls in the case of earthquakes
that repeat at shorter time intervals than the design earthquake, for the seismic areas with the
ground acceleration for design ag 0.30g, the resistance of the structural and non-structural
masonry walls and reinforced panels will be checked to the action of the earthquake with an
average recurrence interval lower than that of the design earthquake. The seismic action
reduction factor for the resistance check will be taken =0.5 and for the imposed lateral
displacements the factor will be taken according to art. 10.3.2.2 The behavior factor will be
taken q=1.0 (elastic behavior) and the material factor will be M=1.50.
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C 8.7. Calculation of the design values of the resistance of masonry walls
C 8.7.1. General calculation provisions

C8.7.1.(1) Considering the fact that in Romania the earthquake represents the action
that sizes the masonry buildings on most of the territory, the concept of CR 6 had in
mind the establishment of general composition, dimensioning and constructive detailing
measures so as to facilitate obtaining a favorable seismic response under the conditions
of a reasonable technical, technological and economic effort.
For this reason, the main principles and rules for the calculation of the design resistance
were given in CR 6. In this paragraph, mainly, clarifications are given related to the
differentiation of the mentioned measures according to the severity of the seismic conditions
C8.7.1.(2) The provision mentions the need to determine the design resistance of the
walls for both possible situations of earthquake action (in the plane of the wall and
normal to the plane).
C 8.7.2. Additional provisions for the calculation of structural walls for axial
force and bending in the plane of the wall
To determine the design resistance to axial force and bending moment in CR 6, the
following basic assumptions are used, valid for both unreinforced and reinforced masonry:
1. Assumption of flat sections; 2. The tensile strength of the masonry in the direction
perpendicular to the horizontal joint is
no;
3. The unit stress - specific strain relation is rectangular for the calculation at
ultimate limit state (ULS);
4. The relation unit effort - specific strain is triangular for the calculation at
service limit state (SLS).
The assumption of planar sections adopted in CR 6 is not valid for all cases. In particular, it
is not valid in the case of dark walls required by forces applied in the plane of the wall. The
ultimate resistance is relatively little influenced by this discrepancy.
The calculation models are different for unreinforced masonry (ZNA) and for reinforced
masonry (confined, with reinforced core). In the case of unreinforced masonry, CR 6 allows
the calculation considering that the block of unit compression efforts for ULS is rectangular
with a maximum value of 0.85fd.
A more accurate calculation for the higher values of the unitary compression effort can be
done by accepting that the block of unitary compression efforts has the form of constitutive
diagrams - of the masonry [Petrovici, R., Review of Code CR 6-2006 (I) Proposals for the
calculation of walls from unreinforced eccentric compression masonry - AICPS Review no.
4/2010]. In this case, the effect of the "material ductility" of the brickwork ( mu/1 ratio) can
be highlighted . Comparison of MN interaction diagrams from figures C8.46. I have
eloquently shown the advantages of "ductile" masonry.
Figure C 8.45 Complete bending and compression calculation model
Figure C 8.46a MN interaction diagram for "fragile" masonry
Figure C 8.46b. MN interaction diagram for "ductile" walls

In the case of unreinforced masonry, the design resistance - the bending moment capable for a
given value of the axial force - for the walls that are checked at SLS - is determined on the
assumption that on the horizontal section of the wall, the development of unit tensile efforts is
accepted only on a limited area from the length of the wall.
The limitation of the extended area results from the condition that the eccentricity of the
application of the resultant vertical loads does not exceed by more than 20% the limit of the central core
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of the section. In the case of walls with a rectangular section, this condition comes down
to limiting the eccentricity of the axial force to the value lw/5. In the case of confined
masonry, CR 6 maintains the assumptions currently accepted in Romanian design
practice, namely:
- In the case of reinforced masonry sections (ZC and ZIA), the concrete cooperates
with the masonry until the last stage. The cooperation is limited by the mechanical
characteristics of the weakest material (usually the masonry elements).
Figure C 8.47 Specific limit deformations of the confined masonry walls
Based on the above assumptions, in CR 6 it is accepted that, in cases where a more

accurate calculation is not required, the design resistance to bending (MRd), associated
with the design axial force (NEd), for a wall of any shape of confined masonry, can be
calculated by summing the design bending resistance of the ideal unreinforced masonry
section MRd (zna,i) with the design bending resistance corresponding to the reinforcements
in the end columns MRd(As)
Note. The above assumptions are not entirely in accordance with the provisions regarding the confined
masonry of SR EN 1996-1: to determine the design value of the moment of a section, a unit effort
diagram based only on the strength of the masonry will be taken into account ; the contribution of the
compressed reinforcement will be neglected.
This approach leads to lower values of the capable moment as shown in figure C 8.58.
In the area of common unitary compression efforts in current buildings (0=0.2÷0.5 kN/
cm2 ), the increase in the moment capable by considering the contribution of the
reinforcements in the compressed column is about 12 ÷30% .
C8.7.2.(2) In the case of L-, T- and double- T -shaped walls with unequal legs, the design
resistance will be taken equal to the value of the lowest result for the two directions of
action of the earthquake (change of stress on the legs:" stretch compression").
Ensuring resistance in these sections is of major importance for achieving the spatial
cooperation of the walls located on the two main directions of the building.
The state of efforts at the heart/sole interface has a complex character as the respective
section is simultaneously requested by:
.0
Figure C 8.48. Comparison of MN interaction diagrams

according to SR EN 1996-1-1 and CR 6
- the vertical sliding force originating from the seismic action in the plane of the heart
the wall;
- the forces and moments from the seismic action perpendicular to the plane of the
footings (perpendicular walls).
The experience of past earthquakes has shown that, under the effect of this complex state of
stress, in many cases, the connection between the wall and the footings fails according to
one of the schemes below.
(a) (b)
Figure C 8.49. Types of damage at the core / sole interface of composite walls
C8.7.2.1.(3) The reinforcements provided for in (3) eliminate, as a rule, the damage on the
diagram in figure C 8.49. a but they cannot prevent the break on diagram (b), especially if in
the respective area (beyond the section where the bars were stopped) there are vertical
cracks in the wall.
C 8.7.3. Design resistance of coupled walls
C8.7.3.(1) The listed conditions are part of the measures to achieve the favorable seismic energy
dissipation mechanism defined in CR 6.
Condition 1a is satisfied if, for the respective amount, at each level (j), the inequality is verified:
n n n
cap w
l asoc
M)hH(F
j
j j
rc )N(MT
rc cap asoc
2
j j
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in which
- hHF
j
)( is thej overturning moment given by the related forces Fj
j
upright, which acts over the section at the base of level j (n is the total number of levels of the
building).
Condition 2 is satisfied if, under the effect of the bending moment in the embedding section of the
coupling rod, the local compressive strength of the masonry is not exceeded.
C 8.8. Calculation of deformations and lateral displacements in the plane of the wall

The provisions to which reference is made refer to the establishment of the geometric characteristics and
the values of the elasticity modules for the calculation of deformations and lateral displacements in the
plane of the wall.
The effect of the crack on the sectional properties will be taken into account and will be used:
* the geometric characteristics of the uncracked masonry and concrete section; * ½ of the
value of the equivalent longitudinal modulus of elasticity, short
duration (Ez)
* ½ of the value of the equivalent transverse modulus of elasticity (Gz) .
For confined masonry and confined and reinforced masonry in the joints, the corresponding provisions of
CR 6 will be taken into account.
C 8.9. Design of simple masonry buildings

C 8.9.1. Generals
C8.9.1.(1) The SR EN 1998-1 standard and the national regulations of several countries allow the design
of masonry buildings only by complying with well-specified construction conditions, without the obligation
of analytical safety verification for the seismic grouping of loads. Verification by calculation of the safety
of these buildings (superstructure and infrastructure) is mandatory for all other groups of loads provided
for in CR 0.
The buildings for which these simplified conditions are accepted are characterized by:
reduced seismic risk;
- are located in areas with low or moderate design acceleration (in

general ag 0.20g); -
are included in the lower classes of importance (classes III and IV); - they have a
limited height regime.
natural resistance reserves derived from: -
composition with geometric and structural regularity in plan and elevation; - limitation of
the unit compression effort in the pear (d 0.25fd); - the use of masonry with superior
mechanical characteristics than the current ones (20% increase compared to the current
requirements); - preferential use of reinforced masonry.
The possibility of designing buildings without verification by calculation is an exception to the

general concept of seismic design. The adoption of this possibility represents an option for the
design of simple buildings, as they are defined in P100-1.
C 8.9.2. Masonry materials
C8.9.2.(2) Provision of minimum values of the characteristic compressive strength 20% higher
than those in table 8.2. it aims to achieve a sufficient margin of safety in the absence of checks
by calculation and is meant to cover some local overloads that are not highlighted analytically.
Increasing the difference between the effective unit compression efforts and the strength of the
masonry increases and the ductility of the structure. In cases where the designer and/or the
investor follow the use of materials that lead to the minimum resistances in table 8.2 of the Code,
the safety for the seismic grouping of loads will be verified by calculation.
C 8.9.3. Geometric and structural regularity conditions C8.9.3.
(2) The limitation of the average unit compression effort on the ground floor has the purpose of:
1. Ensuring a higher level of sectional ductility;

2. Increasing the yield strength on the inclined section by increasing the total area a
pears
The maximum design values of the average unitary compression effort that respect
the condition = 0.25fd for the safety coefficient M=1.9 considering the increase in the
with resistances from table 8.2 provided for in 8.9.2.(2) are given in the
following table for seismic zones i the limits accepted according to art. 8.9.2.
Number of levels Land acceleration for agricultural design
finger 0.10g i 0.15g 0,20g
1 (P) 0,270 0,340
2 (P+1) 0,290 0,360
3 (P+2) 0,315 0,390
To illustrate the possibilities of choosing the structural system for simple masonry
buildings, the following table shows the effective values of the average unit compression
stress (d) that are realized in these buildings depending on the density of the structural
walls and the weight per m2 of the buildings . It results that the value 0.25fd covers the
average unit efforts in simple buildings, provided the appropriate choice of wall density.
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Average effective compressive unit stresses in simple masonry buildings
Density of structural walls

Inlime
Masonry weight 3% 4% 5% 6%
P 0,166 0,125 0,100 0,083

Elements of
BCA P+1E 0,333 0,250 0,200 0,166
g = 10 kN/m2 P+2E ---

0,375 0,300 0,250
P 0,200 0,150 0,120 0,100

Element din argil
ars g = 12 kN/m2 P+1E 0,400 0,300 0,240 0,200
P+2E --- ---

0,360 0,300
P 0,233 0,175 0,140 0,120

Element din argil
ars g = 14 kN/m2 P+1E ---

0,350 0,280 0,233
P+2E --- --- ---

0,350
C 9. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO WOODEN BUILDINGS
C 9.1.3 The design concept
C9.1.3.1 The design of construction details is very important for wooden constructions located
in seismic areas. The route of the efforts in the whole structure from the ground and the
foundation to the roof and vice versa (through the shape of the structure and continuity) must
be ensured, as well as the existence of a reserve of sufficient resistance (ductility and energy
dissipation).
C9.1.3.2 Seismic action implies the major importance of the structural continuity of the
connections between different elements and their effectiveness in tension/compression. All
the components of the bracing walls and the diaphragms must be connected so that they
form a unitary assembly.
Figure C 9.2 shows the location of the connections and examples of solutions to ensure structural
continuity. At the level of the plane, a peripheral belt must be provided in such a way that it resists
the stretching efforts acting from the plane in the form of horizontal loads (Figure C 9.2, b) and
ensures continuity at the corners, where the joints between the panels must be more frequent
( Figure C 9.2, a).
The vertical resistance elements must be joined continuously in height to ensure the uniform
transmission of vertical forces (Figure C 9.2, c).
Special consideration should be given to stretching perpendicular to the fibers. For this, in Figure
C 9.3, d, the height b must not be greater than 2/3h, to limit the risk of splitting. It is necessary
that the links in Figure C 9.3, b, d and e, are not eccentric.
C9.1.3.3 Joints must be capable of working in two perpendicular directions.

Therefore, joints with direct contact in one direction are not recommended. In Figure C 9.4, joints
with two-way transmission of the efforts are exemplified.
The foundations must be connected to each other, to work as a unitary whole, as an eraser in
case of deformation of the land.
Figure C 9.1. Effects of vertical and horizontal actions

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Figure C 9.2. Details that ensure continuity with horizontal loads. (a) turning the corners;
(b) continuity of stretched ribs; (c) the continuity of the mountain ranges; (d) taking over
the lifting and sliding on the foundations with the help of anchors.
Figure C 9.3. Details of the design of the joints required for stretching perpendicular to the
fibers (a) and (c) unfavorable behavior; (b), (d) and (e) favorable behavior.
Figure C 9.4. Constructive provisions for preventing the loss of contact on supports in
old and modern constructions
C 9.4. Design criteria for dissipative structures

C 9.4.1. Rules for joining elements
C9.4.1 Under the action of alternating loads, wooden elements generally behave linearly.
Their breakage is fragile, especially due to material defects.
Energy dissipation is weak, except for cases of transverse compression. Glued joints
also have an elastic behavior and do not contribute to the plastic deformation
structure, nor
of the
to
energy dissipation. This means that wooden structures with glued joints or perfectly
articulated bars can be considered weakly dissipative, without any possibility of
plasticization.
Plasticization and energy dissipation can occur in the joints of different elements only
in the case of semi-rigid joints (mechanical joints made with metal joining elements).
C9.4.2 Mechanical joints generally present a plastic behavior when the values of the
diameters of the rods and the distances between the rows of rods and between the rods
and the edge of the wooden element are respected. This phenomenon arises from the
behavior of the wood at the local bearing capacity associated with the plasticity and energy
dissipation of the metal.
C9.4.3 To avoid reducing the resistance capacity of a wooden structure, the following
principles must be observed:
- the design of some fixing parts that prevent the elements from being pulled out
jointing;
- avoiding the use of joining means susceptible to brittle breakage;
- the use of materials with a favorable behavior under repeated loads.
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C 10. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO NON-STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF BUILDINGS
C 10.1 Generalities
The main achievements in seismic engineering in the last decades of the 20th century were
mainly channeled towards the improvement of structural safety. Although some progress has
been made, the concerns regarding the seismic safety of the non-structural components of
buildings (CNS) have not developed to the level of those related to structural safety, although
damage to the elements and/or components of the CNS subsystem may have, even if on a large
scale less, the same category of consequences.
The first seismic design codes did not insist on CNS protection because their stated objective
was to ensure the protection of life, including through measures to allow the safe evacuation of
the building, but they did not consider the level of damage that could, in many cases, lead to its
decommissioning, for shorter or longer periods of time and/or to make repair operations
unacceptable from an economic point of view.
The first menu regarding the seismic protection of the CNS can be found in an annex to the UBC
(Uniform Building Code) from 1927 and refers to ensuring the stability of ornamental elements,
parapets and cladding both on the outside of buildings and on the inside
them.
Later (1935), the same Code provided, as a recommendation, the design of the CNS and their
fasteners for a horizontal force proportional to the respective weight F= CW. Only in 1961 did
this provision become mandatory.
Historically, the provisions relating to the various categories of CNS have appeared in the US
code as follows:
- the fastenings of prefabricated external panels (UBC 1967); -

storage shelves and suspended ceiling systems (UBC 1973); - equipment and
machinery, including their attachments (UBC 1976); - sprinkler systems and
raised floors (UBC 1985); - billboards/firms, main pipe systems, boilers, air
conditioning installations, motors, pumps, etc. (UBC 1988). In the Romanian regulations, the
provisions related to the seismic design of the CNS had the following chronology:
- P 13-63: established the seismic calculation force SCNS = cCNSQCNS where the global
coefficient cCNS was a multiple of the coefficient Ks (Ks = 0.05 for seismic grade 8
MSK); a very limited number of provisions have been given regarding Elements that
are not part of the main resistance structure.
- P 13-70: keeps, mainly, the same level of design seismic forces as P 13-63; ditto regarding
the constructive provisions.
- P 100-78: provides for some increases in the level of design seismic forces
but the constructive provisions for CNS are completely missing.
- P 100-81: maintains the level of seismic forces from P 100-78; an important chapter
appears Measures regarding the design and execution of construction installations.
- P 100-92: maintains the level of seismic forces in P100-81 (with some clarifications) and
the chapter on the design of the facilities is more developed (including an explanatory
annex).
- P 100-1/2006: the level of seismic forces increased with the modification of the zoning
map and the force values were differentiated according to the specific values of the self-
amplification factors (CNS) and behavior factors (qCNS)
However, it is mentioned that, in recent years, even under the conditions of application of the
provisions of P 100-1/2006, the seismic risk of the CNS has increased because, in most cases,
the overall composition of the designed buildings was characterized by complex architectural
solutions, whose seismic response is, often, difficult to predict accurately enough by calculation
and the design of non-structural elements has not always taken into account the specific
constraints imposed by seismic movements. We refer here, for example, to buildings with
complex shapes in plan and elevation that include large glazed surfaces. As a rule, these glazed
surfaces, supplied and installed by specialized companies, are not checked by the respective
designs from the point of view of their ability to take over the probable "drift" of the structure,
significantly amplified by the overall torsion of buildings with a complex shape, and, sometimes,
not even for the seismic action perpendicular to their plane.
Another cause of the seismic vulnerability of the CNS is also due to the fact that their design is
often entrusted to debutante architects or average personnel, being solved by the mechanical
application of some details that, in many cases, have proven inadequate and which are taken
over in projects without no critical analysis.
The detailing of CNS fasteners is often done late in the execution schedule or is often left to the
discretion of the builder (for example, the case of false ceilings that also include unsecured
lighting fixtures against swaying during an earthquake). Even the provisions regarding the
anchoring of the masonry are in most cases missing from the plans or are applied mechanically,
without an effective calculation of the necessary reinforcements in the columns and belts from
the eaves, attics, parapets (in the vast majority of cases, their reinforcements being established
by "eye" or taken from previous projects).
The situations when imported non-structural elements (including the respective fastening details)
coming from non-seismic countries and whose resistance capacity is not checked for the
calculated seismic intensity of different locations in Romania should not be neglected.
The verification of projects from the point of view of the resistance and stability of the CNS by
certified verifiers, provided for in this chapter at 10.10.(2), aims precisely to prevent the
unfavorable behavior of the CNS to the action of the design earthquake and to maintain them in
operation in the case of buildings with vital functions for earthquakes with a shorter recovery
period.
The seismic response of the CNS presents numerous particularities that lead to the use of
specific design concepts and methods, substantially different from those currently used for the
design of structural elements.
The main differences come from: -
The behavior to the direct seismic action: Due to the amplification resulting from the dynamic
response of the structure, the seismic acceleration to which the CNS located above the
embedment level of the superstructure are subjected is much higher than the seismic
acceleration of the ground. Measurements carried out on different types of buildings
show that the acceleration at the level of the planes increases with the height of the building
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reaching up to 34 times the acceleration of the ground at the last plane of the
building. As such, apart from the ground movement characteristics and the dynamic
characteristics of the main structure, the seismic response of a CNS also depends
on its position in the building.
- The behavior to the indirect seismic action: The elements of the CNS subsystem that
have multiple attachments to the structure or that are in direct contact with the
elements of the structure are required by the deformations imposed by the movement
of the main structure during the earthquake.
This type of request of a CNS occurs because each attachment point has a different
movement and in some cases out of phase (opposite direction) compared to the
movement of the others; the intensity of this stress depends directly on the extent
to which the distances between the attachment points change during the earthquake.
- The dynamic properties of the CNS: the mass, stiffness and damping of the CNS are,
as a rule, much lower than the mass, stiffness and damping of the structure. The
natural vibration period of a CNS can sometimes be close to the period of one of
the vibration modes of the structure, resulting from this cause, and being favored by
the reduced natural damping, a quasi-resonant situation, with the very important
amplification of the movement at the base of the CNS (at the level where it rests).
In the rarer cases, where the mass and stiffness of the CNS are close to those of
the main structure, an interaction phenomenon, significant in intensity, can occur
between the CNS and the main structure. As a result, the composite system
"structure + CNS" can acquire close eigenperiods so that the maximum seismic
response can correspond to two or even three eigenperiods of the structure.
- The mechanical properties of materials and equipment have some particularities that
can amplify the effects of seismic action: * as a rule, the materials from which CNS
are composed are not suitable for taking over seismic stresses: they have a fragile
behavior (they lack ductility) and have low mechanical resistance, in particular
to unitary stretching efforts;
* the components of the equipment and especially the connections (assemblies)

between them can be easily damaged / loosened by the movement of the
construction during the earthquake, leading to the failure of the installation /
equipment.
As such, the seismic response of each CNS is different depending on the field of behavior -
brittle or ductile - of the material from which it is composed. In the case of electro-mechanical
equipment, the seismic response also depends on their ability to withstand the different
individual movements of the components during the earthquake.
The problems of seismic protection of non-structural subsystems in buildings are addressed

in a complex way in the design codes of many advanced countries, the USA being the first.
In most of these countries where the seismic hazard represents a serious threat to the life
and property of the population, regulations have been promoted that contain numerous
provisions regarding the initial protection, by design, of the non-structural components in
new buildings as well as the assessment of the degree of insurance and the reduction of
risk seismic of the CNS from the existing buildings.
The evolution over time of the level of knowledge made the extent of the provisions of the Design
Codes regarding the seismic protection of the CNS to increase from one edition to another.
Astfel, ultima variant a International Building Code – IBC 2003 [ICC International
Code Council - International Building Code IBC 2003], intended to replace the three model
codes currently used in the US territory, contains numerous elements of progress compared to
the previous codes: - higher design seismic forces are foreseen;
- contains stricter and more detailed constructive provisions;

- contains additional provisions regarding the admissible (design) drift; - has
additional specific provisions for the design of the fasteners;
- imposes the design for seismic action in the case of equipment that has a high
level of importance in the case of buildings with essential functions.
In the systemic conception, a building is made up of two
subsystems: the subsystem of structural elements
(structure) the subsystem of non- structural components
(CNS). According to the currently used definitions, the subsystem of structural
elements is made up of building components that are intended to ensure the satisfaction
of the building's structural safety requirement under the action of different mechanical
agents from the natural or anthropogenic environment. For buildings located in seismic
zones of medium or high intensity, the composition, dimensioning and constructive
detailing of the subsystem of structural elements is conditioned, first of all, by the effects of seismic forces.
For buildings located in seismic areas of low intensity, structures correctly designed for
permanent and useful gravity loads and (possibly) for those due to the action of the
wind, can ensure, without additional measures, the satisfaction of the structural safety
requirement.
The classification of the components of a building into structural/ non-structural should
be considered more from a methodological point of view. In the Design Codes the
classification is based on certain formal criteria, sometimes subjective, which lead to
different seismic evaluation methodologies. In reality, the building responds to the
seismic action as a unitary assembly in which the order of failure of the elements is not
necessarily the one considered in the design scenario.
Many elements defined as non- structural (based on the uncertainties regarding their
intervention in the overall seismic response) contribute, positively or negatively, to the
achievement of the seismic performance objective pursued by the designer. In particular,
the masonry components considered non-structural in the design scenario can have
both negative effects (for example, in the case of uncontrolled interactions with the
elements of the structure) and contribute favorably (if the conditions for working with the
structure to absorb/dissipate seismic energy are met)
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C 10.1.1. Object and scope

C10.1.1 (1) The need to introduce in P100-1 a distinct and consistent chapter on
non-structural components is justified, first of all, by the finding, both in the country
and abroad, of the fact that in the vast majority of cases in the projects of
construction, no special measures are foreseen for the seismic protection of the
CNS. Currently, one resorts to the use of past experience or to constructive details
that can be very correct for a non-seismic area but can generate serious
consequences in seismic areas.
At the same time, the fact that in most codes special provisions are given only for the
seismic protection of a limited number of CNS may lead to the conclusion that the rest of
them do not need to be protected.
The non-structural components are not part of the main structure but must possess
structural characteristics (stability, resistance, rigidity, ductility) in order to maintain their
position in the building and their own physical integrity (which conditions the ability to
function after the earthquake).
The provisions related to the design, execution and assembly of non-structural components in
buildings aim to reduce the total losses caused by earthquakes.
The experience of past earthquakes showed that the great majority of direct and indirect economic
losses were due to the damage of non-structural components.
Direct losses refer to the costs of repair / replacement of damaged components and indirect losses
result from the interruption / blocking of production, commercial, transport activities, etc. In many
situations, damage to the CNS affected the safety of the lives of the residents inside and outside
the buildings, with a significant number of deaths and many cases of injured persons being
reported. Thus, in Japan, in the Miyagiken-oki earthquake (1978) 18 people died (2/3 of the total
number of victims) as a result of the collapse of the enclosure fences and in the Kobe earthquake
(1995) 65 people lost their lives due to the fall some heavy pieces of furniture (1% of the total
number of victims).
The damage and failure of some non-structural components, especially in the category of
installations, led to the interruption of the operation of some buildings with essential functions for
the post-earthquake intervention/reaction. In the USA, during the Northridge earthquake (1994),
10 main hospitals, whose structures were practically unaffected, were put out of service due to
damage to the CNS: damage to water installations, broken windows, strong oscillation of lighting
fixtures, damage to counterweights from the elevators and the interruption of the electricity supply.
Even in the case of current buildings, the damage of some CNS from the installations category
can make the respective construction uninhabitable for a period of time.
Although the important share of CNS damage in the balance sheet of total losses caused by
earthquakes has been identified for a long time, the action of the specialist community has gained
a greater scope only in the last three decades. This was due to the fact that recent earthquakes
have shown that, while the structural performance of modern buildings, designed according to
advanced codes, has been satisfactory, there have been many cases of massive damage to
secondary parts even in moderate earthquakes (for example: Loma Prieta – 1989, Richter
magnitude MR = 7.1 and Northridge – 1994, MR = 6.7). In the last decades, the complex study,
theoretical and experimental, of the seismic behavior of non-structural components of constructions,
and the consequent regulation of
the necessary measures to increase their safety level, experienced a rapid

evolution.
Despite all these advances, at a conceptual/theoretical level, there are still several impediments
for the large-scale application of this concept to the design of new buildings and intervention
works on buildings from the existing built stock , namely [Gunturi, SKV & Shah, HC Mapping
structural damage to monetary damage in Structural Engineering in Natural Hazard Mitigation,
Proc. ASCE Structures Congress 1993; Irvine CA,USA, ] :
- the absence of a unitary set of formulations and even specific definitions (de
reference);
- the absence of design codes and methodologies accepted by the entire community of
specialists (see, for example, the discrepancy between the levels of approach in SR
EN 1998-1 and in the American regulations);
- lack of unitary control over the design process.
taking into account the novelty character of this Chapter and the fact that, in most cases,
structural design engineers are not familiar with the specific aspects of the seismic response
of the CNS and with the concepts and methods of the seismic design of the CNS, the following
comments will contain and many explanatory/descriptive elements (some of which even have
a didactic aspect) with the aim of helping to understand the elements that form the basis of
the provisions of the Code and thus facilitate their application in design.
The trend of diversification of CNS protection measures subject to seismic action, depending
on the constructive particularities and the level of associated risk, involves a more complex
analysis than the one with which the designs are currently used, the analysis that goes far
beyond the patterns and/or from the convenience of the design routine. For this reason, it will
be necessary that, in the future, this segment of the design falls entirely to the structural
engineers, who, in collaboration with the architects and the engineers who design the
installations and mechanical equipment in the buildings, will find the most appropriate
solutions for improving the seismic performance of CNS. It is obvious, at the same time, that
from a practical point of view, by adopting such a methodology for the design of non-structural
components, the designers' effort will increase, it will become more complex and, therefore,
more expensive. These additional costs must be judged in relation to the incomparably greater
benefits obtained by limiting damage to non-structural elements.
C10.1.1.(5) It is obvious, especially from economic considerations, that both the protection of
non-structural elements in new buildings and the interventions to reduce the risk in existing
buildings must be differentiated according to the importance of the building and the severity
of the seismic actions likely to affect the building for the entire duration of operation established
by the investor, so that the risk of damage is as low as possible under the conditions of a
rational and acceptable financial effort for the investor.
Establishing the minimum admissible performance level - the admissible risk - that is, the one
implicitly accepted by the design regulations, is a political decision problem corresponding to
a certain stage in the economic development of society in a country.
For a construction, considered individually, the investor can ask the designer for a performance
objective that achieves a higher degree of insurance than the minimum provided by the
technical regulations, if this results in a minimization of the total cost (Ctot) of the building
consisting of the cost of the initial investment (Ci), the cost of repair/ consolidation works
(Cr) that become necessary after the earthquakes
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expected during the expected operating period for the building, and the indirect costs (When)
resulting from the interruption of the building's operation. This idea can be customized in the case of
CNS in the form:
Ctot,CNS = Ci,CNS + Cr,CNS + Cind,CNS

in which:
Ci,CNS – the initial (investment) cost of the CNS subsystem;
Cr,CNS – the total cost of the repairs/replacement of the elements of the CNS subsystem as a result
of the damage caused by earthquakes throughout the building's operation period (this value
does not include the costs related to the repairs/replacements required due to the normal
wear and tear of the building);
When, CNS - the indirect cost of CNS damage (losses of benefits depending on the probable duration
of non- operation of the building).
Regarding the initial cost of the seismic protection measures of the CNS, we must remember that it
is practically insignificant in relation to the direct and indirect damages that can be produced by the
damage of the CNS.
An older study from the USA [Whitman, RV, et al. Seismic Design Analysis Structures Publication
no.381, MIT, March 1974] shows that for frame buildings the cost increase for CNS protection is only
1% regardless of the seismic zone of the site.
Figure C 10.1. The cost of seismic protection of CNS for buildings made of reinforced concrete frames
Another example of the efficiency of the initial investment is that of a standby electric
generator for a hospital whose initial/replacement cost is $50,000 and the cost of
the seismic isolators and anti-shift/overturning fixture is only $250. [PAHO Pan
American Health Organization Principles of Disaster Mitigation in Health Facilities
Washington DC 2000].
Due to the uncertainties related to the manifestation of earthquakes and the seismic response of the
structure and the CNS, the costs of repairs during the operation period and indirect losses must be
considered as quantities defined on a probabilistic basis (probable total cost)
The economic effect of the seismic protection of the CNS depends to a large extent on the function of
the building which actually establishes the relative weight of the costs of the structure/non-structural
components/assets in the building.
The following figure shows the cost structure for hospital, office and hotel buildings. From its
examination, it follows that the largest share in
investment belongs to the furniture, furnishings and non-structural elements.

Consequently, minor increases in the cost of the structure (12%) are the most
appropriate solution for reducing the likely total cost over the entire operating life. [Taghavi, S & Miranda, E
Seismic Performance and Loss Assessment of Nonstructural Building Components Proceedings of
7th National Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Boston., MA.,2002] [Miranda, E. Response
Assessment of Nonstructural Building Elements PEER Report 05/2003]
Figure C 10.2. Relative costs of building components
C10.1.1.(6) Seismic action on the CNS is manifested as:

"direct" action
"indirect" action
The two types of action are illustrated in figure C 10.3.
(a) Direct action (b) Indirect action

Figure C 10.3. Earthquake action on non-structural components
Damage / rupture of the CNS due to the direct effect of the earthquake is produced by:
- loss of material resistance; - capsize

due to insufficient anchorage or lack of anchorage; - sliding movement
due to insufficient anchorage or lack of anchorage.
Measures to reduce the risk of damage through the direct effect of the earthquake mainly consist
of:
- ensuring a proper anchorage; - provision of

special constructive measures to ensure stability (elements/subassemblies whose role is to
ensure stability).
Damage / rupture of the CNS through the indirect effect of the earthquake can occur from one of
the following causes:
- excessive relative displacement of the structure; - the

incompatibility of the rigidity of the CNS with the rigidity of the
structure; - uncontrolled interactions between the elements of the structure and
the joined CNS; - CNS attachment of two independent structures (sections); -
the attachment of the CNS to the structure at several points.
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The measures to reduce the risk of damage through the indirect effect of the earthquake consist,
for this category of elements, in:
- limitation of relative level displacements for the main structure; - the design
of the CNS to be able to take over the estimated movements without the fasteners failing and
without damaging the respective component.
From the point of view of the causes that produce their damage during the earthquake,
CNS are classified into two groups:
i. Components whose damage occurs mainly through seismic action

directly (the effect of the inertial forces corresponding to the product between the mass
of the CNS and the acceleration it captures during the earthquake). These components
are referred to in the specialized literature as components sensitive to seismic acceleration.
Damage to the CNS in masonry through the direct effect of inertial forces can take one of the
following forms:
cracks, cracks, dislocations resulting from exceeding the resistance capacity of the
component due to the demands produced by the forces of inertia; overturning or
sliding of the component due to the lack of anchoring or an insufficient anchoring (the
case of components resting on consoles, parapets, balustrades, smoke and ventilation
chimneys, etc.).
ii. Components whose damage is mainly caused by indirect seismic action (the effect of
the deformations imposed by the relative lateral displacements of the attachment/
contact points with the main structure). These components are referred to in the
specialized literature as components sensitive to displacements imposed by seismic
movement.
Damage to the CNS in masonry through the indirect effect of seismic action can be caused by
one of the following causes:
high value of the relative level displacement of the structure;

incompatibility between the rigidity of the structure and that of the non-
structural components in the masonry; uncontrolled interactions between
the non-structural elements in the masonry and the adjacent structural elements; the
attachment of non-structural elements of different structures (if the movement joints do
not cross the CNS).
For the seismic design of the CNS, it is important to identify the sensitivity of different categories
of CNS to the two categories of earthquake effects mentioned in C10.1.(6). Based on the
theoretical analyzes (dynamic model) and the type of interaction with the main structure (specific
to each CNS category), the following table gives a classification of the CNS from this point of view:
Table C10.1
Effect Direct
Non-structural component category indirect effect
A Architectural components
A1 Elements attached to the tire
Finishes, thermal protection elements or decorations made of brick, concrete,

stone, ceramic, glass or similar materials, which are supported by structural
S P
or non-structural closing elements (elements glued to the facade or anchored
to the facade)
Awnings, balustrades, attics, ornamental profiles, awnings, statues, companies/

P ----
advertisements resting on consoles, antennas.
A2 Tire elements
The elements of the envelope's own structure - solid or glazed wall panels,
beams, rails, lintels, belts and other elements that are not part of the main
S P
structure of the building; embedded joinery, including glazing/glass.
Fixed or removable interior partitioning elements (including finishes and built-

in carpentry) heavy or light.
A3 Interior plywood: S P
- from stone, including marble
- from ceramic elements
-----
Suspended ceilings:
A4 P
- applied directly to the structure
A5 Alte construction element
Write P S
B1B4 Instalaii
Equipment, machines P -----
Conduct and television P S
C1C2 Electromechanical equipment P S
D1D3 Furniture and other goods P ----
P main effect S secondary effect.
In the case of CNS sensitive to direct seismic action, the structure/CNS interaction
due to the deformations/movements of the foundations has little importance. CNS
sensitive to direct action can be damaged by sliding, tilting or overturning
(mechanical/electrical equipment is, as a rule, sensitive to direct action).
The intensity of the two effects on the CNS also depends on the extent of the
structure's incursions into the post-elastic domain. For structures with high ductility
(designed for high values of the behavior factor q) the level acceleration value is
lower than that corresponding to structures with quasi-elastic response (roughly
those designed for q 1.52.0) and, for this reason, CNS which are sensitive to action
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"direct" earthquakes are less requested. On the other hand, in the case of structures
designed with high values of the q coefficient, CNS that are sensitive to the "indirect"
action of the earthquake must be able to take over larger relative displacements of the
attachment points.
C 10.2. General seismic performance requirements specific to CNS

C10.2 (1) The identification of the main categories of damage that earthquakes cause to
the CNS subsystem and the knowledge of the damage mechanism are aimed at
substantiating practical seismic design measures.
The risks caused by CNS damage refer to:
- safety of life; -
total/partial loss of functionality; - large
economic losses (which may cause high direct and/or indirect expenses in relation to
the investment value). Depending on the consequences that their damage may
have, CNS of buildings can be classified into four large categories, as follows: a) Elements
or sub-assemblies whose damage may affect the safety of the lives of people outside the
building, may block access to the building and /or may cause material damage to the
building and the grounds: - non-structural exterior walls (heavy and light facades/
curtain walls), including the cladding/finishing and decorations attached to them, the
awnings at the entrances;
- thermal protection elements on the reinforced concrete structural walls; -

decorative elements or attached to the facades: parapets, planters, firms, antennas, etc
similar;
- building elements located at the roof level: dormers, cornices, attics,
chimneys and ventilation, parts of ceramic covers; - enclosure
fences. b) Elements or sub-assemblies whose damage can affect
the safety of the lives of people inside the building, can prevent the access of intervention
teams or the safe evacuation of the building: - the internal partition wall, especially
those on the access and/or
evacuation;
- suspended ceilings, including lighting fixtures; -
installations or equipment whose damage can cause accidents: boilers, pressure
boilers, electrical transformers, etc. c) Elements or sub-assemblies whose damage
can lead to the decommissioning of some buildings with essential functions (for example,
in the case of hospitals, communication centers, etc.). The non-structural components
in this category (specific equipment, power supply networks, technological furniture)
must be identified, in each separate building, by the specialized users. d) Elements or
subassemblies whose damage can only cause material damage related to their
replacement/repair and/or the interruption of activity in the building for different periods of
time.
The inventory of specific damages, for the main CNS categories, is presented in the
following based on the data from [BSSC. Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA
356: NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulation for New Buildings. (1998)]
was compiled through numerous in-situ researches after past earthquakes.
- Suspended ceilings: falling panels, contour damage, rib separation

main ones from the transversal ones.
- Plaster ceilings: partial/total collapse, local sales.
- Facade walls: falling walls, damage to panels and fasteners,
breaking windows, falling plywood.
- Decorations, ornaments: damage leading to the risk of parts falling
massive, heavy.
- Walls plastered or plastered with plaster panels: cracks, cracks, dislocations.
- Removable separating walls: overturning, displacement.
- High planes (elevated): fall, separation between modules.
- Elements embedded in suspended ceilings (lighting fixtures, vents, sprinklers): falling from the
suspended ceiling, breaking ends or water pipes.
- Closing walls and dividers from unreinforced masonry: opening and falling of walls and parapets,
falling debris from dividing walls.
- Boilers: slipping, breaking of gas or diesel pipes, breaking or
the bending of the steam valves and the emergency valves.
- Cooling installations: slipping, overturning, malfunctioning, loss
coolant.
- Emergency electrical generators (reserve): damage to vibration isolators, breaking of power
connections (diesel, energy, command lines), loss of operating capacity, breaking of
transmission lines.
- Fire water pumps: broken anchor bolts, changing the position of the pump in relation to the engine,
broken pipes.
- Local reservoirs: damage to the vessel, rupture of pipes/valves.
- Communication equipment: sliding, overturning, twisting that produces
retirement.
- Main transformers: slipping, loss of oil, breakage/damage of insulators, failure.
- Main electrical panels: sliding or overturning, breaking or

damage to the eaves or busbars.
- Elevators (with traction): the release of the counterweight from the rings, the release of the cables
from the pulley, the dislocation of the equipment.
- Other fixed equipment: sliding or overturning, failure, damage to attached equipment.
- Drains: rupture, separation, loss of liquid, loss of steam. evi, pipes: rupture, liquid
-
loss.
C10.2 (2) A more concrete formulation of the performance requirements of the CNS is possible within
the general conception of seismic design based on the performance concept (PBSD Performance based
seismic design).
The maximum degree of damage likely after an earthquake occurs defines the seismic performance
level of the building.
The degree of damage refers to both the structural elements (ES) and the non-structural components
(CNS) and is defined by the nature, extent and consequences of the damage (losses).
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Thus in the USA, in accordance with the provisions established by [SEAOC Performance –Based
Seismic Engineering.Vision 2000 Committee, Sacramento. 1995] and with the recommendations [BSSC.
Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA 450: NEHRP Recommended Provisions for
Seismic Regulation for New Buildings. (2003)] four performance levels are defined, the first two being
related to the service limit state (SLS) and the others to the ultimate limit state (ULS).
The performance requirements related to (SLS) are defined as follows :
1. Fully functional building (CCF) : building with negligible damage, which continues
to function normally, including installations, equipment and facilities.
2. Functional building (CF): building with minor damage and short-term interruptions
of non-essential services/utilities, but which can be used normally.
Since the elements of the CNS subsystem ensure the functionality of the building, it is
obvious that the achievement of these two levels of performance depends, first of all,
on the behavior of the CNS subsystem under the action of the earthquake. In the case
of CNS that are sensitive to the indirect action of the earthquake, their seismic
performance obviously also depends on the seismic performance of the structure. The
level of fully functional building performance is associated with demands for which
incursions beyond the limit of the elastic range of material behavior are accidental . In
the case of ductile structures, after exceeding the functional building limit (CF) there is
a long deformation interval, between CF and CPV, in which the damage is considered
to be controllable (as a result, CNS damage is not excessive).
[BSSC. Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA 274: NEHRP Commentary on theGuidelines for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings, october
1997]
In the case of structures with non-ductile behavior (designed with relatively small
behavior factors), the field in which it can be stated that CNS damage is not excessive
(between CF and CPV) is much narrower.
(a)
(b)
Figure C 10.4. The domain of controlled damage to ductile (a) and non-ductile (b) structures
The description of the general behavior of the CNS subassembly, for each of the
four levels of seismic performance (NPS) of the building, was formulated in the
document [SEAOC Performance –Based Seismic Engineering.Vision 2000
Committee, Sacramento. 1995] as follows: I. Fully functional/operational: Only
minor damage occurs to the CNS which continues to function and the building is
available for normal use.
Local and isolated repairs, if necessary, can be carried out whenever the beneficiary
wishes. The satisfaction of this level also depends on the characteristics of the
equipment (seismic qualification) and the quality of the assembly. Sometimes the
existence/functioning of the backup power supply with electricity is necessary.
II. Functional: CNS is safe and if the respective power supplies are available, most of
them can work. The vital systems (Life Safety Systems) are operational.
There are slight damages to some CNS, some broken windows, some equipment
may stop working. Access keys and life safety equipment generally remain available
and functional (if the power supply is working). Repairs, sometimes more numerous,
can be started whenever the beneficiary wants.
The risk of injury/loss of life due to CNS damage is very low. If the structure does
not have serious damage, the occupants can remain safely in the building, but
sometimes in conditions of reduced comfort.
III. Protection of life: Significant damage to the CNS occurs. These are safe
in terms of stability and strength, but it is possible that, in most cases, the installations
and equipment will not work.
There are extensive and costly damages to the CNS that require a long time to
recover, but there are no dislocations and systematic falls. The access roads can be
partially blocked by debris or some fallen construction elements. Other significant
damage to the building can occur through damage to the installations: flooding, fires.
There may be people injured by falling CNS, but the risk of loss of life is generally
very low, both inside the building and outside.
IV. Pre-collapse: It is possible that many CNSs are dislocated or have broken/damaged
attachments and for this reason present a major risk of collapse and therefore,
danger to life safety. In properly designed buildings, heavy/massive elements that
represent serious hazards if they fall are secured and do not fall in areas where
crowds of people are possible. At this level of damage, it is not possible to ensure
the protection of access roads and life safety installations (fire extinguishing
installations, for example).
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C10.2.(4) Seismic design according to this chapter is applied in the territory, differentiated
according to:
the severity of the seismic hazard at the site ( ag acceleration);
the importance class of the building
risk resulting from damage to a certain class of CNS (mainly risk to life safety)
C10.2.(5) The exceptions mentioned in this point take into account the existence of a reduced
risk for life safety resulting from the corroboration of the following considerations:
- low request level; - the non-
existence of a public danger in case of damage; - lower
importance class of buildings (for which operation is not required
continuous and which do not accommodate crowds of people);
- the absence of special risks (discharge of liquids or vapors with temperature
or high pressure or other dangerous substances). In addition,
for all BD components (with the exception of B4) for which CNS 1, it has been considered that, by
limiting the weight and mounting height, these elements do not constitute a danger to life safety in
the event that they fall over or move from the position in which are mounted.
C 10.3. Basics of seismic calculation of non-structural components

The current edition of P 100-1 is based on 25% higher values of design seismic accelerations
compared to those of P 100-1/2006, for all locations that are under the influence of intermediate
earthquakes in Vrancea and superficial earthquakes in Banat. For these areas, the design seismic
acceleration is ag=0.20g÷0.40g, which increases, directly proportionally, the value of the seismic
force for which the CNS must be designed. These values correspond to an average recurrence
interval of about 225 years and serve for the calculation of the CNS at the ultimate limit state of
stability and resistance.
For the calculation at the service limit state (SLS), a fraction () of the ag value corresponding to the
location is used, differentiated in relation to the potential risk arising from the damage of different
categories of non-structural components.
The increase in seismic force proportional to the increase in design acceleration was partially
compensated by reducing the safety coefficients for some materials considering the fact that the
average recurrence interval of the design earthquake increased from 100 years to 225 years
(probability of occurrence during the existence of the design earthquake construction has fallen).
However, more severe provisions were introduced for the protection of the essential components
in the buildings of the first class of importance and for all the components that present a risk to the
safety of life.
The provisions are more severe for areas with high acceleration values (ag0.30g) for which national
and international experience is less. In any case, increasing the design seismic acceleration will
lead, in many situations, to increasing the dimensions of some elements (increasing the thickness
of non-structural walls) and to increasing the dimensions of fasteners and to the need for stricter
constructive measures both for construction elements and for installations and equipment.
At the same time, it will result in an additional effort on the part of the designers for calculations
and detailing.
C 10.3.1. Principles and methods of evaluating the design seismic force for CNS
C10.3.1(2) The more accurate calculation of the CNS under seismic action can be done
using different direct dynamic analysis procedures, based on the principles of the dynamics
of elastic structures. The purpose of the calculation is to determine the seismic acceleration
of the CNS located in a construction in order to evaluate the design seismic forces.
The complexity of these procedures/methods varies widely depending on the calculation model
and the analytical procedure used.
The calculation based on a complete model of the "structure +CNS" systems, performed by
modal analysis or by direct integration of the motion equations, presents special difficulties that
make it practically inapplicable in the current design. In addition, as mentioned in the specialized
literature, due to the large number of degrees of freedom of the composite system and the large
differences between the mass of the structure and the mass of the CNS, the results obtained by
such a procedure do not always have a satisfactory degree of confidence.
A possibility to eliminate the indicated difficulties and uncertainties is the decoupling of the two
dynamic systems - the structure and the CNS - that is, the separate determination of the response
of the main structure and its use as an external action for the calculation of the CNS. Such a
procedure involves the determination of the variation over time of the seismic acceleration at the
level of support / attachment of the CNS (floor accelerogram) and its use for the calculation of
the seismic acceleration of the CNS considered as an independent dynamic system. The
application of this procedure does not avoid the direct integration of the motion equations for the
structure and the CNS, but it eliminates the difficulties and uncertainties indicated in the case of
the complete model.
Note. The floor accelerogram can be obtained directly from seismically instrumented buildings,
but only at the levels where the equipment is mounted.
The above arguments justify and explain the extremely limited use in current practice of the two
procedures mentioned in this paragraph.
C 10.3.1.1. The method of floor

spectra The group of procedures known in the literature as the "method of floor response
spectra" allows simplifications of the calculations for establishing the CNS acceleration
with an acceptable degree of accuracy within wide limits.
The calculation of floor response spectra involves the following steps:
1. Determination of the variation over time of the seismic acceleration at the level of the
plane on which the CNS is fixed (floor accelerogram) by directly integrating the equation
of motion of the structure under the action of a recorded accelerogram or an artificial
accelerogram compatible with the response spectrum of the ground acceleration at
location.
2. Determination of the floor response spectrum by the usual methodology using the floor
accelerogram as action.
3. Determination of the response spectrum of the CNS based on the dynamic characteristics
of it using the floor response spectrum. If the aim is
only to determine the response of the CNS to a single seismic movement, the application of the
procedure described above is relatively simple and fast.
If, however, it is desired to take into account the uncertainties related to the manifestation of the
seismic action and the dynamic properties of the structure, the application of the method becomes
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so laborious. In this case, it is necessary that the determination of the floor response
spectrum be carried out by statistically processing the results obtained with a sufficiently
large number of floor accelerograms, generated, in turn, using a package of artificial
accelerograms, and taking into account the variability statistics of the dynamic properties
of the structure (proper periods of vibration and structural damping). In this way, a
smoothed floor spectrum is obtained , with known mean values and standard deviations.
This approach is also cumbersome and time-consuming for dynamic analyzes and is
practically not used even in the case of exceptional constructions (such as nuclear power
plants).
In order to eliminate, at least partially, the reported difficulties, variants of this method were
searched to avoid the direct integration of the building's motion equations.
These methods allow - with certain simplifications - the direct determination of the floor
response spectrum, starting from a given ground motion spectrum, based only on the
dynamic properties of the main structure. Obviously, it is reasonable that the ground motion
spectrum should, in turn, be determined as a smoothed spectrum based on a sufficiently
large number of artificial accelerograms.
For the current design, instead of the smoothed spectrum of ground movement, obtained
by direct integration of a package of accelerograms, the elastic response spectrum for the
respective location established by the specific technical regulations (the elastic spectrum
of the Code) can be used.
The more accurate calculation of the seismic forces exerted on the non-structural
components is recommended especially in the case of tall buildings, for which the "quasi-
resonance" phenomenon of the natural frequencies of the CNS and of some higher-order
vibration periods of the building should also be taken into account [Petrovici , R., Seismic
calculation of non-structural components in high-rise buildings - AICPS National Conference
2008]. From the point of view of the ease of application and even the resulting accuracy,
the advantages of the methods that use the floor spectrum determined from the code
elastic spectrum are still sufficient for to justify their use in design practice.
C 10.3.1.2. The method of equivalent static forces
C10.3.1.2.(2) In the vast majority of contemporary regulations, the value of the static force
equivalent to the seismic action is expressed as a function of five parameters in the form:
CCCC
4321
F CNS CNS CNSGcG CNS
C5
where cCNS is a global seismic coefficient for the respective component. In the formula above,
the meaning of the coefficients C1 C5 is as follows (the notations from this Code are given in parentheses): C1 -
coefficient representing the seismic action at the location (ag); C2 - ground acceleration amplification coefficient at
the CNS grip level
(Kz);
C3 - dynamic amplification coefficient of CNS (CNS);
C4 - coefficient of importance to the CNS (CNS);

C5 - coefficient of modification (reduction) of the seismic force effect for CNS (qCNS).
As can be seen, relation (10.1) from the Code fully covers the structure of the general
formula for calculating FCNS. In the SR EN 1998-1 standard, the equivalent static seismic
force for the CNS is given by a formula in which all the parameters expressed by the
coefficients C1 C5 are found, but without being explained as such.
WS
CNS CNSCNS
F CNS
q CNS
where the notations are as follows:
SCNS - seismic coefficient for CNS
WCNS - CNS weight
CNS - CNS importance coefficient qCNS -
CNS behavior coefficient
The SCNS coefficient has the expression:
With
13
H
S S 5.0 SC
CNS 2 32
TCNS
11
T
0
As can be seen, the coefficient marked C2+3 simultaneously takes into account the amplification
of the ground acceleration on the height of the building - the coefficient C2 from (C10.2) - and the
dynamic amplification given by the ratio between the natural period of the CNS and the period of
the fundamental mode of vibration of structure - coefficient C3 from (C10.2). In the SCNS formula,
the notations are:
- the ratio between the design seismic acceleration and the acceleration of gravity (analogous
to the coefficient Ks from P100-92);
S - coefficient that takes into account the nature of the terrain (S1.0 in the current edition P
100-1); TCNS - own period of CNS;
T0 - the period of the fundamental mode of vibration of the
structure. In relation (10.1) from P 100-1, the coefficient Kz takes into account the fact that the
acceleration of the ground is amplified on the height of the building as a result of its oscillatory
movement. Consequently, non-structural components at different heights in relation to the base
of the building will have different accelerations, which increase from the base to the top. If a
complete dynamic calculation of the building is done, the acceleration value of each plane can be
determined accurately to serve as a basis for the calculation of the force requiring the CNS at
each level.
Since performing the dynamic calculation is not justified for all categories of constructions (see
Commentary C10.3.1(2)), the technical regulations provide simplified relations for the evaluation
of seismic acceleration at different levels on the height of the construction.
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All these relationships are based on the simplifying assumption that the increase in acceleration
along the height of the building is proportional to the height (z) above the embedment section.
This section is considered at the upper face of the foundations or, in the case of buildings with
a rigid basement, at the upper level of the slab above the basement. In this way, the variation
of the seismic acceleration on the height of the building (Kz) has a trapezoidal shape expressed
by the relation :
With
1 mK With
H
The relation from SR EN 1998-1 can also be reduced to the same form at the limit because in
the current cases, the non-structural components are much more rigid than the structure (with the
exception of some pipes or similar elements) and, as such, we have TCNS<<T0 .
Therefore, in this case, it can be accepted that the ratio TCNS/ T0 tends to zero and,
therefore, it results with sufficient precision that the value of the coefficient C2+3 is given by the
same equation with m=1.5
With With
C
32 5.115.015.1 H H
which leads to C2,max = 2.5 for z = H.

For other reference regulations, the relationships that express the amplification on the height of
the building are:
With
- UBC 97 C 231 C2,max = 4.0 for z = H

H
- IBC 2003 21C

2
With
C2,max = 3.0 for z=H H
With
- Japan Standard 1992 3.21C

2 Cc,max = 3.3 for z=H
H
- NZS 4203:1992 21C

2
With
C2,max = 3.0 for z =H H
- IS 1893 C2 = constant C2, max = 1.0 for z = H
It is mentioned that the values proposed in all FEMA documents are the result of the statistical
processing of a very large number of records. The accumulation of a large volume of data was
possible because the installation of recording equipment is mandatory in the USA for all high-rise
buildings.
On the date of the last significant earthquake (May 1990) in Romania there were only a small
number of instrumented buildings each having one device at the base and one at the top level
(full floor or partial technical floor). Unfortunately, both in the earthquake of 1986 and in the two
earthquakes of 1990, the devices only worked partially.
The values of the amplifications at the top of the building, KzH, recorded at the instrumented buildings
in Romania, are given in table C 10.2 compiled based on the data from [Demetriu,S. Identification of
the modal parameters of the seismically instrumented constructions using recordings of the Vranca
earthquakes Second national seismic engineering conference, Bucharest, November 2001].
Table C 10.2.
Earthquake
Values All data
30.08.1986 8 30.05.1990 12 31.05.1990 10
DC
reg. 4.43 reg. 4.98 1.64 reg. 2.76 30 reg. 4.98
max 1.51 2.53 2.64 1.11 1.44 2.01 1.44
my 0.89 0.35 0.42 3.75 0.47 0.23 2.40
media 3.42 2.48 0.90
0.38 3.30
in
average +
As can be seen, some KzH values exceed by about 3550% the "average+" value for all
30 records, but this (KzH = 3.30) is only 10% higher than the one given by the American
recommendations (KzH = 3.00) and from this consideration was taken over in the
present Code (figure C 10.5) [Petrovici, R. P 100-1 Specific provisions for non-structural
components of constructions. Alignment with design principles and rules in FEMA 450 /
IBC2003 (USA). Similarities and differences compared to Eurocode 8.
AICPS National Conference 2006].
The individual results, on the three buildings where both devices worked during all three
earthquakes, also show very large variations from one earthquake to another (table C
10.3). The causes of this variation and of the particularly high values recorded in some
cases must be sought, without a doubt, in the spectral compositions of the three
earthquakes - at the respective locations - correlated with the dynamic characteristics
of the buildings on which the recordings were made.
Table C 10.3
Earthquake
The building Inlime I would direct
30.08.1986 30.05.1990 31.05.1990 2.30 2.60 1.80
bright S+P+ L 2,40 1.88 4.65 4.98 1,51
Bloc Unirea 11E + AND T 4,43 1,58
Galai S+P+ L 2,73 2,76
iglina - Block I1 10E + AND T 1,82 1,81
Ploieti - West S+P+ L 2,68 2,48
Block 149 C 10E + AND T 2,03 2,50
Figure C 10.5. The variation of the seismic acceleration on the height of the building
[BSSC. Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA 450: NEHRP Recommended

Provisions for Seismic Regulation for New Buildings. (2003)]
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It obviously follows that in order to clarify this problem it is necessary to obtain

as many records as possible and for this it is necessary to intensify efforts to
equip as many buildings as possible with at least two recording devices. For this
purpose, this edition of P 100-1 stipulates the obligation to equip buildings taller
than 50m with recording devices located in seismic zones with a design
acceleration of 0.25g. The need to continue accumulating data on the variation
of acceleration along the height of the building is obvious because some
measurements blatantly contradict the hypothesis of linear variation as shown in figure C 10.6.
Figure C 10.6. Variation of acceleration along the height of the building recorded at the Van Nuys building
C10.3.1.2.(3) In the case of components supported in the console, in the formula for the calculation of the Kz
value, the value of the support quota (zinf) is entered
C10.3.1.2.(4) The upper/lower limitation of the equivalent seismic force value is necessary to avoid undersizing/
oversizing the CNS and their attachment to the main structure of the building. 1o The upper limit - relation
(10.2) - was established to avoid obtaining from relation (10.1) unreasonably high forces, for some components
located at the upper part of the building.
The limitation results from the corroboration of relations (10.1) and (10.2).
CNS
K With
0.4
q CNS
For internal non-structural walls made of simple masonry that are not fixed to the main structure at the top (for
example some walls from the sanitary groups), in table 10.1 the values are given: CNS=2.5 and qCNS=1.5
and the obtained seismic force from relation (10.1) has the value FCNS=1.66CNSKzagmCNS. It follows that
the maximum force imposed by relation (10.2) is exceeded for the Kz2.4 values, or, in other words, the walls
located at z0.7H elevations will be designed for the maximum force value given by (10.2) and not for the
forces resulting from the application of the general calculation relation (10.1) - graph 1 from figure C10.7.
O
2 The lower limit - relation (10.2) - was established to ensure a minimum calculation force
corresponding to current practice, especially for some components located at the lower levels of the
building.
For example, in the case of envelope elements, for which table 10.1 establishes CNS=1.0 and
qCNS=2.5, the seismic force obtained from the application of relation (10.1) has the value
FCNS=0.4 CNSKzagmCNS. It follows that the minimum design force imposed by (10.2) is not
reached for Kz1.875 values, i.e. for the components fixed at z0.45 H levels and as such the envelope
elements located below this level must be calculated for the minimum seismic force from (10.3 ) and
not for the lower value of the force resulting from the application of the general relationship (10.1) -
graph 2 in figure C10.7.
Figure C 10.7. Conventional seismic force limits for CNS

[Petrovici, R. P 100-1 Specific provisions for non-structural components of constructions Alignment with the design principles and
rules of FEMA 450 / IBC2003 (USA). Similarities and differences compared to Eurocode 8. AICPS National Conference 2006]
In SR EN 1998-1, there are no upper/lower limits of the equivalent seismic force resulting
from the formula (C10.3). For this reason, some situations arise that will require a more
careful analysis:
- for cases where TCNST0 amplifications are high compared to those in

American norms;
- for cases where TCNS>2T0 the decrease of the equivalent seismic force is particularly
important so that many CNS are no longer designed for a significant force (in the
case of rigid buildings with T00, 30.5 sec, non-structural components with periods
TCNS=0.81 ,20 sec should be calculated at sometimes insignificant conventional
forces).
Based on the above arguments, in P 100-1, limitations similar to those in the FEMA
recommendations were provided.
C10.3.1.2.(6) The equivalent seismic force used for the calculation of design sectional efforts
has the same distribution as the CNS mass considered for its determination.
For elements whose mass is linearly distributed (which can be modeled as "bar" type
elements), the seismic force will also be considered as uniformly distributed loading (see
Calculation Example E 10.8). Ditto, in the case of elements that can be modeled as plates.
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In some particular cases, the mass distribution can be more complex, as is, for
example, the case of a non-structural wall with uniformly distributed mass on
which a heavy object is suspended whose mass can be considered concentrated
in a limited number of points. In this situation, the equivalent seismic force is
determined for each individual mass and the respective sectional effects are
added up to obtain the most unfavorable stress situation (figure C 10.8.).
Figure C 10.8. Conventional seismic forces perpendicular to the plane of a non-structural wall
For the safety check, the equivalent seismic force will be considered acting on the most unfavorable
direction for the respective component (for example, perpendicular to the plane of the wall / attic or the
direction of minimum resistance in the case of a chimney, etc.). For some CNS, more complex seismic
force application hypotheses are required, in which both the vertical and the horizontal component of
the seismic force are taken into account (see E 10.8).
C 10.3.1.3. Calculation coefficients
C 10.3.1.3.1 CNS Important Factor (CNS)
The important factor to CNS corrects the seismic response values to hold
consider:
- the consequences of a possible collapse/damage of the CNS for people's lives, for public safety
and for the operation of certain buildings in the period immediately following an earthquake;
- the social and economic consequences of such an event.

In SR EN 1998-1, the values of the importance factor (denoted a) are assigned based on two principles:
-
a 1.5, for cases where the damage has particularly serious consequences (for example,
machinery and equipment necessary for vital systems, tanks and containers that contain toxic
or explosive substances in quantities large enough to constitute a danger to public safety); -
aIE, for all other cases (where IE is the important factor in the seismic demand of the building
in which the respective component is located); In the American FEMA 450 recommendation, taken
over in the 2003 IBC regulation, CNS are classified from the point of view of importance
(coefficient noted Ip) in only two categories:
- Components of particular importance from the point of view of the consequences of collapse/
damage, for which Ip=1, 5:
* CNS necessary for the continuation of the operation of buildings of

importance class I (with the highest level of importance); * Vital CNS
(which must function after the earthquake), regardless of the importance
class of the building, * CNS containing toxic substances; * storage shelves
in buildings accessible to the general public.
- For all other CNS categories, Ip=1.0.
C 10.3.1.3.2. CNS Dynamic Enhancer Factor (CNS)

The CNS factor expresses the phenomenon of dynamic amplification of the CNS movement
under the effect of the seismic acceleration at the grip level. This effect mainly depends on the
ratio between the natural period of the CNS fundamental mode (TCNS) and the natural period of
the building fundamental mode (T0).
As shown by ,
in the SR EN 1998-1 standard this factor is combined with the factor
amplification on the height of the building.
The use in current design practice of the formula proposed in SR EN 1998-1 implies, in the vast
majority of cases, the acceptance of some approximations, which can result in significant
deviations, in both directions, from the real value of the seismic response of the CNS.
The reasons that justify this statement are mainly the following:
- at the time of choosing/designing the CNS, the proper vibration period of the building is not
precisely known because, as a rule, the structural design is not finalized;
- the use of analytical models and methods to determine the proper period of the CNS is not
recommended because the structural calculation models for the respective component
and/or for its attachment to the main structure involve approximations with consequences
that are difficult to evaluate; - even in the simplest cases determining the proper period
of a CNS
involve additional calculations
- the determination, with sufficient precision, of the own vibration period of the CNS is only
possible through dynamic tests on seismic platforms.
For considerations similar to the above, in the American recommendation FEMA 450 (but also in
its previous editions ) lump-sum values established, mainly by engineering reasoning, are used
for the CNS amplification factor (denoted ap, the equivalent of the CNS coefficient) take into
account the rigid or flexible behavior of the respective component.
Two groups of values are mainly recommended:
- ap = 2.5 for elements that have a completely free cantilever type static scheme
or anchored below the level of the center of gravity;
- ap = 1.0 for all other categories of components (with the exception of the fastening elements
of the external non-structural walls for which, due to the high risk for life safety, ap = 1.25
is taken).
FEMA 450 accepts the use of a more accurate determination if the values of TCNS and T0 are
known with sufficient precision.
Based on the above arguments, in this drafting of P 100-1 fixed values of the dynamic amplification
factor of the CNS - CNS - similar to those in the FEMA recommendations were chosen.
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206
In the case of buildings of importance class I and for all installation systems that operate
with water/steam at high temperature/pressure, sensitive to the direct action of the
earthquake and whose rigidity depends on the conditions of attachment to the structure,
it is recommended to check the rigidity conditions ( TCNS >/<0.06s) in order to more
accurately choose the CNS factor (Calculation example no. 8).
C 10.3.1.3.3. CNS behavioral factor (qCNS)

The reduction of the seismic force, by dividing by the supraunitary factor qCNS takes into
account the energy absorption capacity of the own structure of the CNS and its
attachments to the main structure of the construction. In general, it can be considered
that this reduction is allowed taking into account the overstrength of the materials and the
deformability of the CNS's own structure and its fasteners. Since there is not yet a
complete substantiation of the contribution of each of these factors, through engineering
reasoning and based on experience from past earthquakes, unique coefficients have
been established, both in the American regulations and in SR EN 1998-1. i. In the
European standard SR EN 1998-1, for this factor - noted qa and called "CNS behavior
coefficient" -, two values are established
thedepending
respectiveon
element:
the clamping/resting conditions of
qa =1 - for components whose static scheme is of the "console" type; qa=2

- for the other CNSs (which have more favorable conditions for gripping / supporting).
Table C 10.4.
The type of non-structural element qa
Parapets or console trim
Emblems or panels
Sheaves, masts or water tanks working as an unbraced cantilever 1,0
for more than half of the total height
Interior and exterior walls
Compartmentri i facade
Sheds, masts and water tanks working as an unbraced cantilever
less than half of the total height, tied or suspended from the structure at or above the
center of mass 2,0
Anchoring elements for cabinets or racks resting on the floor
Anchoring elements for false (suspended) ceilings and ceiling lights
Note. The table refers to construction elements (architectural components). For installations and equipment in SR EN
1998-1 no values of the behavior coefficient are given.
ii. In the American recommendations, which are much more detailed and
analytical, the values of this factor are set separately for "construction elements"
and for "installation and equipment elements".
For both CNS categories, the factor values - denoted Rp - are grouped, depending
on the deformability of the component, as follows:
- Rp=1.25 for components with low deformability
- Rp=2.50 for components with limited deformability
- Rp=3.50 for components with high deformability
The notion of deformability (0) is defined in [BSSC. Federal Emergency Management Agency
FEMA 368: NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulation for New Buildings (2001)]
as the ratio between:
- Ultimate deformation (u): the deformation at which breakage occurs; rupture is considered
to occur if the capable load is reduced by more than 20% of the maximum value
- Limit deformation (1): double the initial (instantaneous) deformation that occurs at a fraction
of 40% of the maximum resistance. For "brittle" materials, which have linear-elastic
behavior until breaking, the limit deformation corresponds to the stress 0.8 Rmax
The CNS deformability categories are defined as follows:
- High deformability component: component whose deformability is 3.5 when subjected to

four alternating full cycles up to
deformity limit
- Component with low deformability: the component whose deformability is
1,5.
- Component with limited deformability: the component that does not fall into the categories
above.
In detail, the classification of the various CNSs in the mentioned groups is as follows:
A. For construction elements (partial lists): - Rp = 1.25

for: * non-structural interior walls made of simple
masonry; * elements attached to the facades and their
fasteners that have deformability
reduced;
* the calculation of the grips/anchors if they are made with shot bowls, with superficial
anchors fixed with rivets or if they are non-ductile;
* calculation of fasteners in the case of CNS made of fragile materials.
- Rp = 2.50 for: * all
items that are not included in the other two categories.
- Rp = 3.50 for: * small
constructions located above the roof level, with the exception of the case where their
structure is in continuation of the structure of the main construction; * other rigid or
flexible components that have high deformability and that have
fasteners with high deformability.

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B. For installation/equipment elements: - Rp = 1.25

for: * pipe systems with elements and fasteners
with low deformability; * lighting fixtures; * calculation of fasteners (under the
same conditions as for construction elements).
- Rp = 2.50 for: * all

items that are not included in the other two categories.
- Rp = 3.50 for: * pipe
systems with highly deformable elements and fasteners; * general electrical
installations; * distribution systems.
C 10.3.2. Determination of lateral displacements for CNS calculation

C 10.3.2.1. Lateral displacements for ultimate limit state (ULS) calculation
C10.3.2.1(1)(3) Establishing the design conditions in relation to the deformations of
the main structure are essential for CNS that are sensitive to the indirect action of the
earthquake (for their identification see table C10.1).
The relative displacements of the attachment points of the CNS on the structure can occur in
two situations:
1. In the case of CNS that are attached at different levels on the same structure, due to
the overall deformation of the building (different horizontal and vertical movements of
the attachment points); 2. In the case of CNS that are attached to two independent
structures, due to the cumulation - in an unfavorable sense - of the relative displacements
of the attachment points on the two structures.
Since the values of the relative displacements of the attachment points on separate structures
can be very high, it is recommended to avoid this solution. A typical situation of this kind
occurs in the case of pipes that cross the joints between two adjacent sections and that have
attachment points on each section. In this case we recommend:
- the crossing of the joint should be done at the lower levels where the movement values
are lower (recommended in the basement); to provide flexible connections/fastenings
-
capable of taking over the imposed deformations without significant additional efforts
in the material.
Another particular case in which checking the effects of differential movements is of great
importance is that of the connecting parts between two sub-assemblies/component parts of
an installation/equipment system. Depending on the dynamic characteristics of the
subassemblies/parts and/or the respective fixing conditions, there is a high probability that the
distances between the attachment points of the connecting element (a pipe, for example) will
change during the seismic movement. Consequently, the respective part can be subjected to
high unitary efforts that lead to its damage.
In order to prevent this situation, the designer must provide adequate constructive measures
for the full absorption of the relative displacements (the sum of the absolute displacements -
in opposite directions - of the components).
We must add the observation that the seismic response of CNS systems also depends on the
behavior under load of the respective materials. Thus a pipe system
made of ductile materials (steel/copper) can take significant relative displacements

without significant damage. On the other hand, in the case of pipes made of materials
with lower ductility/no ductility, taking over the relative displacements of the
attachment points (fixed points) can only be done by providing intermediate elements
and/or flexible attachments.
Limiting the relative displacements of the attachment/support points of the different
CNS categories is also necessary to avoid:
- the fall of the CNS from the
supports; - their collision during the earthquake. In
cases where, from a functional point of view, the distances between the different
components of a CNS system are small, so that there is a risk of collision between the respective
components, special protection measures are required in vulnerable areas (for example, the
introduction of a material that mitigates the effect of the eye).
Relations (10.4) and (10.5) refer to the limitation of the calculated elastic displacements considering
the behavior coefficient of the structure q1,0 thus covering the maximum probable inelastic
displacement.
C 10.3.2.2. Lateral displacements for calculation at service limit state (SLS)

C10.3.2.2 (2) The coefficient for determining the seismic design force for which the relative
displacements of the attachment points of the CNS are calculated is taken according to
of annex E to P 100-1 for the elements of the structure i is established independently
of the material from which the main structure of the building is made.
As an exception, for non-structural components that present a particular risk for life safety, the
value =0.7 is taken, which takes into account the serious consequences it can have:
- the collapse of some component elements of the facade in a crowded space

or attached to it;
- the interruption of the operation of a system of installations / pipelines in buildings of

importance class II and, especially, those of importance class I.
The upper limitation of the relative displacements of the attachment points of the CNS, depending
on the limits of relative level displacements allowed for the main structure, is justified by the fact
that in many cases the non-structural elements and their attachment details are designed and
sometimes even ordered before finalization calculation of the main structure. In any case, this
limitation is insurance.
C 10.4 General conditions for the seismic design of non-structural components
C 10.4.1. CNS connections

C 10.4.1.1. General principles of CNS connection design
C10.4.1.1(1) The design of the fasteners will follow, first of all, the creation of a route as direct as
possible for the connecting forces from the CNS to the main structure.
Non-structural components with large mass and stiffness will be attached directly to an element of
the main structure, while smaller components can be
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210
anchored by another CNS, which, in turn, must be directly linked to the main structure.
This is, for example, the case of companies/advertisements that can be attached to
other CNS - parapets, atice - but only if they are attached directly to the main structure.
All CNS grips will be composed in such a way that the effects of seismic action can be
taken in both directions. The transfer mechanism of connection forces from a clamp can
be different depending on the nature of the stress (transmission through direct contact
of compression and transmission of tension through metal anchors).
C10.4.1.1(2) If they are fixed to the main structure at several points, the components
that have a significant mass, that can be damaged, or that by falling can damage
other elements, must be able to take over the relative displacements determined
according to 10.9.3.
In particular, for certain categories of CNS, such as curtain facades, the structural
system itself can receive additional efforts due to blocking the possibilities of free
deformation under the effect of temperature variations. The size of these efforts depends
on the overall construction concept of the facade and the specific details and must be
taken into account when it is significant in relation to the efforts coming from the seismic
action. Similarly, in the case of tall buildings, the deformations of the facade columns
due to seasonal temperature variations can impose deformations of the non-structural
walls that overlap the deformations produced by the seismic movement.
This CNS group includes glazed surfaces, partition walls, plywood, etc. Depending
on the material from which they are made, the protective measures are differentiated.
Thus, in the case of aluminum or plastic veneers whose own mass is low and which
have significant deformability, taking over the relative displacements generally does not
pose special problems.
C10.4.1.1(3) Regardless of the other dimensioning and detailing conditions, it is
recommended that, whenever possible, at each attachment that ensures the strength
and stability of a CNS, at least two anchor pieces should be provided as a measure
insurance.
C10.4.1.1(4) The design of ductile fasteners must take into account the following
objectives:
-
to ensure the redistribution of efforts between the anchors of the same group; to
- allow additional loads to be taken over without breaking prematurely. Regarding the
dissipation of the seismic energy in the anchors, since in the current cases, the necessary conditions for a
hysterically stable behavior cannot be ensured, it is recommended that the dimensions of the fasteners be
done without taking this into account. Also, you cannot count on the energy consumed by the anchor through
its own deformation because it transmits the efforts of a material with low ductility (concrete or masonry).
C10.4.1.1(5) The fastening procedures will correspond to the specific regulations valid in the country regarding
dimensioning and detailing or will be the subject of a technical approval drawn up and approved according to
Romanian legislation. The choice of the fastening method and the materials used will also take into account
the measures necessary to ensure the durability of the fastening in the specific environmental/exposure
conditions.
C10.4.1.1(6) Neglecting the contribution of the frictional force when taking over the calculation seismic force is
based on two considerations:
-
in many cases the movement of the CNS under the effect of the seismic force is
produced by a tipping movement ("jumping/stepping" movement) which causes the
frictional force between the CNS and its support not to fully develop during the
movement; the upward vertical component of the seismic acceleration reduces the
- effect of the friction force (reduces the pressing force on the support surface).
C10.4.1.1(7) The provisions of P100-1 consider that the efforts resulting from the transmission
of seismic forces related to a CNS to the main structure do not affect the safety of the elements
to which it is attached (for example, the plane beams and the column to which it is attached a
non-structural facade panel). As a rule, it is sufficient only to check the elements adjacent to
the CNS (to which it is attached directly) and their fasteners for the sectional stresses (N, M,
V) resulting from the simultaneous action of vertical and seismic loads on the structure to which
the sectional stresses due to the forces are added of the link between the CNS and the
structure. In some cases, for buildings located in areas with high calculated seismic acceleration
- approximately ag0.25g - and for CNS with high mass and rigidity, the verification mentioned
above must be extended along the path of the forces to the elements for which the effect of the
connection forces no longer influence the dimensioning. The checks mentioned above are also
necessary in all cases where the dimensioning of the structure's elements was done without
knowing exactly the constructive characteristics of the CNS and how it is attached to the main
structure.
C 10.4.1.2. Calculation and composition of connections between CNS and supporting elements
C10.4.1.2(1) The provision takes into account the fact that the magnitude of the connection
forces resulting from the seismic action on the CNS can be affected by numerous uncertainties
related primarily to:
- the intensity of the seismic action;
- the calculation model for determining the bond forces; - the
imperfections of the realization of the details in the project.
The economic effects of the increase in force in the fasteners are negligible, while the effect of
this increase on the safety of the construction can be very important, taking into account the
conditions mentioned above.
C10.4.1.2(2) The capacity of the anchors, specified, as a rule, in the catalogs of the
manufacturing companies only for static loads, will not be increased to take into account the
dynamic character of the earthquake loads. Conversely, where the particular stress conditions
of the attachment are unfavorable, it is recommended to consider a reduction in the nominal
capacity of the anchor.
The calculation of the anchors must also take into account the specific mounting tolerances (in
all directions) and even a reasonable deviation of them, especially regarding the position (this
may result in some eccentricities in the application of forces and, implicitly, additional efforts in
anchors).
For fasteners that do not have a clear and reliable compression force transmission mechanism,
the design of the anchor system for taking over the overturning moment must also take into
account the deformability of the equipment and/or its base plate. A special situation of this kind
can be found in the case of fastening some electro-mechanical machinery or equipment, where
temporary support on anchors (with adjusting nut) is provided and then filling the space under
the base plate with mortar. Although some works emphasize the contribution of the mortar to
taking over the efforts of
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compression, it is prudent for the anchors to be dimensioned, for all demands, neglecting
the contribution of the mortar which can practically be canceled by shrinkage and/or cracking.
C10.4.1.2(3) In the case of anchors fixed in concrete or in masonry, their dimensioning for
forces greater than the capable forces of the CNS aims to reduce the probability of failure of
the attachment before the failure of the respective component. By this, we also take into
account the fact that, often, the failure of the grip can become non-ductile, due to the great
variability of the mechanical properties of concrete and especially of masonry. At the same
time, the dimensioning of the fasteners for increased forces compensates, to a certain
extent, the decrease in the capacity of the anchor as a result of the cracking of concrete or
masonry under the action of seismic stresses.
C10.4.1.2(4) The provision takes into account the fact that short anchors do not always
meet the conditions necessary for ductile behavior. Due to the inhomogeneity of the concrete
and/or specific conditions of the joint (small distances from the edge of the part or between
the anchors in the group, etc.) there is a high probability that the anchor will fail non-ductilely
(through the concrete). Non-ductile behavior has an even higher probability of occurring in
the case of anchors under stress, which is the case for most CNS in current buildings,
especially if they are blocked by a rigid element at one of the joint faces. In these conditions,
the adoption of a lower value of the behavior coefficient of the CNS aims to avoid the non-
ductile failure of this type of fasteners.
C10.4.1.2(5) Experimentally, a great variability of the resistance capacity of the bowls fixed
by shooting was found. The distribution of the results is much higher than that observed for
the anchors installed in drilled holes and is due, first of all, to the inherent inhomogeneity of
the superficial layers of concrete.
This inhomogeneity, which results in uncertainty regarding the safety of the respective
fasteners, justifies the limitation of the use of this type of anchors in constructions located in
areas with low seismicity.
C 10.4.2. Interaciunile CNS
C 10.4.2.1. Interactions with structural elements/subsystems
C10.4.2.1(1) The calculation model used for the seismic design of structures does not
generally include the CNS effect.
In reality, the CNS in the building, and especially the closing and separating walls, can in
some situations have favorable effects on the safety of the building but, most of the time, if
their effects are not evaluated correctly, they can lead to the manifestation of some general
or, above all, local effects, unfavorable for the integrity of the structure.
- favorable effects: it contributes to taking over the power; limit, in a

some measure of the lateral movements of the building;
- adverse effects:
by increasing the stiffness and implicitly reducing the natural period of the
fundamental mode, they increase the horizontal acceleration (moving
towards the level of the response spectrum for buildings with T0TC);
changing the position of the center of rigidity and the torsion moment of
inertia, which can lead to an increase in force
information in some structural subassemblies located on the perimeter of the

building;
the modification of the axial force in the jointed columns simultaneously with
the increase of the bending moments and torsional forces in the areas of
contact;
the production of non-conventional collapse mechanisms, other than the

optimal mechanism, due to the concentrations of efforts that occur.
As a rule, it can be admitted that the presence of CNS does not influence the regularity criteria defined in
4.4.3. if:
- the external and internal walls do not present significantly greater rigidity than
that of the structural elements;
- their arrangement in plan is relatively uniform and does not differ significantly from the
distribution of the structure's elements;
- the rigidity of the walls and their position in the plan do not change significantly from one
level to another.
In cases where the above conditions are not satisfied, the structural calculation becomes more complex:
- it is necessary to include the walls in the calculation model of the structure as bars or as plates
(in the model/elastic domain) and to examine the working conditions of these elements:
immediately (if there is certainty of a direct contact with the structure);
after a certain level of overall lateral displacement has been reached (if there
is a free space between the walls and the structure)
- for the case where the influence of the walls on the response of the building in the post-elastic
domain is examined, it is necessary to adopt a behavior model as realistic as possible for
alternating cyclic loads (it is recommended to use a model as simple and comprehensive as
possible);
- special measures are required for construction/constructive detailing of the contact areas with
the beams/columns.
C 10.4.2.2 Interactions with other CNS
In many cases, the projects provide for ensuring the stability of some CNS by supporting or stiffening by
means of other non-structural components. The adoption of these solutions can only be accepted if it is
verified: - the ability of the element that constitutes the support/stiffening to take over the seismic loads
and, as the case may be, the gravitational loads, related to the respective component; - the
compatibility of the deformations of the two elements;
- the existence of some constructive measures that allow the taking over of higher deformations,
within reasonable limits, than those determined by calculation, as well as assembly deviations.
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In the case of installations and equipment that constitute "systems", the measures
to reduce the risk of damage will be more severe for those components that
condition the operation of the entire system. For example, in the case of backup
installations in a hospital, ensuring the operation of the electric generator is
necessary for the operation of the lighting, ventilation/conditioning, water supply
and heating systems. As such, the design of the generator clamps must be made
at a higher safety level than that adopted for other system components. In the
same context, the level of protection of other CNS whose damage can affect the
integrity or functionality of the CNS with a "vital" role must also be examined. For
example, the collapse of the dividing walls from the generator room can also lead
to the consequences mentioned above.
C 10.5. Seismic design of non-structural architectural components (A)

C 10.5.1. General seismic design conditions
C10.5.1(1) The objectives of seismic design of architectural components were
presented in C10.2.
The design measures to satisfy these objectives must meet the following
requirements:
- ensuring the stability and physical integrity of the CNS; in the situations specified by the
theme of the investor, through the design the functionality of the CNS must be ensured;
- avoiding unfavorable interactions with the structure or with other CNS; -
limitation of material losses (limited and repairable damage in the case of moderate
earthquakes).
C 10.5.1.1. Conditions for the seismic design of non-structural masonry

architectural components (Az)
C10.5.1.1.(1) With all the progress made internationally regarding the introduction of new
materials and technologies for the realization of non-structural architectural components, in
Romania they are almost exclusively made of masonry. In most cases, the design of these
elements ignores the minimum loads that they should bear and for so-called "economy"
reasons, they are executed with poor or modest quality materials.
The following provisions are aimed at limiting the situations of under-dimensioning of non-
structural architectural components in masonry.
C10.5.1.1.(3),(4),(5) and (6) These paragraphs establish the minimum characteristics of
masonry materials (elements and mortars) that are used for seismic design. We draw your
attention that the imposed limits refer to the characteristics necessary to ensure seismic
resistance and are more severe than the conditions imposed on materials used in non-seismic
areas.
C10.5.1.1.(7) This paragraph establishes, once more, the designer's responsibility for the
choice of masonry materials in order to ensure the satisfaction of the safety requirement under
the effects of the design seismic action (as the case may be, for ULS and/or for SLS).
C 10.5.2. The seismic design of the construction elements attached to the

envelope In the P 100-1 concept, the seismic design of the envelope elements is of
particular importance considering the extremely serious consequences that can arise
from their damage and collapse in the spaces outside the building. The precautionary
measures refer first to the closing elements with large mass which are sensitive to the
direct seismic action, normal to the plane and, simultaneously, to the displacements in
the plane imposed by the overall deformation of the building. In the case of masonry
walls, the risk due to seismic action perpendicular to the plane of the wall is amplified by
the low resistance of the masonry to stretching from bending and the fragile nature of
the break. Several experimental studies show that in this case the effects overlap and
amplify each other. In the case of non-structural walls resting on consoles or beams with
large openings, the static deformations of the supporting elements are also amplified by
the effect of the vertical component of the seismic movement. The effects of seismic
action in the vertical plane amplify, in this case, the effects of horizontal seismic forces
acting in the plane of the wall and perpendicular to it [Newmark, NM, Rosenblueth, E.
this reason, for Earthquake Engineering Printice Hall Inc. Englewood Fundamentals
Cliffs, NJ 1971]
of For . to
avoid the collapse of the walls in case of a strong earthquake, it is necessary to limit the
deformations of the masonry panel perpendicular to its plane simultaneously with the
limitation of the relative displacement of the structure. Despite all these precautions, in
the absence of appropriate constructive anchoring measures, the collapse of the walls in
the event of a strong earthquake cannot be avoided with certainty.
(a) rest on brackets (b) brace in reinforced concrete frames

Figure C 10.9. The collapse of the facade walls
C 10.5.2.1. Conditions for seismic design of masonry construction elements

attached to the envelope (A1z)
C10.5.2.1 (3) From the analysis carried out after the earthquake of 1940 by AABele -
[Earthquake and Construction - Bucharest 1941], the remarks regarding the seismic behavior
of the choirs and the explanations can be quoted, as close as possible to the original
expression of the author. most often obvious, of the observed situations :
The choirs also suffered a lot. Especially the high chimneys, and the ones with the box,
fell, destroying in some places the coverings and even the planes.
The destruction of chimneys even in earthquakes of lower intensity (of degree VI, for
example) is also explained by the fact that the masonry of these chimneys under the
action of smoke, temperature variations, rain,
Even
freezing
in low and
courses
thawing
that is
collapsed,
largely altered.
in most
cases, the masonry was completely disaggregated on the cladding.
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C10.5.2.1. (4) The provision is intended to avoid/limit the risk of collapsing high
heels/gables that do not have their own structure or are not anchored by structural
elements. By falling, these elements can cause accidents outside the building or
damage adjacent buildings that are lower in height.
Figure C 10.10. The heel fall damaged the neighboring building Bucharest, 1977
C10.5.2.1 (6) For the construction of cornices and girders through masonry, it is
recommended that the advance in the console at each seat should not exceed 1/3 of the
element's size or 1/2 of its height. If the cornice is executed above the level of the last
plane (constitutes the attic of the terrace), a continuous reinforced concrete belt will be
provided on the upper part along the entire length of the cornice. Depending on the value
of the efforts due to the seismic action perpendicular to the plane of the cornice in the
masonry, reinforced concrete pillars will be provided in continuation of those on the lower level.
Figure C 10.11. Construction of corneas and girdles
C10.5.3.1.1. Conditions for the seismic design of closing (A2z) and partitioning (A3z)
masonry walls reinforced in reinforced concrete / steel frames
Seismic design of closing and partitioning walls made of masonry reinforced with
frames has recently received a special concern from specialists and national and
international regulatory bodies. Although certain opinions, expressed by people
who do not have sufficient competence, minimize the effects of the unfavorable
seismic response of reinforced masonry panels, the specialist community, through
Document CEN/TC250/SC8/N469 adopted at the meeting in Lausanne on March
15, 2013, draws an important alarm signal:
....In addition the recent earthquakes, especially the one in l'Aquila (Italy),
showed that in many recent buildings, whose structures behaved well, occurred
serious damage to the masonry panels....This fact recommends that the provisions of EN
1998-1 for frames with infill masonry be extended together with those regarding other types
of closures....
C10.5.3.1.1. (3) The design for the seismic action of reinforced concrete frames with reinforced
masonry panels must take into account, first of all, the control of the overall and/or local interactions
of the walls with the building structure in all stress phases that may result for different earthquake
severity levels.
These interactions can have two categories of effects:
- modification of the state of efforts and deformation in the structure ( global effects) or only
in certain elements of it ( local effects) with negative consequences on structural safety;
- damage to the masonry of the reinforced walls by direct seismic action (perpendicular
to the plane of the panel), by indirect seismic action (the deformations imposed on the
panel by the overall deformation of the building) or by the combined effect of the two
categories of actions.
The presence of reinforced masonry panels substantially changes the behavior of reinforced
concrete or metal frames under the action of lateral forces.
The changes refer both to the strength and rigidity of the frames as well as to the ability to dissipate
seismic energy and depend on a large number of geometric, mechanical and technological factors
that can vary within very wide limits.
The participation of the masonry panel together with the frame in absorbing the seismic force is
possible only in the conditions in which the contact between the masonry and the frame, if it was
made initially (during execution), and the integrity of the masonry are not affected by the lateral
deformations imposed by the displacement of the frame.
Regarding the importance of the initial realization, during the execution, of the direct contact
between the masonry and the frame elements, it is recalled that it has been demonstrated
for a long time that the existence of free spaces, even of small dimensions, between the
frame and the panel, cause a sudden decrease in the initial rigidity of assembly [Smith, BS,
Frames , Behavior of Square Infilled Proc. ASCE 92 (ST1), p.381-403, 1966]. But, as is
obvious, the immediate/direct contact between the frame and the panel cannot be ensured,
in practice, for all the panels of a building, which creates, from the beginning, an important
source of uncertainty for knowing the real response of the construction. In the event of an
earthquake, maintaining contact between panel and frame is only possible at relatively low
levels of lateral force. In [Paulay, T., and Priestley, M.
JN, Seismic design of reinforced concrete and masonry buildings, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1992] it is stated that the separation of the reinforced concrete frame from the masonry
panel occurs at a force of about 50÷70% of the shear resistance of the panel ic this
percentage can be lower in the case of steel frames.
The separation of the masonry panel from the frame is due to their lateral deformation characteristics:
- the frame bars that are dominated by bending stresses deform with
curves of opposite signs and inflection point in the central area
- the masonry panel that is dominated by shear forces has the angular deformation
characteristic of this stress
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The separation between the panel and the frame in which it is reinforced can also occur due to
non- seismic causes such as: deformations of the structure from vertical loads, the effects of
contraction and slow flow, the effects of temperature variations (especially in closing panels)
Considering the importance of the existence of contact between the frame and the infill masonry,
it is necessary that constructive measures are foreseen in the design to prevent their premature
separation, under normal operating conditions.
After separation, the participation of the infill masonry in increasing the strength and lateral
stiffness of the reinforced concrete or steel frames is realized by embedding the masonry in the
area of the frame nodes adjacent to the diagonal which shortens under the effect of lateral
movement. The lengths of the contact areas between the masonry and the frame vary depending
on the geometric and mechanical characteristics of the frame and the panel. Determining them
as accurately as possible has been the subject of numerous theoretical and experimental
researches. For guidance, it can be considered [Pradhan, PL, Composite Actions of Brick Infill
Wall in RC Frame under In-Plane Lateral Load, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering,
IOE, Tribhuvan University, 2009] c the contact is made on about 1/3 of the height of the column
and on about 1/6 of the length of the jointed beam. The values may be different if the direct
contact between the frame and the panel was not achieved during execution.
Figure C 10.12. Placing the masonry in the

corners of the frame In these conditions, the mechanism for taking lateral forces
from "pure" frames (eng. bare frames) characterized by dominant sectional
bending efforts (M) , turns into a lattice beam mechanism in which axial forces (±
N). Consequently, the bending moments in the beams and columns of the frame
are smaller than in the "pure" frame, while the axial forces increase or change their
sign (eg, tensile axial forces may appear in the beams). In the case of multistory
buildings, the overall deformation of reinforced masonry frames is similar to that of
a vertical cantilever as noted above [Fintel, M, Multistory Structures, Handbook of
Concrete Engineering, Chapter 10, CBS Publishers, (1986) ].
The cooperation between the two subassemblies is active until one of them fails,
according to one of the mechanisms that will be discussed next.
Overall structural effects of masonry panels
The overall effects of reinforced masonry panels on the seismic response of
buildings with a frame structure are realized, depending on how the panels are
placed, by increasing the local stiffness of a frame, at one level or at several levels,
or by increasing the overall rigidity of the structure.
Figure C 10.13. Modifying the rigidity of the frames (Ri) through masonry panels
Changing the rigidity of the frames through the uncontrolled arrangement of the reinforced
panels adversely affects the structural regularity of the building in plan and elevation by moving,
from one level to another, the position of the center of rigidity (CR) in relation to the center of
gravity of the plane (CG) which induces the production/accentuation of the overall twisting of
the building. This situation is exemplified by the buildings shown in the figure below, which
represent concrete situations, often encountered in current design.
(a) End section of the "bar" type building (b) "Plumb" type building – with three fins
Figure C 10.14. Structural asymmetry/irregularity in plan produced by reinforced masonry

panels (PZ) in structures made of frames.
The irregular layout of the infill panels changes the rigidity of the building from one floor to
another and can lead to the formation of "weak" floors. This situation is found especially in
buildings with multiple functions: garages/shops on the ground floor and possibly on the 1st
floor and living on the upper floors or in hotels where the first levels require large spaces while
on the current floors there are dividing walls in each room.
It is recalled that the design of buildings with the first level on pillars is one of the five architectural
principles of Le Corbusier, which, taken without hesitation, generated numerous damages in seismic
countries such as Taiwan, Algeria, Italy, Turkey and even in the USA. [Li Wang, M., Stylistic Dogma
vs Seismic Resistance. The contribution of modernist tenets to an Algerian disaster. AIA Journal,
November 1981][Petrovici, R. Some considerations regarding the relationship between architectural
design and the seismic response of buildings. Romanian Academy Symposium - UTCB 1999].
The illustration of this truth, obvious and today undisputed by true specialists, shows practically
identical manifestations in buildings located thousands of kilometers apart and with an interval
of ten
years between them.
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(a) Taiwan (1999) (b) L'Aquila (2009)
Figure C 10.15. Identical damage to buildings with "weak" floors
For this type of structure, the requirement of rotational ductility concentrated at the level of
the ground floor pillars cannot be satisfied with the dimensions and reinforcements that
result in the design conditions specific to buildings with few levels, so that the formation of
the floor mechanism is practically inevitable. In extreme situations, the combination of non-
structural irregularities resulting from the uncontrolled arrangement of masonry panels,
with the superficial/negligent design of the reinforced concrete structure can lead to the
complete destruction of a building.
Figure C 10.16. Complete destruction of a multi-storey building due to uncontrolled

placement of masonry panels (Bhuj earthquake)
The respective building with a structure made of reinforced concrete frames (height P+4E)
had residences on all levels and on half of the ground floor area. In these areas there
were numerous reinforced masonry panels (closing and partitioning walls). On the ground
floor, on half of the surface of the level, garages were set up, which led to the suppression
of the closing masonry walls (to allow access) and the partition walls (to allow easier
handling of cars). As a result, the strongly asymmetric distribution of the stiffeners led to
the brutal manifestation of the overall twisting effect that generated a force that developed
throughout the height of the building. The potentially destructive consequences of this
effect were ignored by the designer who did not take measures to increase the
reinforcement in the horizontal elements in the vertical plane associated with the stiffness
discontinuity. And as such a severe damage never occurs without aggravating
circumstances, all the longitudinal reinforcements of the horizontal elements of the
structure, from all levels, were bent in the critical section!
Another type of serious damage which, as a rule, occurs under the combined effect of the
seismic action perpendicular to the plane of the wall and that in the plane of the panels, is the
complete expulsion of the masonry panels. This phenomenon has been encountered in several
earthquakes, even in buildings that have not suffered structural damage.
Figure C 10.17. Expulsion of reinforced facades in reinforced concrete frames
The expulsion of facade masonry is a particularly dangerous damage for the safety of the
lives of people outside the building and particularly expensive because the respective
buildings become uninhabitable and require a large volume of rehabilitation works.
Local effects of uncontrolled interactions on reinforced concrete frames

As I mentioned before, the earthquakes of the last two decades showed the very high
vulnerability of buildings in frames with reinforced masonry panels.
The mentioned vulnerability manifests brutally and frequently if the frame/panel interaction
is neglected or underestimated in the design of the building resistance structure. Some
typical damage situations are presented and explained below.
Damage to frame nodes
In the case of high-strength masonry and/or improperly dimensioned frames, embedding the
masonry in the frame nodes can cause the beam/column to fail by force or damage the node.
Cracking of the node, even in the early stages, with small openings, increases the
deformability of the frame and reduces the adhesion of the reinforcements in the beam,
thereby reducing the value of the capable moment at the end of the beam. The cracking
process of the frame node does not contribute to the dissipation of seismic energy.
Damage to frame nodes can occur even in the conditions of relatively "weak" infill panels,
such as those of elements with large voids and thin walls, in conditions where the
reinforcement of the frame bars and, especially, the reinforcement of the node is insufficient
quantitatively or in terms of arrangement (for example, the absence of stirrups from the post
or their arrangement at long distances).
At the same time, it should be noted that the repair of node damage, such as those in figure
C 10.18, is very complicated from a technical point of view, is expensive and, in some cases,
has unfavorable implications on the functionality of the construction and its appearance
(especially if make a consolidation by hammering/manufacturing with reinforced concrete).
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Figure C 10.18. Damage to frame joints caused by masonry panels (L'Aquila

2009)
Damage to the frame bars
The main local effect of masonry panels reinforced in frames consists in modifying the static
scheme of the frame with consequences, sometimes serious, on the stress state in the bars.
Neglecting this modification, due to ignorance or superficiality, leads in most cases to effects that
can endanger the integrity of the building. During the seismic movement, the effective length of
the bars is changed by creating additional contacts/supports which, if not taken into account when
designing the frame's resistance through adequate reinforcement, can cause the damage/
destruction of the respective elements.
The most dangerous phenomenon is the formation of dark columns due to the effect of masonry
panels that partially extend over the height of the floor. Figure C 10.19 shows the mechanism by
which an incorrectly executed masonry parapet (placed/fixed laterally in contact with the pillars)
leads to damage to the structure:
- Reduces the length of the pole
- I modify the static scheme, the wall of the compressed diagonal constituting additional
"support" for the pillar
(a) (b
Figure C 10.19. The effect of partial-height masonry panels - the formation of dark columns
The breaking mode of the post depends on the ratio between the "length" of the shortened post
and the size of the cross section in the plane of the frame. In the case of figure C 10.19.(a), in
which the mentioned ratio is approximately five, the column yielded through the plastic articulation
at both ends as a result of the insufficient eccentric compression resistance capacity. In the case
of figure C 10.19.(b) the length of the shortened column became practically equal to its side
( extremely short column) which generated an explosive shear failure, with the expulsion of the
concrete. The reports of the post-earthquake investigation teams contain dozens of such
photographs.
In a similar way, the shortening of the beams can be produced, with the same effect, by means
of panels that develop only on part of the length of the beam.
Effects of uncontrolled interactions on masonry panels.

The damage to the masonry panels manifests itself, in most cases, as a result of the lack of control of
the size of the displacements imposed by the reinforced masonry frame. The absence in the design
codes of the provisions regarding the limitation of relative level displacements, or their ignoring when
they exist, have as a consequence numerous degradations of the non-structural closing and/or
partitioning walls. In the communication [Li, B, Wang, Z., Mosalam, KM, and Xie, H Wenchuan
Earthquake Field Reconnaissance on Reinforced Concrete Framed Buildings With and Without Masonry
Infill Walls, 14thWCEE, Beijing, 2008] a wide range of typical damage is presented in the frames with
masonry panels found in the Wenchuan earthquake (2008). The communication draws attention to the
fact that the panels made of hollow elements (a) and (b) presented more damage, protecting the frames
less than the masonry panels with solid elements (c).
(a) (b) Masonry with hollow elements (c) Masonry with solid elements
Figure C 10.20. The behavior of masonry panels in the Wenchuan earthquake (2008)
During the L'Aquila earthquake (2009), moderate or more severe damage to the infill masonry
was recorded in 29% of the investigated buildings.
The reinforced panels used in these buildings were, in the vast majority, double-layered walls with an
inner hollow, made of bricks with horizontal hollows (or arranged horizontally) and without reinforcements
in the joints [Liel, AB, Lynch, K P. Vulnerability of reinforced concrete frame buildings and their occupants
in the 2009 l'Aquila, Italy earthquake Report Number 213 October 2009 Department of Civil,
Environmental, and Architectural Engineering University of Colorado]
The L'Aquila earthquake highlighted the unsatisfactory behavior of masonry infill panels with
hollow elements and thin walls (similar to those in group 2S). Under the effect of the lateral
displacements of the frame, the panels simply disintegrated, the elements showing explosive
breaks, which is further evidence for the lack of robustness of these elements!.
Figure C 10.21. Damage to infill panels from hollow elements and thin beams [Fred
Turner, L'Aquila]
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Another systematic cause of the damage that has occurred is the use, on the outside, of
double-layer walls with an inner hollow, but without connections between the layers or with
insufficient or improperly anchored connections.
(a) (b)
Figure C 10.22. Double-layer masonry without joints between layers (Turkey 1999)
In figure C 10.22. (b) the specific mode of damage to thin-walled elements through explosive
failure with the expulsion of the outer walls of the masonry element is also visible .
Figure C 10.23. Double-layer masonry with inadequate joints between layers (L'Aquila 2009)
In figure C 10.23. it can be seen that the connections between the two layers of the wall
were not made with the metal anchors provided for in the SR EN 845 standard or similar
regulations in the USA. The connections between the layers through ceramic elements
(bricks/blocks) arranged transversely, with large distances between them and, probably,
insufficiently reinforced, were not able to ensure neither the stability of the outer layer nor
the integrity of the inner layer.
It is recalled that double-layer walls with an inner hollow were used on a large scale in the
interwar buildings in Romania, often even for structural walls (the American wall, after the
name of the time).
C10.5.3.1.1. (6) Determining the geometric and mechanical characteristics of the
compressed diagonal - also called the diagonal equivalent in strength and stiffness to the
filler panel - defined by the masonry file actually represents the key problem for establishing
the calculation model.
The data available in the literature for the equivalent diagonal lime vary within very wide
limits. This variation results, in particular, from the level of simplification adopted by the
authors. The most complex relationships [Stafford-Smith, B., and Carter, C., A method of
analysis for Infilled Frames
, Strength
Proc. ICE of v.44-
Infilled
1969]
Frames
[Mainstone,
Proceedings
RJ, Onof the
the Institution
Stiffness and
of Civil
Engineers, 1971] were established taking into account a large number of parameters (the
dimensions of the contact area, the distribution of efforts in contact area, frame / panel
stiffness ratio, etc.).
More recently, simpler relationships, independent of frame and panel properties, have
been proposed that define the equivalent diagonal length as a fraction of the diagonal
length of the panel (D), but which also have important variations from researcher to
researcher. another:
- a=0,25D [Paulay, T., and Priestley, M. J. N., Seismic design of reinforced concrete and
masonry buildings, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1992.]
- a=0,20D [Penelis, G. G., & Kappos, A. J., Earthquake-resistant concrete structures, E &
FN Spon, London, 1997]
- a=0.10 D [*** Italy Ministry of Public Works, Circular 10 April 1997, Instructions for the application of the
technical standards for buildings in seismic areas referred to in the ministerial decree 16 January 1996,
Ordinary Supplement to the Official Gazette no. 97, April 28, 1997]
In the Code, the value a=0.10D was adopted, appreciating that the values given by the other proposals lead to
unrealistically high forces in the compressed diagonal and therefore to excessive additional dimensions of the beams
and columns.
For metal frames, older studies proposed an even larger diagonal limit: a=0.33D [Holmes, M., Steel frames with
brickwork and concrete infilling", Proc. of the Institution of Civil Engineers, part 2, vol. 19, pp. 473-478, London, 1961]
A more accurate calculation was proposed in [Mainstone, RJ, Supplementary note on the stiffness and strength of
infilled frames, Current Paper CP13/74, BRE, London, 1974] starting from the observation that the limit of the
equivalent diagonal does not remain constant but depends on the state of degradation of the panel. The values
proposed in this paper are empirical in nature, being based on the processing of some experimental data.
- at the initiation of the crack
a 78.3
H2sin56.0 And
- in the intermediate phase and, precisely enough, until breaking
a 90.3
2sin17.0 It
D
The paper [Ghassan Al-Chaar Evaluating Strength and Stiffness of Unreinforced Masonry Infill Structures.
US Army Corp of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, January 2002] also analyzes
the effect of the interaction between the two categories of demands: in the plane of the panel and
perpendicular to it. The experience of the last earthquakes showed that the resistance of the infill panels
to the seismic action in the plane of the wall can be drastically reduced in the conditions where the force
perpendicular to the plane has important values.
Based on a non-linear calculation with finite elements, a relationship was established to reduce the
resistance capacity in the plane of the panel depending on the intensity of the stress perpendicular
to the plane.
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226
The relationship proposed for the evaluation of the resistance reduction due to the effect of the overlap of the
two demands has the form:
reduced
zuFkzuF )()(
Rd Rd
1 5 2
1k
4 4
F AND
where
FR
The notations used above are:
FE() uniform seismic force normally distributed on the plane
FR() capable force uniformly distributed normally on the plane
k the coefficient of reduction of the in-plane resistance capacity FRd(zu) due to the seismic action
perpendicular to the plane
C 10.5.3.4. Conditions for the seismic design of partition walls made of other
materials.
C10.5.3.4 (2) One of the advantages of using lightweight separating walls (with wooden/steel frame and
plasterboard panels) is the reduced sensitivity to relative level displacements of the structure assembly. The
more detailed presentation given in the following is aimed at encouraging the large-scale introduction of these
pears into current practice in Romania. Using this type of wall instead of masonry also brings advantages in
case of repair/replacement after a severe earthquake. In the case of light walls, the limit values of the drift (for
the calculation in the plane of the wall) and of the maximum beam (for the calculation perpendicular to the
plane of the wall) depend primarily on the method of assembly of the metal or wooden skeleton.
Figure C 10.24. The composition of the walls is easy to use in the tests presented in
[Arnold,A.E. Cyclic Behaviour and Repair of Stucco and Gypsum Sheathed Woodframe Walls, Report
no. SSRP 2002/07, Univ. of California, San Diego]
For the SLS check, in order to protect the finishes, the arrow perpendicular to the plane must be Het/200 -
limit established, for example, in the NZS 4203:1992 standard.
Regarding the verification conditions at SLS in relation to the seismic action in the floor plan, some relevant
data result from recent tests on partition walls with a wooden frame and reinforced plaster faces or plaster
panels (plastered or covered with wallpaper) [Arnold ,AE Cyclic Behavior and Repair of Stucco and Gypsum
Sheathed Woodframe Walls Report no. SSRP 2002/07, Univ. of California, San Diego].
These tests allowed the establishment of three domains of deformation (relative level displacement) that are
relevant for SLS of dividing walls:
- Domain 1 cu max = 2‰ ( full functional cldire - CCF)

- Domain 2 cu max = 4‰ ( functional cldire -CF)
- Domain 3 cu max = 7‰ (building that ensures life protection - CPV)
With the above data, the relative displacements of the floor can be evaluated, as a guide,
depending on the "int" performance levels, if the protection of the separating walls is followed
- For an office building with a height = 3.60 m, the allowable relative level displacements
dr are:
complete functional cldire: ID = 0.2%………dr = 0.72 cm

functional cldire: ID = 0.4%………dr = 1.44 cm
- For a residential building with a height of 3.00 m, the allowable relative level
displacements dr are:
full functional cldire: ID = 0.2%………dr = 0.60 cm ID = 0.4%………

functional cldire: dr = 1.20 cm
The results of the tests showed the following significant information:
Panels with plastered faces (figure C 10.25a)

- Domain 1 The cracking state of the plaster and the crack openings show a very low
degree of damage. Many of the cracks are of the "hairline" category for which the
opening is 0.05 mm.
- Domain 2 It is characterized by the continuous increase in length and opening
cracks formed in domain 1 and by the appearance of new cracks.
- Domain 3 The behavior of the plasters for higher values of the relative level displacement
showed both the amplification of the cracking process and the situations in which the
detachment of the finishing layer occurred.
(a)
(b)
Cldire fully functional functional cldire
Figure C 10.25. Evolution of damage to lightweight walls with plastered faces (a) and to lightweight
walls with plasterboard faces (b)
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228
Gypsum board face panels (figure C 10.25b)
- Domain 1. Only very few cracks were produced, mostly of the "thread" type
of hair", with short lengths, starting from the corners of the hollows.
- Domain 2. The cracks have increased both in length and opening. Deformation of the
covering tape at the joint between the boards was observed and the nails sticking out
of the holes was isolated.
- Domain 3 It is characterized by the expansion of the damage process: the breaking of

the covering tapes from the joints and the exit of a large number of nails from the
locations.
The provision of connecting reinforcements is aimed at improving the contour conditions and
implicitly reducing the bending moments in the wall field as well as increasing the resistance of
these sections to vertical sliding and breaking from bending perpendicular to the horizontal joints.
C10.5.3.4.(3) The protection of partition walls against the effects of lateral level shifts that induce
stresses in the plane of the wall (at the contact points) is effectively achieved by ensuring free
spaces between the wall and the structure or between the wall and other non-structural
components .
Figure C 10.26. Ensuring the free spaces when installing partition walls with skeleton
The provisions of P 100-1 regarding the possibility of taking over relative level displacements
have implications that require some clarification:
- the free spaces necessary to take over the movements from temperature or seismic
action must be treated to prevent the penetration of air and moisture inside the building;
the material used for this purpose must remain permanently plastic (not block relative
movements) and at the same time meet the requirements related to the appearance of
the facade and can be replaced if it was damaged during the earthquake;
- in many cases, in order to take over the relative displacements of the level, the grips
are composed in such a way as to form a determined static system; the lack of
redundancy and the impossibility of retransmitting efforts in the event of failure of a
clamp should be compensated by dimensioning the connections for forces several
times larger than those that would result in the case of ductile clamps so that the
respective material remains in the elastic domain of behavior in the event of an
earthquake of design;
- the probable relative displacements of the building for which the fasteners are designed
must take into account the manufacturing and assembly tolerances of the prefabs
-
C 10.5.3.1.2. Conditions for the seismic design of non-structural enclosing

walls that are not reinforced in reinforced concrete/steel frames
C10.5.3.1.2 (3) The role of the pillars and belts is to fragment the wall panel so that
the stresses perpendicular to its plane do not exceed the strength of the masonry
and to ensure the transmission of the seismic forces related to it to the main structure
of the building through elements capable of taking the resulting tensile stresses.
The placement of the system of posts and belts must not change the static scheme of
the main structure. The elements of the structure must be checked for the local effect of
the forces transmitted by the pillars and belts.
C 10.5.3.1.3. Seismic design conditions of masonry partition walls (A3z) that

are not reinforced in reinforced concrete/steel frames
The provisions refer to ensuring the resistance of partition walls made of masonry for
the direct action of the earthquake (perpendicular to the plane of the wall). In these
conditions, the value of the calculation force depends on:
- the position of the wall on the height of the building;
- the mass of the wall (which must also include the mass of the objects that could
be suspended on it).
The result is therefore a perpendicular force uniformly distributed on the plane of the wall
which is calculated with the average value of the level acceleration (average product per
floor agKz) and a horizontal seismic force concentrated in the center of gravity of the
suspended mass (figure C 10.6). The values of these forces increase from the ground floor
to the last level of the building. In these conditions, if all levels have the same height and if
the distribution and dimensions of the partition walls are identical on all levels of the building,
it is sufficient to check the strength of the walls only on the last level. In the absence of a
more accurate calculation (with finite elements, for example) for solid walls, the bending
moments in the wall can be calculated with the formulas from the theory of elastic plates
taking into account the conditions of fixing the wall on the contour. In the case of walls with
door or window gaps, according to the provisions of SR EN 1996-1 taken over in CR 6, the
calculation of the bending moments can be done by decomposing the wall into rectangular
fragments. Depending on the connections with the structure or with the other structural/non-
structural walls, the edges of a partition wall can be:
- built-in: non-structural wall connected by braces with a structural wall with at least
double thickness;
- with continuity: non-structural wall intersected by another perpendicular wall;
- with simple support: in this situation there is the lower edge of the wall (resting on
the lower floor) and the upper edge (fixed to the upper floor); also the vertical
edges of the infill masonry panels attached to the columns / concrete walls;
- free sides: the upper edge of the partially developed walls along the height and
the side edges near the gaps (even if the gap does not develop over the entire
height of the panel.
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Figure C 10.27. Examples of particular conditions of leaning on the contour
C10.5.3.1.3(5) The purpose of the provision is:
- ensuring the stability of the walls that are not fixed to the upper part in the upper
plane;
- avoiding uncontrolled interactions between the partition walls - regardless of
the material from which they are made - and the suspended ceiling, which
could result in the degradation of the ceiling and the installations included in it.
After calculating the relative level displacement of the structure, the size of the space
between the structure, partition walls and/or other non-structural elements that may be
in interaction can be established by adding the most unfavorable values of the estimated
local deformations and construction tolerances. For effort calculation
C 10.5.4. Seismic design of suspended ceilings (A4)
The analysis of the behavior of suspended ceilings during the earthquakes of recent
years highlighted several categories of damage. The most important are concentrated
in the contact areas with the contour walls, at the joints between the sections and at the
connections with the sprinkler systems, because, in the absence or due to the
insufficiency of the bracing systems / blocking of lateral movements, as a rule, damage
occurs to the elements that penetrating through the ceiling (sprinklers, vents, etc.) and/
or the elements that come into contact with the walls of the room. During the seismic
movement, it was found that the plaster or ceramic panels came off the supports (wings
of the profile) and fell. Also, the lighting fixtures embedded in the ceiling detached and
fell. Movements of the ceiling against the separating walls damaged the bracing systems
and as the seismic movement continued the ceiling began to oscillate and collide with
the surrounding walls. At the same time, the lighting fixtures that were attached to the
ceiling also fell.
The massive damage to suspended ceilings, especially in schools, was considered an
important source of risk so that one of the recommendations of the specialists who
examined these buildings was the introduction of mandatory design (calculation and
constructive detailing) for all non-structural elements that may fall into the respective
room : suspended ceilings, lighting fixtures and the respective accessories.
Note. From the specialized literature research, it appears that the first technical provisions for improving
the earthquake behavior of suspended ceilings were formulated by the professional association "Ceiling
and Interior System Contractors (CISCA)" in 1972.
If, normally, light ceilings do not represent a danger to the lives of people inside the
building, there are situations in which more or less serious accidents can occur. This is
especially the case for large ceilings and those located on the exit/access lines. The
consequences of these failures can be significantly greater in the case of functions that
accommodate vulnerable people (for example, create,
chimneys for the elderly or for disabled persons) and can be particularly accentuated in
cases where the execution is inadequate.
Another way of damage observed is the displacement/exit of the ceiling panels from the
system of the own structure followed by their fall. The danger represented by this type of
damage depends on the weight of the respective panels, the height and the functions of
the rooms where the ceiling is installed. Falling panels on the access lines can delay/
prevent the evacuation of the building or the access of the intervention teams. Clamping
the panels to the ceiling's own structure is a precautionary measure that, within certain
limits, can reduce the probability of the panels falling. It was found that the effectiveness
of this provision depends on several factors, among which are mentioned: the type of
ceiling and its fasteners, the characteristics of the panels, the composition and fixing of
the clips. It is emphasized that, to a large extent, the effectiveness of the grips depends
on the correctness of the execution.
Another situation in which damage can occur occurs if the ceiling represents support, in
the upper part for the partition walls. This is the case of easy dividing walls that do not
continue to the upper level (most often for reasons of economy) which involve checking
the capacity of these walls to take over the movements of the ceiling without causing the
walls to break/fall.
Among the most vulnerable suspended ceiling systems are those made of ipci on which
plaster or plasterboard panels are fixed. These ceilings have significant rigidity in the
horizontal plane and receive significant seismic forces that, in most cases, exceed the
resistance capacity of the mortar or plasterboard. For this reason, cracking of the plaster/
panel occurs and many times they detach from the boards. In turn, if they are not well
fixed, the beams can detach from the structure of the plane, producing the fall of more or
less extensive areas of the ceiling.
Movements of the ceiling during the earthquake can also cause damage to lighting fixtures
integrated in the ceiling that can detach and fall from the support system.
Observations made after several earthquakes showed that for lighting fixtures that had their own
fixing system, independent of the ceiling fixing system, the extent of damage was smaller. Finally,
it should be pointed out that, if the ceiling is continuous in the joint areas between adjacent sections,
significant damage may occur due to its inability to take over the differential movements (sometimes
in opposite directions) of the respective sections. This type of damage is not acceptable on the
exhaust lines because it leads, most of the time, to the falling of some panels from the ceiling. For
ceilings in other categories of rooms, differential movement causes local damage that only has
material consequences (repair/replacement costs of damaged parts).
The ceiling suspension systems of the main structure of the building have two functions:
- taking over the related vertical and horizontal loads and transmitting them to
the main structure of the building;
- limitation of horizontal and vertical movements of the ceiling. The
vertical loads from the own weight of the ceiling and the installations included in it are transmitted
to the main structure of the building, directly, through the metal suspension parts, and at the edges
by resting directly on the contour element, which also has the role of ensuring the closure of the
space up to the soffit of the upper plane.
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The contour element is usually a corner but can also be a "U" profile or a profile
with a more complicated shape.
To absorb the horizontal forces and limit the lateral movements of the ceiling, the
suspension systems can be composed in one of the following two ways: - with
flexible inclined wires (wires, cables or chains), with or without rigid vertical
uprights (ceilings with braces) ;
- only with flexible vertical wires and with rigid fastenings (usually with screws) to the contour corner
(directly suspended ceilings - without bracing).
Figure C 10.28. Fixing systems for suspended ceilings In the
case of braced ceilings, the inclined flexible wires absorb, by stretching, the vertical and horizontal forces
and limit the lateral displacements, and the rigid mounts absorb the compressive forces associated with the
stretching of the wires and prevent the vertical (upward) movement of the ceiling . In this case, the inclined
wires can be mounted "stretched". On ceilings that do not have rigid ridges, the inclined wires must be
installed "weakened" to avoid the ceiling deplaning (vertical lifting under the effect of stretching from the
wires).
The location of the attachment points in the current field of the ceiling depends on the type of ceiling and the
amount of vertical and seismic forces. The position and composition of the fasteners are chosen in such a
way as to allow installation of installations (ventilation ducts, electrical cables, vents, etc.). As a general rule,
suspended ceilings must not be attached to installation systems (ventilation ducts, pipes); this solution can
only be accepted if, by design, these installations have been provided with the necessary strength and rigidity
to support the respective loads. If the installation systems prevent the normal installation of the ceiling
mounting parts, they must be moved and/or supplemented (usually they are mounted on both sides of the
respective installations).
The closing panels of suspended ceilings can be made of different materials: plaster, aluminum, glass, wood,
plastic materials.
The composition of the closing panels depends on:
- acoustic requirements;
- fire behavior requirement; - durability
requirements;
- appearance requirements (texture, degree of finishing, etc.)

The earthquake behavior of the closing panels depends on the properties of the
materials they are made of and the way the panels are attached to the ceiling's own
structure.
An important condition is that the light panels can withstand the deformations of the
ceiling's own structure without cracking and/or moving.
Aluminum panels, which are used on a wide scale, behave satisfactorily if they are
attached/mounted correctly (with suitable wires and supports) and, above all, if the
attachment to the supporting profiles is strong enough.
The fastening system of the panels must allow a safe fixation but also the possibility
of easy access when carrying out maintenance or intervention work.
For the safest possible placement of the panels, it is recommended that the T-profiles
of which the net is made up have sufficiently wide bases to avoid them falling due to
lateral movements. Usually, the panels are attached to the ceiling structure with clips
and, more recently, some companies propose attaching the panels also by gluing.
In order to control the movements and deformations of the building resulting from
temperature variations or from seismic action as well as internal efforts from contraction
or expansion, the ceiling's own structure is fragmented with joints. Normally, the joints
are provided next to the joints in the main structure and on the contour of the ceiling
(next to the construction elements on the contour of the room).
Joints are needed in the ceiling's own structure and in the following particular situations:
- in the areas where the level of the ceiling changes;

- in rooms with complex plan shapes ("L", "U", "T"); - for
ceilings whose surface exceeds about 250m2 (with support on the contour) or
about 100m2 (without support on the contour);
- for the ceilings of the continuous soffit over about 9.0m each
direct.
At the joints, the main elements of the ceiling's own structure are doubled, each with its
own suspension system.
Considering the complex problems related to the earthquake behavior of suspended
ceilings, experimental research on reduced models and on a natural scale has been carried
out in several countries.
Figure C 10.29. Stand for testing suspended ceilings

[Yao,G.C. Research and application on seismic safety of operational and functional components
in buildings Proc. Canada-Taiwan Natural Hazard Mitigation Workshop, 2002, Ottawa Canada ]
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The research presented in [Yao, GC Research and application on seismic safety of operational
and functional components in buildings Proc. Canada-Taiwan Natural Hazard Mitigation
Workshop, 2002, Ottawa Canada] were realized by building a room model with the plan
dimensions of 8.2 x 4.95 m (about 40 m2 ) and the height of 3.40 m in which they ceilings with
the length of the suspension wires of 60 cm have been installed.
Four types of ceiling construction were tried using combinations of the three usual means of
suspension recommended by American standards:
1 - fixing the rulers to the edge elements;
2 - suspension wires at the ends of the rulers;
3 - inclined wires and rigid mountains.
The composition of type "A" corresponds to the provisions of the American standard ASTM
E580-96 [ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials - ASTM E580-96, Standard Practice
For Application of Ceiling Suspension Systems for Acoustical Tile and Lay-in Panels in Areas
Requiring Moderate Seismic Restrain 1996 ] and the "D" type composition corresponds to the
current practice in non-seismic areas.
As excitation, four types of microwaves characteristic for earthquakes in Taiwan were used as the
basis of the model (two microwaves with a narrow frequency band and two microwaves with a
wide frequency band). Micron accelerations were between 0.25 and 1.5 g.
Note. The maximum value of the acceleration used for the tests (1.5g) corresponds to the product of the following parameters:
- ground acceleration at = 0.33g (calculated value used in Taiwan)
- the coefficient of importance tav = 1.5
- the acceleration amplification coefficient on the height of the building Kz = 3.0
The value of the seismic acceleration at which the tests were performed is close to the one that corresponds to P 100-1 for the
areas ag = 0.30g and ag = 0.35g.
As can be seen from the results presented in the table below, the application of the constructive
measures given in the ASTM standard ensures the acquisition of an acceleration level of at least
1.5g without affecting the integrity of the ceiling. From the same table, it follows that in the absence
of inclined links, the change in the breakdown acceleration level is not significant for their safety.
Table C 10.5
The Accel.de fasteners

Breaking mode
type of ceiling 1 2 3
damaging
A and and and > 1,5g Practically no damage
Rulers detached from edge members; a few panels

cracked, and few rule ends warped due to contact with
B and and not 1,5g
end wall
The rulers began to break and fall.

C and not not 0.8g Most panels cracked at 0.8g.
At 1.5g, the ceiling collapsed
Rulers detached from edge elements; the edge rulers

D not not not 0,25g started to break and fall to 0.4g
C 10.5.3.3. Conditions for the seismic design of glazed facades
C10.5.3.3.(1) The provisions of this paragraph refer to the satisfaction of the "resistance and
stability" requirement for the following components of the glazed facades:
- the own structure of the curtain wall (component elements and joints
them), of the frames of showcases and windows;
- glazed (glass) or opaque panels;
- the fastenings of the own structure of the curtain wall and the frames of the showcases i
the windows of the building structure.
To satisfy this requirement, general and specific performance requirements and criteria are
formulated as follows:
i. General requirements: Glazed facades and, in particular, curtain walls, including their
attachments to the main structure, must be designed and executed in such a way that, under the
effect of the actions likely to be exerted on them during execution and operation, they do not none
of the following events occur:
- total collapse or partial/local collapse;
- the occurrence of "progressive collapse" types of damage;
- falling or breaking of glass panels;

- damage to the sealing systems, as a result of excessive deformations of the structural
elements (the main structure of the building or the structure of the curtain wall, the
showcase or the windows);
- limitation or impossibility of handling mobile parts (windows, doors);
- the production of vibrations of unacceptable intensity for exploitation

normal.
ii. Specific requirements: The specific requirements of investors/users regarding the behavior of
glazed facades and, in particular, curtain walls, under the effect of earthquake action (as well as
in the case of strong wind) are the following:
- Life safety requirement: reducing the risk of endangering the safety of people by falling,
in public spaces (in the street, for example) or in spaces where several people can be
(interior courtyards of schools, atriums, etc. ), of the windows. In order to satisfy this
requirement, measures are required for:
preventing the risk of glass breakage;
preventing the fall of glass fragments, if the breakage occurred.
- Degradation limitation requirement: reduction of costs for the repair of glass facades
damaged by the earthquake as well as losses caused by the interruption of activity in
the building as a result of the damage to the facade.
Note 1: The requirement of life safety is also imposed by the public authorities, while the requirement
to limit degradation belongs, as a rule, only to investors.
Note 2: The degradation limitation requirement corresponds to the "functionality" and "repairability"
requirements formulated in the regulations of some countries (Japan, for example).
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The satisfaction of the general requirements stated in (i) is conditioned by:
- the general and detailed design of the glazed facade and in particular of the curtain wall,
of their components, of the connections between the components and the connections
of the facade with the main structure of the building; - the properties, performance, use
and way of putting into operation the construction materials and products;
- the quality of the execution and the realization of the necessary maintenance works.
In the case of curtain walls, the occurrence of "progressive collapse" damage can be limited or
avoided by appropriate measures regarding:
- determining the risk of occurrence of such events;
- adopting a structural configuration that does not present sensitivities to such events
( redundant structural configuration);
- ensuring the elements of the own structure of the fasteners of the main structure with
sufficient ductility.
The specific performance criteria that the glass must meet under the effect of seismic action, to
satisfy the requirements of (ii), are the following:
- Life safety requirement, for the design earthquake, with period

average return of 225 years, is satisfied when:
the glass breaks into pieces but remains in the frames or anchors in limit
stability conditions, but can fall at any moment;
the glass falls from the frames or from the anchors in small fragments
that cannot endanger people's lives (the way of breaking depends on the
type of glass);
The requirement of life safety cannot be ensured if:
glass fragments, even of small size (from secured glass), fall from a great
or very great height;
the glass breaks into large shards and/or the panels fall entirely from the
frames or together with the frames.
- The requirement to limit degradation under the effect of the "service" earthquake (with an
average return period of about 40 years) is satisfied when:
the glass remains unaffected in frames or anchors;
the cracked glass remains trapped in the frames or anchors and continues
to provide the functions of closing to the outside (protection against
atmospheric agents) and protection against intrusion.
In these conditions, at the same time, both the requirement of life safety and the
conditions of immediate use of the building are ensured (the replacement of the cracked
glass can be done whenever the beneficiary wishes).
Most of the existing Codes do not specify the seismic behavior of different types of glass or different
types of frames.
(a) Glass panels in metal frame (b) Glass panes fixed at isolated points
Figure C 10.30. Moving the glass panels of the curtain facades
Figure C 10.31. Glass attachment details at isolated points
Recent tests, however, have shown that the different types of glass present big differences
between the drift values that cause the glass to crack or fall out of the frames.
Such tests were carried out on several types of glass with a thickness of 6 mm with
assemblies specific to ordinary showcases and some curtain walls for medium-sized
buildings.
In the case of showcases designed according to the current Codes, it was found that SLS
(associated with damage to glass corners and degradation of gaskets) was exceeded for a
moderate earthquake and ULS (associated with extensive/generalized cracking and falling
of glass pieces) was achieved in case severe earthquake.
The protection of the window panels against the lateral movements of the structure was
sometimes achieved by mounting the window frames on springs that separate them from
the elements of the structure. With a greater frequency, the solution of filling the space
between the frame and the adjacent structural elements with mastics or permanently plastic
putty is encountered to allow the movement of the window panels. In both cases, it is
necessary to ensure the stability and resistance of the windows for the forces perpendicular
to their plane due to the action of the wind or the earthquake.
The metal frames of the windows connected to the structure or other non-structural
elements deform and some elements can lose their stability when subjected to large
deformations causing the glass to fall or break.
These breakdowns can occur for several reasons:
- the bottle was cut too small to open;
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- the glass was cut too large for the opening, having a too small/no edge to absorb the
deformations of the frame;
- the glass is not at all adapted to the frame and thus moves independently in the frame
it can break/fall down.
Due to the above causes and the fact that in many cases the structure does not have sufficient rigidity
to limit the lateral deformations and angular distortions of the window openings, it is to be expected
that in the case of a moderate or intense earthquake a significant number of glass panels will be
damaged.
C10.5.3.3.(2) The condition that the relative displacement of the level that causes the breaking
and/or falling of the glass from the curtain wall or from the display case - dra (glass) - is limited
lower was introduced for the first time in Japan in 1982 [SGAJ Sheet Glass Association of Japan
Earthquake Safety Design of Windows ] and is based on a formula for calculating the relative
level displacement that produces contact between the glass and the panel frame [Bouwkamp,
JG, Meehan, JF Drift Limitations Imposed by Glass Proc. Second World Conf. Earthq. Engrg. Tokyo
and Kyoto, 1960]. This formula assumes that the rectangular frame deforms and breaking becomes
possible if the short diagonal of the frame is equal to the diagonal of the glass panel.
The 1.25 factor from relation (10.5) is intended to cover some uncertainties that may intervene in the
determination of the inelastic displacements of the structures. The value is also adopted by IBC 2003
at the recommendation of FEMA 450 based on older research [Wright, PD The Development of a
Procedure and Rig for Testing the Racking Resistance of Curtain Wall Glazing Building Research of
New Zealand (BRANZ), Study Report no. 17, 1989] who showed that the inelastic displacements of
structures can be underestimated in some cases by up to 30%
The formula (10.6) that establishes the necessary space between the window panel and its frame
derives from the relationship proposed by [Bouwkamp, JG, Meehan, JF Drift Limitations Imposed by
Glass Proc. Second World Conf. Earthq.Engrg. Tokyo and Kyoto, 1960].
H
cHy 12
B
for the case where the free spaces, horizontal and vertical, are not equal.
Figure C 10.32. The geometry of the movement of the windows due to the earthquake
The expression that establishes the necessary free space is obtained from geometric
considerations and does not take into account the stiffness of the mastic/putty nor the
imperfections of the window frame manufacturing and/or glass cutting. In case the mastic is
not permanently plastic, the authors proposed correcting the relationship under the form
H 115.0 B
cHy 36.012 B
H
C10.5.3.3.(6) Knowing the dra (glass) value for each type of glass allows establishing the
maximum drift that the glazed panel of that glass can support in the ultimate limit state
(associated with the general crack and the fall of the glass from the frames).
C10.5.3.3.(7) The purpose of the provision is to avoid large fragments of glass falling into the
street that could injure people standing in front of large windows (such accidents have been
reported after several earthquakes) .
(a) (b)
Figure C 10.33. (a) Breaking the glass of display cases
(b) Protection of the glass by applying a transparent film
An indicated and relatively simple solution to avoid the fall of glass fragments, especially in
the case of existing constructions, is the application of a completely transparent film on the
windows that keeps the glass in the frames even at high drift values, as seen in figure C
10.33b .
Figure C 10.34. Testing a window with glass protected by transparent film
[Chan, M. i colab. Effects of Applied Plastic Film on Dispersion Characteristics of Glass Shards during In-Plane
Racking Final Report, San José State University, 2003]
C 10.5.5. Seismic design of raised floors (A5)

Raised floors (raised floors/ access floors) constitute a non-structural construction assembly
(an architectural component) made up of interchangeable panels mounted, as a rule, on
horizontal rails resting on vertical supports (legs) with adjustable height. Some solutions use
panels mounted directly on vertical supports (without rulers on the edge of the panels).
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The supports are fixed (anchored) to the plane on which they rest and, in some cases,
they are braced to ensure their stability under the effect of horizontal forces.
Raised floors are usually used in offices and, in particular, in computer rooms, to create
a closed space above the level of the current building plan. They can also be used in
classrooms (auditoriums), conference rooms, telephone exchanges, corridors, etc. The
space obtained in this way is used for the installation of electrical installations,
communications or some mechanical equipment. Raised floors are usually produced by
specialist companies in accordance with recognized product standards. For this reason,
there may be some compositional differences between the different products
, dimensioning and constructive detailing.
Figure C 10.35. General composition of raised floors
C 10.5.5.1. General conditions

C10.5.5.1. (1) The design criteria of the components of a raised floor for vertical loads
refer to the bearing capacity for permanent and operating loads as well as the elastic
and residual deformations under their effect.
Verification of the satisfaction of these conditions is done by calculation or, in the USA, by tests
carried out according to the provisions of the CISCA Standard. The vertical loads for which the
resistance and deformations of the panels are checked are:
- concentrated loads (figure C 10.36a), static, mobile and impact loads;
- uniformly distributed loads (figure C 10.36b)
(a) Concentrated loads (b) Distributed loads

Figure C 10.36. Loads on raised floors
Depending on the type of product, the calculation concentrated force is, as a rule, between 2,503.00
kN and the mobile force between 1,502.00 kN.
The calculation values of uniformly distributed loads depend on the concrete conditions in which
the respective flooring will be used.
The conditions for limiting the vertical deformations in operation are particularly severe, in both
loading situations, because, in most cases, there are special horizontal requirements for the
installation and operation of equipment and installations (computers, laboratory installations,
etc.).
Thus, according to the requirements of the technical specifications of some US products, the
instantaneous deformation of the 600x600 mm panel, under the effect of a
concentrated forces, must not exceed 2 mm (1/300 of the opening) and the
permanent deformation, after removing the load, must be less than 0.25 mm.
C 10.5.5.2. Specific conditions for special raised floors
Recent editions of the NEHRP recommendations define two types of raised floors:
- special raised floors (special access floor) - which are subject to special design
provisions (calculation and constructive detailing);
- current raised floors (which do not fully meet the requirements for special raised floors).
The differences between the two categories of floors result from the composition conditions.
Thus, special floors must satisfy the following requirements:
1. The fastenings that transmit the seismic forces to the plane of the building must be made
by mechanical links, anchors mounted in concrete, welds on embedded parts. The
fastening system must be calculated according to the provisions of the Design Code in
force or be verified by tests recognized by the competent authorities.
2. For the transmission of the seismic force to the plane of the building, the use of friction on
the contact surface and the use of clamps with shot or adhesive bowls are not accepted.
3. The bracing system of the supports is dimensioned taking into account only the stretched
elements (it is taken into account that the compressed elements of the bracing panels
can buckle under the effect of the horizontal force)
4. Supports and bracing elements must be made of materials that comply with the provisions
of the standards that specify the minimum strengths of the material.
5. The horizontal bars must have the ability to transmit seismic force horizontally to the
supports and must be rigidly connected to them.
C10.5.6. Seismic design of perimeter fences (A6)

C 10.5.6(1). The experience of past earthquakes (Miyagi-Ken-Oki, 1978 and Nothridge, 1994)
has shown that the collapse of enclosure fences can represent an important risk for life safety.
The main causes that caused the collapse of the enclosure fences during the aforementioned
earthquakes were:
- lack of foundations or insufficient embedment depth in the ground a

foundations;
- execution of unreinforced masonry fences, with concrete or stone blocks;
- insufficient reinforcement of the containment elements (if they were foreseen).

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242
Figure C 10.37. The collapse of the perimeter fences
Mandatory seismic design of fences with a height greater than 1.80 m is foreseen in
California where the maximum permitted height is 2.40 m. In the case of design at the limit,
American regulations do not impose developed restrictions (height/thickness ratio) if the
effort axial design is limited (about 0.2fk) in the conditions where the slenderness ratio does
not exceed 30. Above these limits, the minimum thickness of the fence must be 15 cm.
C 10.5.7 Specific design conditions for ensuring escape routes from the
building
C10.5.7(1) The provisions of this paragraph are aimed

at: - ensuring the possibilities of using the circulations in the buildings for:
* evacuation of people from the
building; * the access of intervention teams (rescue, firefighters);
- avoiding accidents due to panic in buildings that house agglomerations of
people.
The escape routes from the building to which the provisions of this article apply are defined
as follows:
- all main and secondary stairs (elevators are not a safe/recommended way of access
after the earthquake); - all corridors leading to current or safety exits from the
building, including hallways, vestibules and adjacent spaces.
The accessibility of access keys requires:

- reducing the risk of falling canopies, facade elements and blocking access doors in the
building and those on the escape route; - ensuring the integrity of non-structural
walls and heavy and fragile finishes (plywood, suspended ceilings, lighting fixtures, air
conditioners and, in general, any element that by falling can endanger the physical
integrity of people or block the evacuation of the building); - ensuring the stability of
the furniture in the corridors; - providing and ensuring the operation of safety lighting.
Figure C 10.38. The breaking of the screed and/or the collapse of the walls of the scree house prevent
the use of the escape/access ways
Achieving these objectives requires special measures both at the level of the overall design of the
building and for solving construction details.
Since the experience of past earthquakes has shown several cases of blocking of accesses in buildings
with vital functions, the measures regarding the increased value of the admissible drift have in mind an
additional protection intended to cover some unfavorable loading and/or assembly conditions for these
constructions.
Some constructive measures for maintaining the functioning of the access keys are given below:
- fragile veneers (ceramic, glass or stone) applied directly to the structural walls or filler panels
are not used on the access lines; such finishes can only be provided if they are applied on a
special support, separated from the building structure;
- heavy finishes such as marble veneers will not be provided in the main access/evacuation
halls from the building; their application will only be done with adequate insurance measures
against detachment from the support layer;
- the main doors will be provided with sufficiently large free spaces in relation to the main
structure so that the movement of the structure does not deform the door frame preventing
opening; doors resting on rollers will be detailed in such a way as to avoid their displacement
from the running path;
- the floors will be designed to take over the movements of the construction; special measures
will be provided for the joints (the use of special parts for the joints in the floor is recommended);
- the lighting fixtures on the access lines will be fixed on the wall or will be mounted in specially
created spaces in the wall; the use of hanging lighting fixtures (which can oscillate) is not
allowed;
- the furniture items or showcases located on the access lines will have glass
secured.
C 10.6. Seismic design of installations (B)

C10.6.1. Grouping of installations in seismic categories
The ranking of installations from the point of view of importance (determined by the functional role and
by the consequences of the damage) aims to establish a priority order in terms of the level of seismic
protection.
The classification takes into account the general objectives of P 100-1 given in chapter 2, differentiated
in relation to the importance class of the construction defined in chapter 4.4.5.
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A first ranking of the level of protection refers to the importance class of the building
defined by its role after the occurrence of a severe earthquake. The level of protection
for the installation systems in buildings of the first importance class is obviously the
highest.
Regarding the functional role in a building, analogous to the notion of ranking the
resistance capacity, used in the case of structures, in the case of installation systems
we can speak of a ranking of the ability to function within the chain of conditions
specific to each system. Logically, the level of protection (probability of failure) in an
installation system must be ensured, in a differentiated way, to the components that
failure affects in order:
- several systems of installations (for example, damage to the electrical transformer

or the reserve generator through which all the electrically operated systems are
blocked);
- only the system to which the component belongs (for example, damage to the
hydrophore in the water supply system);
- only part of a system (breaking a water connection).
A particular case is represented by the increased protection requirement for installations
and equipment whose damage can endanger life safety through the release of toxic
substances or through the loss of water or steam at high temperatures. Regarding the
current installations, whose damage is considered to have only economic consequences,
the entire chain of possible consequences must be taken into account when evaluating the
probable losses.
Thus, the rupture, during the earthquake, of a pipe end in the fire protection system
(sprinklers), can cause water leaks that affect the finishes on one or more floors.
C 10.6.2. General design conditions for installation systems

C10.6.2(1) The purpose of the provision is to reduce the risk to life safety that may occur in
the event of loss of stability or integrity of an installation system.
Meeting the conditions provided for in the Code can increase the system's safety level, but
cannot, in all cases, constitute a guarantee of its continued operation.
Figure C 10.39. Possible machinery damage schemes
C10.6.2(2) Values of design loads established according to 10.5.2. and of the relative
displacements determined according to 10.5.3. will be increased, as the case may be, in
accordance with the provisions specific to each type of installation given in the following.
C10.6.2(3) In the case of important class I buildings, it is recommended that the data from
the supplier's catalogs regarding the earthquake resistance capacity of the machinery and
equipment to be confirmed through a seismic qualification procedure (calculation

analyzes with different levels of complexity, experimental data or certain/confirmed
data regarding the behavior in earthquakes similar to the design earthquake). In
the USA, seismic qualification procedures are standardized to achieve uniform
safety throughout the territory [AC 156 Acceptance Criteria for Seismic Qualification
Testing of Nonstructural Components].
Knowing the mechanical strength and deformability characteristics of the fasteners
provided by the machine manufacturer is necessary to establish the behavior
factor qCNS for the respective machine.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure C 10.40. Damaged/burnt boilers (a) and (b). Fixing devices for boilers supplied by
the supplier (c) and (d).
Figure C 10.41. Fixing of suspended boilers

[Public Works and Government Services Canada Guidelines for Seismic Evaluation and Seismic Protection of Non-Structural Elements of Buildings.1995]
C10.6.2(4&5) The provisions are aimed at avoiding the complete outage of the
installations by damaging/breaking the connections with the external power
networks or the partial outage of some installations whose components (in
particular, pipes) cross the joint between two adjacent sections .
Figure C 10.42. Demand for pipes at the joint between adjacent sections
In the case of natural gas pipes, their rupture leads, in almost all cases, to the start of fires. For this
reason, it is recommended that the gas supply network be provided with a valve for the automatic
interruption of the gas supply to the building (the observations made after the Northridge and Loma
Prieta earthquakes showed that these valves did not work in all cases).
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246
Figure C 10.43. Automatic device (valve) for stopping the natural gas supply [Eguchi, R. FEMA 139
"Seismic Risk To Natural Gas and Oil Sytem", Abatement of SeismicHazard to Lifelines, Washington DC July 1987]
In order to avoid these situations, the gaps through the structural/non-structural walls
must have large enough dimensions to take over the likely relative movements and the
spaces around the pipes will be filled with easily deformable materials.
C10.6.2(6) The additional measures indicated in this paragraph for systems with a high
level of importance due to components
the possibilitywhich,
of producing
under certain
uncontrolled
unfavorable
interactions
conditions
between
(especially for components made of fragile materials, sensitive to impact forces
important), can cause damage to other components or even system failure.
C10.6.2(7) The machines/equipment in the mentioned categories are manufactured, as

a rule, according to specific regulations. The provisions of the Code aim to set minimum
conditions that must be specified when ordering such machinery/equipment or when
issuing a use permit.
C10.6.2(8) The measures envisaged in this paragraph are aimed at favoring the taking
over of the displacements imposed on the pipelines by seismic movement. Improvised
structural fastenings and/or improper joints between sections favor pipe breaks even in
moderate earthquakes.
Figure C 10.44. Breaking the joint between the sections of a pipeline [BSSC. Federal Emergency
Management Agency FEMA 74: Reducing the Risk of Nonstructural Earthquake damage- A Practical Guide - september 1994]
The pipe -type components of the installation systems will be attached to the building
structure (directly or by means of special devices/constructions) so that the sectional
forces and deformations/displacements due to the seismic action remain within the
permissible limits. The distances between the connections, along the pipeline, are
established by calculation (see also example no. E 10.8).
Figure C 10.45. Fixarea conductelor suspendate [Public Works and Government Services Canada
Guidelines for seismic evaluation and seismic protection of non-structural elements of buildings.1995]
C10.6.2(9) The purpose of the provision is to avoid/eliminate the situations found many
times in the past earthquakes when the machinery/equipment mounted on vibration
isolators suffered large displacements that led to the breaking of the isolators but, above
all, to the damage of the connections with the other components of the system (connecting
pipes/channels).
Figure C 10.46. Lateral fixing of equipment mounted on vibration isolators [BSSC. Federal
Emergency Management Agency FEMA 74: Reducing the Risk of Nonstructural Earthquake damage- A
Practical Guide - September 1994]
C 10.6.3. Specific design conditions for different categories of elements and/or

subassemblies of installations
C 10.6.3.1. Conditions for the seismic design of sanitary installations (B1)
C10.6.3.1(2). Taking over the relative displacements of the pipes between the attachment points
on the structure or between the equipment to which they are connected is realized by flexible
connections.
Figura C 10.47. Legtura flexibil între conducte.[BSSC. Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA 74:
Reducing the Risk of Nonstructural Earthquake damage A Practical Guide - september 1994]
C10.6.3.1(3) The exceptions allowed in this paragraph from the obligation to provide some lateral
connections, in view of the reduced risk arising from the damage that could occur to these pipes.
They are based on the following characteristics of these pipes:

- high deformability; -
small dimensions, correlated with the degree of importance and seismic acceleration
Design; - the
satisfactory rigidity of the short grips; - the liquids
transported are usually not dangerous.
Obviously, the designer can appreciate if he still foresees the lateral grips, taking into
account the possible consequences of the damage (damage to some expensive finishes,
for example).
C 10.6.3.2. Conditions for seismic design of electrical and lighting installations (B2)
The experience of past earthquakes has shown that, as a rule, most electrical equipment
is sufficiently rigid and resistant to withstand seismic stresses
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248
provided that they are properly attached to the main structure or to other CNSs of sufficient
strength to take over the connection forces that may develop in this
case.
The operational safety of electrical systems can be increased if:
- the components of the systems are attached to the structure, or to another CNS, so
that the subassemblies and connections between them (which make the electrical
contacts) can take over the relative displacements and/or mutual collisions
between the system components;
- all the non-conductive components that are on the path of the seismic forces to the
attachment points are identified and evaluated from the point of view of resistance;
- all equipment, connection panels/cabinets are anchored so that they cannot lose
their stability and cannot move from their initial position.
Making connections for electrical and lighting systems with ductile material connections
contributes to meeting these requirements.
It will be taken into account the risk for life safety that can be constituted by the fall of
some heavy components (panels/electrical cabinets) in the rooms and especially on the
accession.
C 10.6.3.3. Conditions for the seismic design of air conditioning, heating

and ventilation installations (B3)
C10.6.3.3(1) The provisions of P 100-1 are based on existing data regarding the behavior
of air conditioning, heating and ventilation installation systems in past earthquakes.
Information from the USA showed that these installations generally behaved well,
especially in cases where their stiffening was done according to the provisions of the
specific regulations [SMACNA Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National
had as Association Guidelines for
Seismic
the effect
Restraint
only the
of Mechanical
failure of the
Systems].
systems,The
but breakdowns
there were
no reported cases of affecting the safety of the lives of people in the buildings. From the
examination of the behavior during the earthquake, it was found that the dominant
damages were concentrated at the joints between the channel sections (separation of the
joints) and at the suspension links that had brittle breaks due to the advanced incursions
in the post-elastic domain (as a result of high-amplitude oscillations ).
Damage was also identified in the crossing areas of the joints between adjacent building
sections (as a result of the accumulation of movements in the opposite direction) and, in
many cases, at the connections with equipment mounted on vibration isolators (air
conditioning devices high power, humidifier, heat exchanger). For these reasons, the Code
provided for safety measures regarding the increase of calculation displacements and the
recommendation that equipment isolated against vibrations be fixed separately to limit
displacements (important displacements of these machines can also damage the air duct
systems to which they are connected). It is also recommended that all devices that are
placed on pipelines be fixed with mechanical anchors to prevent them from falling/
overturning during an earthquake.
Figure C 10.48. Breakdowns of air conditioners
C10.6.3.3(2) The criteria for accepting exceptions from the obligation to provide
connections for blocking lateral movements are similar to those given in C10.6.3.1(3)
C10.6.3.3(3) This provision ensures that the seismic forces corresponding to the
masses of these machines are not transferred directly to pipes and/or channels that do
not always have the capacity to take them over without being damaged. Lateral supports
and connections will be dimensioned to safely absorb these forces.
C 10.6.3.4. Conditions for the seismic design of special installations with
machines that operate with steam or water at high temperatures (kitchens, washing machines) (B4
C10.6.3.4(1) In some countries, the construction of machines that operate with steam or water at
high temperatures is based on specialized regulations, for example [ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code - ASME BPV ] which consider a reserve of sufficient safety against advanced levels of
damage likely to lead to loss of tightness and leakage of contents that could endanger the lives of
operators.
P 100-1 considers that, in the absence of special regulations, the measures taken in
the design of these equipment to limit efforts and movements should be more severe
than those for other categories of installations and equipment, imposing higher safety
levels. Also, these conditions must be the basis of technical approvals for imports
from non-seismic countries.
C10.6.3.4(3) The provisions of this paragraph consider the creation of resistance
reserves for the respective machines and for the entire system that includes them,
taking into account the serious consequences arising from their damage and loss of contents.
C 10.7. Seismic design of electromechanical equipment (C)

C10.7.1(1) The main electromechanical equipment found in buildings which
are subject to this Code are elevators and escalators.
The intensive use and increase in the number of elevators is related to growth
the height of current buildings and the expansion of the use of escalators and moving
sidewalks is the result of the multiplication of buildings to which a large number of
people have access who must move quickly, over relatively long distances, vertically
and horizontally.
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C 10.7.1.1 Conditions for seismic design of elevators (C1)

Concerns regarding the seismic protection of elevators in buildings were practically
triggered after the San Fernando earthquake (1971) when numerous cases of damage
to elevator installations manifested mainly by the derailment of the counterweight and
its collision with the car were observed [Benuska, KL and co. Elevator Earthquake
Safety Control Proc 6th WCEE, New Delhi, 1977].
The protection methods were oriented in two directions:
- the passive protection that had in mind only the consolidation of the
elevators; - asset protection, which, apart from consolidation measures, provides:
periodic maintenance/repair interventions;
the introduction of a special device with an earthquake trigger.
This device starts working for a minimum acceleration set by the designer (in the prototype this
was 0.05g for frequencies between 1-10 Hz).
The elevator protection system consists of a series of relays, activated by the earthquake
triggering device, which follow:
- preventing the elevator from idling;
- opening the doors while driving;

- reducing the speed of the elevator;
- stopping at the next floor in the direction of travel and automatically opening the doors
to allow passengers to exit the cabin. In other variants, the device can perform several
operations such as identifying the possibilities of a damaged elevator to continue its operation at
a lower speed (the use of the elevator may be necessary for access to the upper floors for various
intervention teams, extinguishing fires, for example) or can be used to evacuate the occupants.
In the US, efforts have been made to implement such devices, mainly in schools and hospitals.
Although during the following earthquakes, damage to the elevator installations was recorded,
there were no cases of human accidents.
In accordance with California hospital legislation [California Code of Regulations, Title 8, Section
3137 Seismic Requirements For Elevators, Escalators and Moving Walks], seismic sensors must
be activated for accelerations (vertical/horizontal) 0.5g and sensors and devices protection must
be checked, from the point of view of functionality, at least once a year.
C10.7.1.1(3) Among other considerations, this provision takes into account the fact that in
crowded spaces (metro stations, large shopping centers, etc.) stricter provisions are necessary
because:
- there is a very high probability that the maximum load with people will be achieved over
long periods of time;
- precautionary measures are necessary to avoid panic.

C 10.7.1.2. Conditions for the seismic design of rolling screeds (C2)

For ramps/walkways, in some regulations [California Code of Regulations, Title
8, Section 3137 Seismic Requirements For Elevators, Escalators and Moving Walks] se prevd
i alte msuri:
- the grips that connect the escalator / moving sidewalk to the building are
designed for the seismic force corresponding to the acceleration of 0.5g, in both
main horizontal directions;
- the grips are designed to ensure the value of the maximum floor drift
corresponding to the design force;
- in cases where the connections/fastenings are provided only at one of the ends,
the torsion that occurs will be taken into account during the design; all other
supports must be free to move in the longitudinal direction;
- if the connections with the structure are provided at both ends and they allow a
certain degree of longitudinal/transversal movement, additional measures will
be taken to prevent the upper ends of the support beam from falling off the
base; all other supports must be free to move long enough in the longitudinal
direction to be able to take over the rest of the level displacement corresponding
to the design seismic force;
- at the ends where movement is allowed, the size of the supports on the
structure must be large enough to take over in both directions, without damage,
at least double the value of the permissible relative level movement.
California regulations also provide that in every building where an escalator or moving
sidewalk is installed, there must be at least one seismic sensor switch (seismic switch)
that will be activated, at a certain level of seismic acceleration, according to the
manufacturer's specifications and of a specialized engineer. Activating the seismic sensor
must turn off the power supply to the screed/pavement and activate the brake.
C10.7.1.2(4&5) Recent earthquakes have shown that, although some progress has been
made, the issue of elevator safety remains insufficiently resolved.
Thus, during the Chi-Chi earthquake in Taiwan (1999), only in the epicentral area, 579
cases of counterweight derailment and 341 cases of cabin derailment were observed.
These accidents, without causing loss of human life, led to a significant delay in the
evacuation of the residents and to the movement of intervention teams to the upper floors
and to significant costs for remediation. Engineers' analyzes showed that these damages
occurred due to the use of rings made of cold formed profiles, with insufficient dimensions,
instead of classic hot rolled profiles. This was possible due to the insufficiency of the
specialized knowledge of the builders as well as of the investors. [Yao, GC Seismic
Performance of Passengers Elevator in Taiwan Earthquake Engineering and Engineering
Seismology vol.3 no.2, 2003 ]
To correct the situation, tests were carried out on seismic platforms for high-capacity
elevators (8 and 15 people) which confirmed the main causes of the accidents found and,
in particular, the insufficient strength and rigidity of the rings from cold-formed profiles;
based on these tests, it was decided to modify the P 100-1 design for the new installations
and to adopt some consolidation measures for the existing elevators.
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(a) Rolled profiles (b) Profiles from bent sheet

Figure C 10.49. Elevator Slides (Taiwan)
C 10.8. Specific measures for seismic protection of furniture in buildings (D)

C 10.8.1. Categories of buildings and furniture/equipment that require protection
against the effects of seismic action
C10.8.1(1) The protection of professional furniture in the buildings of importance class I is a

condition for ensuring their uninterrupted operation. In the buildings of the central or local
administration, protecting the databases is absolutely necessary to ensure the continuity of
the exercise of the management act, especially in the situations created after the occurrence
of a severe earthquake.
Figure C 10.50. Stability and grip testing for personal computers
The shelves in the libraries represent a piece of furniture that, as a rule, supports
large gravitational (heavy) loads. For this reason, they can constitute an important
risk for the bodily integrity of people in their immediate vicinity, as this has been
observed in numerous cases during recent earthquakes and has been recorded in
post-seismic research reports. Damage to library shelves and damage to books
(sometimes with bibliophile value) and the temporary closing of libraries for this
reason, happened even in the case of moderate earthquakes that produced virtually
no structural damage. In the furniture of the laboratories in some research institutes
and in productive institutions there may be sources of risk (bacteria, viruses, toxic
and/or radioactive substances, etc.) particularly dangerous in the event that their
uncontrolled release occurs as a result of overturning / breaking the containers in
which they are.
The protection of furniture and objects in museums aims to protect the cultural,
artistic and historical heritage. The losses that could be registered in this field are
practically irrecoverable and cannot be quantified as material values.
For objects of special artistic value, special protection measures are adopted:
supports against overturning activated by seismic sensors.
A. The position of the support under normal conditions B. The position of the support during the earthquake
Figure C 10.51. Automatic device for the protection of museum exhibits

C10.8.2(1) In the vast majority of cases, the dimensioning of the anchors that ensure the
stability of the furniture during an earthquake is only aimed at blocking the overturning
tendency (overturning moment) and does not depend on the effects of permanent (gravitational)
loads that transmit directly. In the case of suspended furniture, the mentioned increase also
takes into account some secondary effects (sometimes difficult to estimate), such as, for
example, premature cracking of the wall where it is fixed. In these conditions, the provision of
the Code has an insuring nature.
C10.8.2(2) The provision falls within the general conditions for verifying the resistance
capacity along the entire route of the connection forces induced by the seismic action in the
structural elements or in the CNS that ensure the stability of the furniture. In addition, all the
considerations mentioned in C10.4.1 will be taken into account.
C 10.8.3. Conditions for the seismic design of storage racks in spaces accessible to
the public
C10.8.3. (1) The protection of shelves in large warehouses accessible to the public takes into
account the high risk of affecting the physical integrity of a large number of people and
creating panic.
Figure C 10.52. Damage to multi-storey shelves in warehouses

[ BSSC. Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA 460: Seismic Considerations for Steel Storage Racks Located in Areas
Accesible to the Public september, 2005]
The specific regulations regarding storage racks in publicly accessible spaces, mounted at
or below 0.00 level, recommend the use of statically equivalent forces with some
modifications compared to the provisions regarding buildings.
These modifications are necessary to take into account the differences between the two
types of structures in terms of the post-elastic behavior and the spatial character of the
seismic response (the rigid diaphragm effect in the horizontal plane does not exist in the
case of shelves). In these conditions, it is recommended that the safety evaluation of the shelves be
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254
it is based on the analysis of the specific post-elastic behavior which is determined, first
of all, by the rotation capacity of the beam/column joints which is several times higher
than that of the typical nodes in a metal structure building.
The two hypotheses regarding the value of the mass subjected to the seismic action take
into account the diversity of possible loading situations in the conditions where the stored
goods are handled many times during a day.
FEMA 450 takes from the specialized standard [ANSI MH-16.1-04 Specification for the
Design, Testing and Utilization of Industrial Steel StorageRacks RMI] the value qCNS=4.0
for braced racks with competing diagonals in nodes. In the case of shelves made of
frames with FEMA 450 rigid nodes, I recommend qCNS=6.0. These values are adopted
for the respective direction if the structural systems are different along the shelf and
perpendicular to it. Dimensioning calculations must take into account the type of elements
used in the shelf frame, with special precautions in the case of cold-formed profiles
(stability).
The expected importance factor ( CNS=1.5) takes into account the high risk for the bodily
integrity of the public which can be endangered both by overturning/damaging the shelf
and by falling of the stored goods. An aggravating element should also be considered the
particularly narrow space between two rows of shelves and the length of the route up to
the end of the row of shelves, conditions that can favor / amplify public panic. [ BSSC.
Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA 460: Seismic Considerations for Steel
Storage Racks Located in Areas Accessible to the Public September, 2005]
C 10.9. Verification of CNS safety to the effects of

seismic action C 10.9.2. Design loads
C10.9.2.(1) The combination of vertical and horizontal effects of seismic acceleration is
necessary in cases where oscillations with amplitudes of close values are possible in both
directions (long-length escalators, large opening skylights, pipeline systems, some
equipment mounted on vibration isolators, etc.).
The local resistance of the CNS must be checked in the attachment areas to the main
structure, taking into account the concrete way in which the attachment is made and the
attachment strength of the component. This check is particularly important for the safety
of CNSs made of fragile materials (glass parapets fixed at points - frameless, for example).
C10.9.2.(5) The measure has an assuring nature and takes into account the
possible variability of vertical loads. Such a provision is used in all situations in
which the full failure of gravity loads can lead to a reduction in the level of safety
(especially safety in relation to the stability of the balance)
C10.9.2.(6) The provision considers the provision of the elements on the facades,
for the worst demands, in the case of locations for which the design seismic forces
are of the same order of magnitude as those given by the peak wind action.
Obviously, in the case of wind forces, the reduction of their effects is not taken into
account considering the inelastic behavior of the facade elements and their
fasteners (behavior factor qCNS). The dimensioning of facade elements and their
fasteners for wind forces is done in the elastic range of behavior.
C 10.9.3. Calculation movements
The provisions of this paragraph refer to the identification of different sources of demand for
CNS sensitive to the indirect action of the earthquake (imposed deformations / displacements).
The size of the relative displacements of the attachment points of the CNS to the main
structure, if they are located at different elevations, depends on the rigidity of the structure and
the magnitude of its inelastic deformations (resulting from the behavior coefficient used in the
design).
The relative displacements of the CNS during the earthquake, especially if they are in opposite
directions, can damage the connections between them (a situation that often occurs in the
case of installation systems - breaking pipes between two machines moving in opposite
directions, for example) or can produce the collision of the attached CNS.
When designing, it must also be taken into account that the deformations/displacements
produced by the seismic movement overlap, in many cases, some deformations/displacements
produced by non-seismic causes (temperature variations, different terrains, etc.). For this
reason, the design must take into account the fact that the movement possibilities provided
for taking over the seismic deformations may already be partially consumed before the
earthquake occurs.
C 10.9.4. Design strength of reinforced masonry panels in frames C10.9.4.(1) The
interaction between the frame and the reinforced masonry panel during the earthquake results
in a complex, non-uniform stress state with local concentrations, both in the frame, in the beams,
in the pillars and nodes, as well as in the panel, where the non-uniformity is amplified by the
presence of gaps.
The behavior in different stress stages of the "frame+masonry panel" assembly depends on
the intrinsic properties of the two components and can be characterized by one or more of the
following damage/damage categories:
Damage/damage to the infill masonry:

- cracking/breaking by stretching efforts, perpendicular to the diagonal
tablet
- crushing by compression efforts, at the neck of the frame or in the center (eg
diagonal)
- sliding by shear forces in the horizontal joint.
In detail, the breaking of reinforced masonry can manifest itself in different ways:
- crushing of elements from compression;
- breaking the elements from stretching;
- breaking mortar joints;

- breaking by stretching or shearing at the element/mortar interface.
Frame damage/damage:
- the formation of plastic joints in the frame elements;

- damage to the frame nodes;
- damage to beams or pillars due to force;

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- damage/breaking of the connections between the masonry panel and the frame (if these
exist).
In the literature there are numerous research works, theoretical and experimental, which aim to establish
the strength of frames with reinforced masonry panels in relation to the possible failure mechanisms.
In order to evaluate the strength of the masonry frames and panels, it is necessary, first of all, to determine
as accurately as possible the level of stress induced by the seismic action.
Theoretically, the achievement of this objective involves the use of advanced finite element methods and
the consideration of the non-linear behavior of materials (masonry, concrete and steel).
At the same time, these methods must take into account an important number of parameters:
- the geometric and mechanical properties of the frame;
- the geometric and mechanical properties of the filler panel (incl

the effect of gaps in the panel);
- the effects of deterioration of the strength and initial stiffness of the frame/panel as a result of
repeated forays into the post-elastic field.
Considering the complexity of the "exact" calculation procedures that would involve the inclusion of all
these variables and the practical impossibility of using them in the current design, in most of the regulations
simplified, semi-empirical relationships are used, with experimentally calibrated coefficients.
The calculation relationships must allow the identification of the failure mode of the "frame+panel"
assembly so that it is possible to find a constructive solution that avoids exceeding the ultimate limit state
in the frame elements and/or in the masonry panel. Regarding the reinforced panel, the calculation
relations aim to quantify the forces

laterals that trigger one of the following failure mechanisms:
1. Sliding failure in the horizontal joint
2. Compressive fracture of the compressed diagonal
3. Diagonal cracking.
4. Tensile fracture from bending
C10.9.4.(2) The design resistance corresponding to the sliding failure mechanism in horizontal joints is
determined with the relation:
The sliding resistance of the panel in the horizontal joint was calculated from the equation:
in which the notations are
Ld=fvd0×lp×tp=fvd0×Apan
The cos values are expressed, as well as the factor, depending on the form factor of the panel ()
through the relation
result
where k1,pan has the expression
or depending on i
C10.9.4.(3) The design resistance corresponding to the fracture mechanism inclined along the
compressed diagonal is determined with the relation:
The design resistance corresponding to the fracture mechanism inclined along the compressed
diagonal is determined from the condition
i rezult
in which
C10.9.4(4) Taking into account the findings in the recent earthquakes regarding the crushing of masonry
at the corners of the reinforced panel, especially in the case of the use of elements with hollows and
thin walls (similar to those in group 2S), as well as the researches that propose calculation models in
which the diagonal compressed is eccentric to the frame node and is in direct contact with the post -
see figure C 10.53. - an additional condition was introduced to check the resistance of the panel (FRd,
32).
The condition refers to the limitation of the unit compression effort given by the horizontal component
(H) of the diagonal compression force (D).
If the contact length between the rotated diagonal (eccentric) and the column is denoted by dc , the
design resistance Hd is obtained from the condition
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Figure C 10.53. Calculation model with eccentric diagonal

and the design strength of the panel (which compares to the design stress in compressed diagonal) is
where 0 is the angle of the rotated (eccentric) diagonal. Admitting the eccentric position of the diagonal (0<),
the value of the horizontal component of the axial force in the compressed diagonal increases compared to
the case where the diagonal is centered in the node.
The angle of the rotated diagonal relative to the horizontal (0) is determined with the simple geometric
relationship:
Checking the resistance of the masonry in contact with the beam is not necessary because the use of
elements for masonry with horizontal gaps/or horizontally arranged is not allowed by CR 6.
The design resistance corresponding to the crushing mechanism of the compressed diagonal is the smallest
of the values:
where
bst,equiv is the side of the post of the equivalent frame calculated with the relation
I1 and I2 are the moments of inertia in the frame plane of the columns
The factors k3,pan ÷ k5,pan were calculated with the relations

C 10.9.5. General rules for verifying CNS safety during seismic action
C10.9.5.(1) The ultimate limit state of stability (overturning or displacement) can be
reached by the components that are not fixed to the structure, if the CNS attachments
to the main structure (or to another CNS) do not have the necessary capacity to
prevent moving the CNS from the initial position or if the elements to which the CNS is
fixed do not have the capacity to take over the connection forces. The loss of stability
occurs when the links capture excessive deformations (which can cause second-order
effects) or when they suddenly yield as a result of the loss of resistance capacity (in
the case of fragile connections).
The ultimate strength limit state is reached when the internal stresses in the CNS exceed the resistance
of the respective material. Internal stresses that cause the material to break can be due to either inertial
forces or deformations imposed on the element.
This type of failure occurs only when the CNS anchorages to the structure have sufficient capacity to
prevent loss of stability through overturning or displacement.
C10.9.5.(3) The safety check in relation to SLS must be done for CNS in buildings whose performance
objective is full operation during the earthquake and immediately after it, as well as for those CNS that
condition the achievement of the performance objective of immediate occupancy (even if full operation
is not guaranteed).
The following categories of deformations must be controlled (verified): - deformations
resulting from the direct action of the earthquake:
the own deformations of the CNS or of the assembly of which it is a part;
the deformations of the joints / fastenings of the component or of the

assembly of which it is a part; - deformations resulting from the indirect action
of the earthquake:
- the own deformations of the CNS or of the assembly of which it is a part under the effect of
the movement/displacement of the structure
- the deformations of the joints / fastenings of the component or assembly from

which is part of the effect of the movement/displacement of the structure.
C10.9.5.(4) The safety verification criteria in relation to SLS are, as a rule, related to
the control of the state of cracking (for construction elements) and the control of the
integrity of mutual connections or with power sources (for installations and equipment) .
The performance levels related to the control of the cracking state are expressed by the size of the
elastic deformation of the element. The limit values depend on the nature of the material from which the
component is made and its finish. In the case of SLS verification, the acceptance criterion for avoiding
the extended crack is the limitation of the value of the wall deflection under the effect of the design loads.
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In SR EN 1998-1 and in P 100-1 such limit values are not established. As a guideline, the following
values can be taken into account:
- BIA (Brick Institute of America): fadm = Lcalc/ 600 for brittle plywood under operational
loads
- IBC (International Building Code) 2003: fadm=Lcalc/ 350 for fragile finishes
at the outer walls (for calculation wind loading)
- NZS 4203:1992 (New Zealand Standard): fadm = Hetaj/ 400
C 10.9.6. Calculation models

The provision specifies the main parameters that affect the seismic response of a CNS and that must
be taken into account when determining the safety conditions for the respective component.
The slenderness of a masonry partition panel corroborated with the conditions on the outline
determine the values of the bending moments for the seismic action perpendicular to the plane and,
implicitly, the likely failure mode of the wall. The correct assessment of the actual conditions of resting
on the contour of the wall is also a condition for the correct assessment of the demands. In the case
of pipe systems it is necessary to examine the actual clamping conditions because, often, the clamps
are designed to allow the displacements produced by temperature variations. This situation must be
taken into account when checking the natural period of the pipe in order to establish more precisely
the CNS amplification coefficient.
C 10.9.7. Checking the conditions of stability, resistance and rigidity

C10.9.7(3) The more severe condition imposed on the resistance capacity of the fasteners of the
mentioned components takes into account the possible consequences of the failure of such a
fastener. The increased efforts must also be taken into account for the local/overall check of the
structural element on which the component is attached.
C 10.10. Quality assurance in design and execution C10.10.(1)
Achieving the functionality and/or safety conditions for the CNS in accordance with the provisions of
this chapter depends, first of all, on compliance with the dimensioning and detailing conditions.
The correct assessment of the forces/displacements imposed by the seismic action is the main
condition for:
- dimensioning of the component so as to satisfy the requirements of resistance and rigidity

corresponding to the performance objectives of the building;
- dimensioning of the fasteners and verification of the resistance capacity a

elements of the structure.
Constructive detailing in the overall and detail plans of the component (especially in the case of
components with high mass and rigidity or components made of fragile materials) and its connections
with the structure are conditions for:
- avoiding uncontrolled interactions with the structure and possible consequences
their disadvantages;
- the compatibility of possible interactions between adjacent CNSs;
- assessment of the possibilities of practical realization of the joints under the conditions of
the imposed tolerances.
The lack of CNS mounting / fastening details or their incomplete presentation usually leads to
improvisations that can have serious consequences.
C10.10(2) The provision falls within the spirit of the Law on quality in constructions (Law no. 10/1995,
with subsequent amendments) taking into account the seriousness of the consequences that may
result from CNS damage, primarily in terms of life safety and the functionality of some essential
buildings for post-earthquake interventions.
C10.10.(3) The purpose of the provision is to eliminate the risks that could occur in cases where
certain machines/equipment are not designed to take over seismic loads. The provision refers in
particular to machinery / equipment in buildings for which the performance objectives are a fully
functional building or with immediate occupancy.
The same condition will be imposed for the clamping/fixing systems if they are delivered by the
producer together with the respective machinery/equipment C10.10. (4) In the program for checking
the anchorages, it is recommended to include the following CNS categories for priority checking :
- tire elements and those attached to it;
- partition walls made of masonry;
- the large glazed surfaces on the facades as well as the interior ones (lights in the atriums,
for example);
- large rolling screes;
- professional furniture and equipment from buildings of importance classes I and II;
- electrical equipment, including emergency and reserve equipment;
- the connections of pipes / containers that work with water/steam at high temperatures and
of containers that contain toxic or flammable substances.
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C D. NONLINEAR STATIC CALCULATION PROCEDURE (BIOGRAPHICAL) OF STRUCTURES
C D.1. The concept of the procedure
The procedure presented in annex D represents a simplified method for directly determining the nonlinear
response of a structure to loading with monotonically increasing applied displacements until failure (Figure
C D.1.).
FOR Effective yield point

LATERAL
Complete
Effective flow
displacement collapse
Elastic Plastic Prbuire energy-absorbing

domain Progressive mechanism parial
plasticization zone area
Figure C D.1. Lateral force-displacement typical for a reinforced concrete frame

(FEMA 2003)
The presented method generally follows the N2 method, proposed by Fajfar (Fajfar & Fischinger 1989,
Fajfar 2000) and included in Annex B of EN 1998-1.
C D.2. Evaluation of structural resistance properties and deformation of the elements
Since there are no general theoretical models capable of reproducing with sufficient precision the force-
displacement relationship in a cyclic stress regime for reinforced concrete elements, various empirical
(based on the statistical processing of experimental data) or semi-empirical (inferred) models are proposed
in the literature on theoretical grounds, but calibrated with empirical coefficients). A recent synthesis of
these models is given by Fardis in chap. 6 of the FIB report no. 25 (FIB 2003). Indicative values for the
parameters of the M-relations that can be used in the nonlinear static calculation are also given in the
FEMA documents (FEMA 1997a). The code refers to P 100-3 for the evaluation procedures of the
deformation characteristics of the structural elements.
C D.3. Construction of the lateral force curve – displacement at the top of the construction
The loads are applied in 2 stages: - In the first stage, the gravitational loads are applied,
corresponding to the seismic combination. Usually under these loads no plastification should
occur in the structure and a linear calculation can be made.
- In the second stage, on the preloaded structure (the state of deformations and stresses from
the first stage is preserved), lateral forces are applied incrementally
corresponding to the seismic action. They have a fixed distribution, but their size varies at
each loading step depending on a parameter.
To model the dynamic behavior of the structure, the configuration (distribution) of the lateral loads
should be proportional to the instantaneous configuration of the inertial forces.
This depends on the instantaneous modal characteristics of the structure, which change due to
inelastic deformations in certain elements. Such an analysis would require an effort comparable to a
nonlinear dynamic analysis (time-history). That is why it is preferable to keep a fixed configuration
throughout the nonlinear static calculation. In mod
He happened to consider himself:
(a) a "modal" distribution, in which the inertial forces are proportional to the modal displacements in
vibration mode 1, and
(b) a "uniform" distribution, in which the inertial forces are proportional to the floor masses (for example,
if the floor masses are equal at all levels, equal forces result at all levels). ( )
The first hypothesis provides the maximum value of the overturning moment, the second, the maximum
value of the torsional force for a given bending capacity of the structure.
C D.4. Equating the MDOF structure with an SDOF system
In order to be able to compare the capable displacement of the structure with the displacement
requirement, which is given by the inelastic displacement spectra constructed for systems with 1 GLD,
the real structure must be transformed into an equivalent 1 GLD structure.
The transformation follows the relations known from the dynamics of structures, equating the maximum
displacement of the structure at the top of the construction with the displacement in mode 1.
C D.5. Evaluation of displacement requirements
Under service limit state conditions, the structure presents an elastic seismic response or with small
incursions in the plastic domain, so that the displacements determined from the linear calculation of the
structure based on the "equal displacements" rule can be used directly. In the case of the ultimate limit
state, inelastic displacement spectra must be used, which can be constructed either directly, based on
site-specific accelerograms, or indirectly, based on elastic spectra and some assumptions regarding
the relationship between the elastic and inelastic response (for example, the "equality displacements"
for T > Tc and the hypothesis of "equality of energies" for T < Tc, proposed by Newmark and Hall). The
link from Annex E of this Code P 100-1 is recommended.
C D.6. Control of structural displacements The
displacement requirement was determined in paragraph D5, for the period T* of the system with 1
equivalent GLD, from the inelastic spectrum of displacements. A suggestive representation is the one
in Figure C D.2, given in the "ADRS" format (acceleration - displacement response spectrum, obtained
from the acceleration and displacement response spectra by eliminating the T parameter).
The point of intersection between the capacity curve and the inelastic displacement spectrum,
corresponding to the ductility of the system, represents the displacement requirement for the system
with 1 GLD. This displacement requirement of the system with 1 GLD transforms into the displacement
requirement of the real system with relation (D10), which is the inverse of the initial transformation (D4).
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The calculated value represents an average value and there is a large dispersion of the values, which is
why it is recommended to "push" the structure up to 150% of the value of the calculated displacement
requirement (FEMA 1997a).
T* T* < Tc T* > Tc
on on
T*
Sae
Sae
=1 (elastic) =1 (elastic)
Say
Say
Sde Sdi Sde = Sdi b)

Sd Sd
a)
Figure C D.2. Determination of the int displacement in case a) T* < Tc and b) T* > Tc
references
ACI (2005). Building code requirements for structural concrete (ACI 318-05) and comentary (ACI 318R-05),
Farmington Hills, 432 pp.
CEN (2004). EN 1998-1-1: Design of structures for earthquake resistance/ Part 1: General rules, seismic actions
and rules for buildings, Bruxelles, 250 pp.
Fajfar, P. and Fischinger, M. (1989). N2 – A method for non-linear seismic analysis of RC buildings, Proc. of the
9th WCEE, Tokyo, vol. V, p. 111-116.
FEMA (1997a). NEHRP guidelines for the seismic rehabilitation of buildings, FEMA 273. Washington, D.C.:
Federal Emergency Management Agency.
FEMA (1997b). NEHRP commentary on the guidelines for the seismic rehabilitation of buildings, FEMA 274.
Washington, D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency.
FIB (2003). Displacement-based seismic design of reinforced concrete buildings, Bulletin 25, Lausanne, Elveia,
192 pp.
Ministry of Regional Development and Housing (2008), "Seismic design code — Part III —
Provisions for the seismic assessment of existing buildings, indicative P 100-3/2008"
Newmark, N. M. and Hall, W.J. (1982). Earthquake spectra and design, Earthquake Engineering Research
Institute, Berkeley, CA, USA.
Postelnicu, T. and Zamfirescu, D. (1999). Comparison between displacement methods used for assessment of
RC structures. Performance of RC frame structures designed according present Romanian codes. Proc. 1st
Romanian-American Workshop, Iasi, Romania.
Vidic, T., Fajfar, P. and Fischinger, M. (1989). Consistent inelastic design spectra: strength and displacement.
Earthq. Eng. and Struct. Dynamics, vol. 16, p. 502-521.
C E. VERIFICATION PROCEDURE OF LATERAL DISPLACEMENT A

STRUCTURES
C E.1. General considerations

In the current edition of P100-1, the design principles and methods based on the seismic
performance for earthquakes with different return periods are applied to a greater extent than
the previous editions of the Code.
The parameter currently considered to be the most significant for the quality of the seismic
response of the constructions is the lateral displacement, because the structural and non-
structural degradations of the buildings directly depend on it.
For this reason, the limitation of lateral movements by design is of particular importance. The
problem is particularly important for the area of the Romanian Plain, where the Vranca
earthquakes manifest themselves with particular aggression from the point of view of the
imposed deformations.
The damage recorded in many buildings in the period 1977-1990, when 4 earthquakes of
medium and high intensity occurred, made the measures related to the limitation of lateral
movements taken in P 100/92 to be very severe. A comparative study in which the provisions
of 6 design codes were analyzed (UBC, B52, NZS, CEB 1987, SR EN 1998-1 and P 100/92)
highlighted the fact that the provisions for dimensioning the lateral stiffness of constructions
from P 100/92 were by far the most severe. These provisions practically excluded the use of
the structural system in reinforced concrete frames for the realization of multi-level constructions
in the period before 1990. After this date, the development of the field of office buildings and
residential buildings with superior comfort made it necessary, again, to reconsider this type of
structures.
The new knowledge gained by seismic engineering allowed to approach the problem of limiting
lateral movements during seismic actions in a more nuanced way, and on a basis more
appropriate to the real behavior of the construction.
Compared to the 1992 version, Code P100-1 brings a series of important new elements: (a) A
much more rigorous procedure for calculating the design values of lateral displacements.
For the frequency range T>Tc, Tc being the calculation period of the spectrum of the elastic
seismic response, the calculation is made in accordance with the "equal displacement" rule
established on the basis of statistical findings [Newmark and Hall, 1982], according to which, in
this interval, the displacements of the inelastic systems should be closely approximated by the
displacements of the elastic systems. For most seismic zones worldwide, most constructions
fall within the T>Tc period range.
However, the approximation is not acceptable for constructions with T<Tc, which highlight
seismic displacements (in the non-linear domain) considerably greater than those given by the
"equal displacements" rule. In the case of sites characterized by high Tc values , such as the
Român Plain where Tc1.6 sec., most of the current structures belong to this area.
P 100-1:2006 introduced a correction coefficient (amplification) of elastic displacements in this

field, calibrated in the framework of studies carried out at the Department of Reinforced Concrete
Construction of the Technical University of Construction of Bucharest.
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(b) More rigorous procedures for evaluating stiffnesses for evaluating lateral design
displacements.
These rules concern the reinforced concrete elements for which values are provided that vary
with the degree of cracking of the concrete, depending on the stress level (limit state) and the
nature of the connections between the structure and the structural components.
C E.2. Service limit state (SLS) check
P100-1 maintains the general form of the previous version of the Code of the lateral stiffness
verification relationship for SLS.
The evaluation of the design displacements has a conventional and approximate character
because it is based on a predetermined ratio between the displacements at ULS and SLS, and
not by a calculation for the design seismic action associated with this limit state. The solution is
undoubtedly simple, but not always comprehensive.
The differentiation of the reduction factors according to the importance class of the constructions,
,
taken from SR EN 1998-1 in the previous version of the Code, was abandoned. This intervention
aims to obtain superior performance for important constructions and in terms of behavior in
moderate seismic actions.
A question with important implications refers to the way of calculating the relative displacement
’
dr . For the purpose pursued by the verification relationship (E.1), it is not the difference in
horizontal displacements from two levels of the building that is of interest, but that component
that modifies the initial rectangular shape of the (non-structural) partitioning and closing panels,
because of this depends on their degradation (the component that changes the diagonal of the
panel).
For example, Figure C E.1 shows the case of the structure of a facade made of beams
connected with beams. There are very large differences between the values of the relative level
displacements (calculation) recorded near the walls and, respectively, in the opening between
the two walls. While the cladding of the walls is not affected by the lateral deformation of the
structure, the elements located between the walls are subject to very important distortions.
The structural calculation programs can be completed so that they directly provide the values
to be entered in the relation (E.1).
A special menu concerns curtain facades. Considering the extreme difficulty of post-seismic
repairs to such facades, the drc value determined by calculation at the seismic design action is
increased by 30%. The movement requirements must be included in the theme addressed to
the facade producer, who must guarantee its necessary deformability.
The provisions of the annex regarding the calculation method of lateral movements and those
regarding the admissible values of lateral movements are valid for all types of structures. In the
case of reinforced concrete constructions, it is necessary to specify the stiffness evaluation
method, considering that reinforced concrete elements work with cracks in extended areas.
In the case of frame structures, two situations are distinguished. In one of these, the reinforced
concrete structure is completely free (for example, in the case of open storey garages or stands)
or is provided with filler elements, which, being flexibly connected
with this, the lateral deformation of the frame is practically not embarrassing. In this way,
the reinforced concrete elements work in the cracked stage and reduced stiffnesses must
be used. The literature recommends, for this purpose, as an approximately accurate
enough procedure for the design needs, the uniform reduction of the stiffness modules of
the uncracked sections by the coefficient 0.5.
X1 (2)
Y1 (1)
=2- 1
2
(4)
(3)
Figure C E.1.
In the second situation, the frames are filled with masonry panels, which, upon the attack of
the service earthquake, do not lose their integrity because they are protected by adequately
limiting lateral movements. In this way, the filler panels contribute significantly to the overall
stiffness of the structure. The degree of cracking of the elements being in this case very
limited, it is possible to adopt values of the stiffness modulus equal to EcIg (the product
between the modulus of elasticity of the concrete and the moment of inertia of the raw
concrete section), thus taking into account the contribution of the reinforcements to the
stiffness of the elements.
In a construction with reinforced concrete walls, the stiffness of the non-structural walls is,
as a rule, insignificant in relation to that of the walls, which makes their contribution to the
overall stiffness of the buildings to be neglected. Consequently, in the calculations, the
reduced stiffness, 0.5EcIg, of the concrete walls will be used.
The admissible values of the relative level displacements in the SLS must depend on the
nature of the partition walls and closures, and on the way they are made
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their attachment to the structure. For brick walls or blocks made of different
materials, the deformability decreases as the strength of the mortar increases.
Also, the value of the relative deformation capable is influenced by the proportions
of the reinforced masonry panel, being smaller the longer the panel is in relation to
its height. For example, for current brick masonry panels, the following values of
limit rotation (angle of shear deformation) can be accepted:
L 4
- for the report (L H, length and height of the panel), = 2.5‰ 3
H
The admissible values of lateral displacements given in 4.6.3.2, relations (4.28),

(4.29) and (4.30), coincide with those given in SR EN1998-1 and cannot be
considered suitable in all cases.
L 2
4 - for ratio 3 , = 4‰
H 3
L 2
- for the report ,
= 6‰
H 3
The 5‰ value prescribed in P 100-1 represents a value located above the average.
This value can be acceptable for other types of non-structural elements, for example, for curtain walls
and other facades attached to the structure. In principle, the relatively admissible deformation and,
implicitly, the required lateral rigidity, must be correlated with the deformability of the facade fastening
system guaranteed by the manufacturer, which can be conditioned from this point of view.
C E.3. Ultimate limit state (ULS) check

Relation (E.2) introduces by the coefficient c the correction necessary to take into account the fact that
the displacements in the non-linear seismic response are higher than the deformations in the linear
response in the range of periods in which the "equal displacement" rule is not valid. The coefficients c
amplify the elastic displacement under the seismic design loads. As shown above, the correction is
necessary for constructions with the fundamental period of vibration located in the range 0 - Tc.
The values of the coefficients were calibrated through an extensive study carried out with the nonlinear
dynamic calculation tool. 30 accelerograms compatible with the design spectrum from P 100-1 were
used, for each of the four types of spectra provided for in chapter 3 of the code, three for the Vranca
earthquakes, characterized by the three distinct values of the control period Tc and one corresponding
to the Bnean subcrustal earthquake. Unlike the 2006 version of the code, in the current edition In the
linear response the requirements to foresee a more nuanced differentiation of the values c. displacement
also on the resistance of the system, defined by the value of the behavior
depend factor
not only
q. on
Thethe
formula
period,forbut
determining the coefficient (E.2) highlights this double dependence. According to the results of the
study, the border between the range of periods in which the rule of equal displacement is valid and the
one in which the nonlinear response in displacements is significantly higher than the elastic one is
around the T=0.7Tc value. When calibrating the expression (E.2), the fact that in the field of short
vibration periods, the structures are endowed with a very consistent overresistance was also taken into
account.
In the case of the design earthquake (considered at the ultimate limit state), severe
degradation of non-structural architectural components (piers, facades, etc.) cannot be
avoided. And measures must be taken so that these components do not collapse,
threatening people's lives, through an adequate connection to the structure.
The admissible value of 2.5% of the relative level displacement is in accordance with the
results of numerous experimental studies that have highlighted the fact that reinforced
concrete columns, designed according to the provisions of modern design codes, can
develop bar rotation deformations of more than 4% without a significant reduction in
resistance capacity.
The 2.5% covering value adopted in Annex E of the Code for reinforced concrete columns
can be considered satisfactory for the collapse condition of infill walls [FEMA 273].
Bibliography
FEMA (1997a). NEHRP guidelines for the seismic rehabilitation of buildings, FEMA 273. Washington,
D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency.
CEN (2004). EN 1998-1-1: Design of structures for earthquake resistance/ Part 1: General rules, seismic
actions and rules for buildings, Bruxelles, 250 pp.
Ministry of Public Works (1992), P100/92: Regulations for the anti-seismic design of residential, agro-
zootechnical and industrial buildings, INCERC Bucharest, Buletinul Construciilor, no. 1-2, 1992, 151 p.
Ministry of Regional Development and Housing (2008), "Seismic design code — Part III —
Provisions for the seismic evaluation of existing buildings, indicative P 100-3/2008"
Newmark, N. M. i Hall, W.J. (1982). Earthquake spectra and design, Earthquake Engineering Research
Institute, Berkeley, CA, SUA.
Machine
270
APPENDIX I (informative). CALCULATION AND DESIGN EXAMPLES
Contents :
E 4 DESIGN OF BUILDINGS
E 4.1 Multi-storey metallic structure with two planes of symmetry E

4.2 Dual irregular reinforced concrete structure in plan and elevation
E 5. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO CONCRETE CONSTRUCTIONS
It's 5.1. Structure in reinforced concrete frames
It's 5.2. Structure with reinforced concrete walls

E 6. SPECIFIC PROVISIONS FOR OEL CONSTRUCTIONS
It's 6.1. Structure in unbraced frames
It's 6.2. Structure in centrically braced inverted V frames
It's 6.3. Structure in eccentric braced frames
E 7. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTIONS
It's 7.1. Calculation of the elements of a composite structure

E 8. SPECIFIC PROVISIONS FOR MASONRY BUILDINGS
It's 8.1. Residential building with structural walls made of unreinforced masonry (ZNA) with
ceramic elements
E 8.2 "villa" type building P+2E with structural walls of unreinforced masonry (ZNA)
with BCA elements
E 8.3 Residential building P+3E with structural masonry walls with elements
CERAMIC
It's 8.4. "villa" type building P+2E with structural walls of confined masonry (ZC) with
BCA elements
E 9. PROVISIONS SPECIFIC TO WOODEN BUILDINGS
It's 9.1. Design of a wooden hall-type structure E 10.

SPECIFIC PROVISIONS FOR NON-STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF
BUILDINGS
E 10.1 Verification of a masonry separating wall with ceramic elements E 10.2

Verification of a masonry panel reinforced in a reinforced concrete frame for seismic
action in the wall plane E 10.3 Verification of a facade wall of BCA masonry
reinforced in a concrete frame for the action seismic perpendicular to the plane of the wall
E 10.4 Checking a facade wall with window gaps made of masonry with ceramic
elements
E 10.5 Determining travel requirements for a billboard E 10.6 Calculation of bolted

fasteners for equipment (fixed fasteners)
E 10.7 Calculation of clamps for equipment mounted on insulators of
vibraii
E 10.8 Calculation of a hot water pipe

E 4 DESIGN OF BUILDINGS
E 4.1 Tiered metallic structure with two planes of symmetry
E 4.1.1 Description of the structure
The response to the seismic action of an office building with 8 is analyzed

(P+7E) levels, with metal structure, located in Bucharest (figure E 4.1.1).
The structure is composed of a central core that takes the horizontal forces corresponding to
the seismic action and a subsystem formed by perimeter pillars that take only the gravitational loads that
fall to them. The central core is made up of four metal frames with bracing eccentrically attached to the
nodes, in which all the fastenings of the bars to the nodes are rigid (figure E 4.1.2). The clamps of the
beams that connect the perimeter posts to each other and of the beams that connect the perimeter posts
to the central core are hinged. The planes are composite elements with metal beams and reinforced
concrete slabs cast on corrugated board. The interior and exterior walls are light. The steels used are
S235 and S355.
The sections of the bars are presented in figure E 4.1.1 and in table E 4.1.1.
E 4.1.2 Calculation scheme for seismic action
The basement is made in the form of a rigid box placed on a general leveler.
Accepting the rigid box as an embedded support, the base shear force produced by the seismic action
will be considered above the basement, at the zero level of the building.
Since the structure has a regular shape in plan and elevation, the effects of the seismic action
are established on planar models corresponding to the two main directions x and y parallel to the planes
of symmetry of the building. It is not necessary to take into account the vertical component of the seismic
action.
For the plane frame in figure E 4.1.1, calculations were made to obtain the distribution of
conventional level seismic forces using the simplified method and the spectral modal analysis method.
Under the action of severe earthquakes, energy dissipation occurs only in the plastic joints,
which as a whole form the global plastic mechanism. All structural elements located outside the plastic
zones must essentially work in the elastic domain at the horizontal forces associated with the global
plastic mechanism.
The accepted global plastic mechanism includes plastic joints at the link ends
doors and at the bases of the pillars of the central and perimeter core.
Machine
272
Section 1-1
+ 28,2 m
13 4 4 4 13
2 6 9 9 6 2
13 4 4 4 13
2 6 9 9 6 2
13 11 11 11 13
2 6 9 9 6 2
13 11 11 11 13
9 7 * 3400 = 23800
2 6 9 6 2
13 11 11 11 13
1 5 9 9 5 1
13 11 11 11 13
1 5 9 9 5 1
13 10 10 10 13
1 5 2 2 5 1
13 10 10 10 13
2200 2 4400
1 5 2 5 1
+ 0.00
11000 11000 11000
33000
Figure E 4.1.1 Cross section and

types of sections according to table E 4.1.1
and
Plan
2200
G3
G1 11000
G2
1
1
G4
11000 33000
G5
x
G3
G2
G1
11000
11000 11000 11000
33000
A B C D
Figure E 4.1.2 Current plan

Table E 4.1.1
Perimeter posts
Sec Type section smell
from
Wpy Iy Sec. no. Sec. no. Oil
. A mm2 Area mm2 mm mm Wymm3 _ mm3 mm4 P AND
no.
1 HTM 650x576 73400 24300 288 76,1 1653E+04 1982E+04 6100E+06 8 5 S235
2 HTM 650x359 45800 15500 277 71,7 1023E+04 1188E+04 3500E+06 9 6 S235
P = Plast; E = Structural calculation
Central pillars
Sec Section A smell
from
Wpy Iy S. S. Oil
.
tip mm2 Area mm2 mm mm Wymm3 _ mm3 mm4 n. n.
no. P AND
5 2-HTM 650x576 146800 97700 210,83 224,17 1768E+04 2400E+04 65252E+05 1 1 S355
6 2-HTM 650x472 120200 80400 206,44 217,56 1438E+04 1920E+04 51227E+05 2 2 S355
Sec.
Type section smell
from
no. A mm2 Area mm2 mm mm Wymm3 _ mm3 mm4 P AND
2 HTM 650x359 45800 15500 277 71,7 1023E+04 1180E+04 3500E+06 1 1 S355
9 HTM 650x258 33000 10600 274 70,9 750E+04 852E+04 2476E+06 2 2 S355
Central beams Sec.

Type section smell
from
no. A mm2 Area mm2 mm mm Wymm3 _ mm3 mm4 PT AND
10 HE 550 A 21200 6450 230 71,5 415E+04 462E+04 1119E+06 2 2 S355
11 HE 500 A 19800 5600 210 72,4 355E+04 394E+04 8697E+05 3 3 S355
4 HE 450 A 17800 4820 189 72,9 290E+04 322E+04 6372E+05 4 4 S355
Perimeter beams Sec.

Type section smell
from
no. A mm2 Area mm2 mm mm Wymm3 _ mm3 mm4 P AND
13 CALL 550 13400 5910 223 44,5 244E+04 278E+04 6712E+05 1-6 1-6 S355
The dimensions of the sections

Sec. h b of
tf r d h/ b Y-Y Z-Z b/ 2tf d/ that Class
no. mm mm mm mm mm mm S235/ S355
1 738 323 41,4 75 27 534 2,285 b c 2.15 12,90 1 1
2 684 308 26,4 48,1 27 533.8 2,221 b c 3.20 20,22 1/0,81 1
4 440 300 11,5 21 27 344 1,467 a b 7.14 29,91 1/0,81 1
5 738 323 41,4 75 27 534 2,285 b b 2.15 12,90 1 1
6 712 316 34,5 62 27 534 2,253 b b 2.55 15,48 1 1
9 660 302 18 36 27 534 2,185 438 a b 4.19 29,67 6.25 1 1
10 540 300 12,5 24 27 11 490 300 23 27 13 550 210 11,1 1,800 390 1,633
2,619467 a b 35,04 6.52 32,50 0,81 1
17,2 24 12 a b 6.10 42,07 0,81 1
a b 1 1
Machine
274
E 4.1.2.1 Characteristic gravity loads
Load on the roof plane
Încrcri permanente: Gp = 6,0 kN/m2 (tabla cutata - 0,1 kN/m2 ; plac beton –
75,2251,0 kN/m2 ; ap - 2,50 kN/m2 ; spaiu tehnic - 0,50 kN /m2 ; tavan fals - 0,15 kN/
m2 ) Încrcri variabile - zpad: 281002018080sCCs kN/m2 (conform CR 1-1-3/2012)
k0teik .,,,, ,
Load on current planes
Încrcri permanente: Gp = 5,5 kN/m2 (tabl cutat - 0,1 kN/m2 ; plac beton -
75,22511,0 kN/m2 ; gleuta proprie structur - 0,60 kN/m2 ; pardoseal - 0,40 kN/m2 ; perei
interiori - 1,00 kN/m2 ; spaiu tehnic - 0,50 kN/m2 ; tavan fals - 0,15 kN/m2 )
External walls: qe = 3 kN/m

Variable loads Qki : qk = 2.0 kN/m2 corresponding to construction category A
(dwelling), according to [SR-EN 1991-1-1:2004/NA:2006].
E 4.1.2.2 Combinations of design loads
Combinations of seismic action with other loads for checks at the ultimate limit state are
made according to [CR 0 – 2012] with the relationship
AG
Eekk
, Q
,,2 to
in which it is noted:
GG pjk the characteristic permanent loads
,
QQ characteristic variable loadings

,
light
,2 i 3.0 corresponds to CR 0 – 2012, table A1

AEk the characteristic loading of the seismic action
Ie
= 1.0 building importance factor, according to [P 100-1], for class III
of matter.
Load on the roof plane
Gp ,2 Qii
With
,2 i 4,0 , ki sQ , 6 Gp kN/m2 si 512,028,14,0 Q
,,2 to
kN/m2 result ,2 Qii 512.6 kN/m2

Gp
Load on current planes

Gq m2 1,60.23,05,5 kN/
,2 ip Q
Plans over floors 1 - 7 and ground floor: with ,2 i

3,0
q 1,60,23,05,5 kN/m2 ; qk ,2 kN/m 0
2200 R = 78,8 kN q
R
= 6,512 kN/m2
A1 B1 C1 D1
1
A2 B2 C2 D2
CV1 CV1
2
1,1q
CV2
CV2
1,1q
A B C D
a
2200 R = 73,81 kN q =
THAT
A1 B1 C1 D1 6,1 kN/m2 qe =
1
3,0 kN/m
A2 B2 C2 D2
CV1 CV1
2
CV2 1,1q
CV2
1,1q
A B C D
b
Figure E 4.1.3 Loading on planes: a – roof; b - over floors 1 - 7 and ground floor
Machine
276
E 4.1.2.3 Design loads related to the columns
The roof plane (fig. 3, a)
kN/m 14,33=2,26,512=2,2 q=p 4,331=R ; 11 kN 78,80=

2
Plans over floors 1 – 7 and ground floor (fig. 3, b)
kN/m 13,42=2,26,1=2,2q=p ; 13,42=R 11 kN 73,81= ;
2
qe = 3 kN/m
The gravity loads are shown in figure E 4.1.4, and the level weights related to the frame are
shown in figure E 4.1.5.
E 4.1.3 Calculation of the structure under seismic action in the elastic domain. Current
design method
E 4.1.3.1 Calculation of the basic torque
a. Calculation of statically equivalent seismic

forces According to [1], the basic shear force is obtained
with the mTSF relationship
dIb 1
in which:
TS 1 is ordered from the design response spectrum for period d
fundamental T1 ;
T1 is the fundamental vibration period of the building (of translation);
W is the resultant of all gravitational forces (permanent and useful) related to the frame,
8
WW i
28186 kN gWm tone)2872815.9/28186/(
i1
For buildings up to 40 m high, the fundamental period can be determined with the approximate
relationship from [1], Annex B.
a.1. The simplified method
43
HCT
1 t
For structures with eccentric bracing at the nodes, the building is H = 28.2 m. 075
t
C ,0 . height
P2 P4 P6 P6 P4 P2
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1
P1 = 5 x 73,81 + 3 x 11 = 402,5 kN
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1
P2 = 5 x 78,8 = 394 kN
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1 P3 = 5.2 x 73.81 = 303.81 kN
P4=409,76kN
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1
P5 = 3 x 73,81 = 221,43 kN
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1
P6=78.8x3=236.4kN
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1
A2 B2 CV1 CV1 C2 D2
Figure E 4.1.4 Gravitational loads – central frame
W2
W1
W1
33x33 4x33x3 6,1+ 2 2
W1= = 3520kN
W1 33x33
W2= x6,512= 3546kN 2
W1
8
W = 28186 kN
W1 i
i=1
W1
W1
Figure E 4.1.5 Level gravitational force
With these values it results

3
T1 sec 0,32Tsec 9178,0)2,28(075,0

B
4
T
aTS d
for TT B
g
q
30.0
g
ga from [1], fig. 3.1, corresponds to the city of Bucharest for which
TC sec
expression:
6.1 The
. elastic
TTT for
elastic response spectrum has the
T 0 B C
For frames with eccentric bracing at the nodes, according to [1], table 6.3, the
behavior factor q that considers the ability of the structure to dissipate the energy
induced by seismic movement for a DCH ductility class is:
Machine
278
in
5
q
1
It can be considered 2.1 after inchecking

1 the resistance reserve through a biographical nonlinear
incremental static calculation.

Result T1 0 q .62,15 i 5,2918,0
1
TS
d 1 5,2815,93,0 227,1
0.6
and basic knowledge
Fb 299585,02872227,10,1 kN
By referring to the resultant of gravitational forces, a seismic coefficient results
2995
overall of % 6,10100 .
28186
a.2. The approximate Rayleigh method To

determine the proper fundamental period of vibration, you can use relation (B.1) from appendix B [1]:
n
2
dW
ii
i 1
T1 2
n
dWg ii
i 1
Gravitational loads Wi are represented in figure E 4.1.5. The displacements in the direction of the
dynamic degrees of freedom (the horizontal translations of the planes considered as infinitely rigid horizontal
diaphragms in their plane) were determined with a calculation program. For their calculation, the structure is
that
loaded with lateral forces Wi , in figure E 4.1.6.
of (m) SiI Si2 Si3

W2
0,21575 0,02796 -0,0265 -0.002346
W1
0,20165 0,0258 -0,01419 0.001385
W1
0,18289 0,02293 0,00079 0.021467
W1
0,15983 0,01951 0,01435 0.023021
W1
0,13201 0,01557 0,02302 0.0006006
W1
0,09963 0,01126 0,02483 -0.015409
W1
0,06499 0,00698 0,020094 -0.025443
W1
0,03208 0,00328 0,011086 -0.01789
Figure E 4.1.6 Level gravitational force

8 8 8
IN
dW 3838 kNm Sm i
S 86,47
ii ii 1 i1
1i i 1 i 1 gi
8 8 8
2 2 IN 2
feast 6,630 kNm2 Smii 1
i
S i1
815,9
i 1 i 1 i 1 gi
8
xWii 459700 kNm2

1i
8
2
xWii 9212000 kNm2
i 1
- according to formula (B.1) from [1] result: 6.630

3838815.9 and
T
1
2 sec 8129,0
according to formula
(B.3) from [1]: dT sec 92898.021575.022 The
following
1
table
values of summarizes the
the periods calculated with the
relations
approximations from appendix B and by solving the eigenvalue problem:
The relay from [1] Capital

(B.4) (B.1) (B.3) analysis
T1 (s) 0,9178 0,8129 0,92898 0.8202
a.3. Modal analysis method.
The periods obtained for the fundamental eigenmode with the Rayleigh relation and respectively by
solving the eigenvalue problem in the dynamics of bodies
2 2
deformable MK 0
, where , they are very close. Because the period
i
Ti
fundamentally found in the field TTT C, regardless of the method used,

B 1
T1 5,2 , without affecting the value in the elastic response spectrum.

For the first three vibration modes, the following values of periods and modal equivalence
coefficients (participation factors of the effective modal masses) resulted:
Natural mode of vibration 2

0.2735 0.127 ,ix
T (s) 1 0,8202 3
x ,i 0,798 0,1559 0,042 0,967
The distribution of seismic forces on the height of the building can be obtained for each of
the methods used as follows: a1) Linear distribution - according to relation (4.5) from [1]
change
ii
FFwith a
8
, for i=1.8
zm jj
j1
Machine
280
or since gmW , it can be written:

ii
zWii
FFwith a 8
zWjj
j1
in which:
8
jjzW 4597412,2835468,244,210,186,142,118,74,43520
1j
where from:
zWii 3
F i
2995 1065145,0 zWii
459741
a2) Distribution of seismic forces according to the fundamental eigenform, relation (4.4) from [1]
sm ii sWii
FFwith a 8
Fb 8
i am sWjj
j 1 j 1
For each of the first three eigenforms, table E 4.1.2 presents the seismic forces for the resulting masses (
mm k xk )
2292
mode 1 t2292 m1 x1
798,0
2872
2,365
mode 2 t2,365 m2 x2
127,0
2872
7,119
mode 3 m3 t7,119 0417,0
x3
2872
m 2872 t
Table E 4.1.2
the
Method
1 5 100,9 178,9
2 256,8 334,8
3 412,7 4490,7 568,6 6 7 8
a1 651,4 73,58631,9
156,669,09
252,6 147,1
349,3 437,7
237,2 514,4
328,0 578,8
411,0 483,0 543,6 593,3 2 93,21 169,0 208,8
a2 193,5 120,6 6,643 -119,3 -224,5 3 -84.70 120,4 72,95 -28,44 -109,0 -101,6 -6,552 111,9
1
a3
kN 2813 Fb1
3
2
Fb2
kN 448 FF kN 2851
b bk
kN 144 k 1
Fb3
The simplified method using the results of the modal analysis produces:
- a base force, in the fundamental mode, smaller kN 2995kN 2813 FF 85 ,0798,0 ;

bb 1 , x1
- the use of the composition of the first three vibration modes according to the SRSS
rule does not produce a significant increase
simplified
Fb 2813FkN
method
b1 2851 kN .Therefore,
produces
base force
the highest
andthe
respectively equivalent level seismic forces increased by about 6%.
b. Torsion effect
At each level an additional torque will be considered:

Five
ii1ei
The torsion effect comes from a possible uneven distribution of the masses and
due to the non-synchronism of the seismic waves. This effect is represented by an
accidental eccentricity.
The
1i
65.10.3305.005.0m
i
That m 00.33 (the building is square in plan)

The torsion moment will be taken over by the 4 eccentrically braced frames that
make up the central core
011S2M
ii1
m ,
65,1
075,0 FFS 0,22
i i i
So each frame is loaded equally with an additional force 075,0 FS

i i
because the frames have the same stiffness. Therefore, the horizontal level forces and the
base torsional force will have to be amplified with the coefficient 075.1075.01
The forces Fi obtained by the simplified method (a1) amplified by the

coefficient are shown in figure E.4.1.7.
+28,20
700.3
+24,80
611.3
+21,40
527.5
+18,00
443.7
+14,60
359.9
+11,20
276.1
+7,80
192.3
+4.40
108.5
FbI =
i=1
FbI=3219.6kN
Figure E 4.1.7
Machine
282
c. Calculation of efforts and lateral displacements
For the lateral loads in figure E 4.1.7, the efforts N, M, V, and the lateral displacements
ds for the current frame are established. Since the structure has the same configuration in the
two main planes, the efforts and displacements from the seismic action will be identical for the
directions of action x0 and y0 . This particular aspect eliminates the need to perform separate
calculations for the transverse frame.
The efforts resulting from the seismic action will be combined with the efforts resulting from the
permanent gravitational loads according to the relationship: Q ,,2 iki
AG ,kejk
,
The gravity loading schemes for the main frames are presented in figure E 4.1.8:
P8 P10 P10 P8
P2 P4 P6 P6 P4 P2 P2 P2
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1 P1 P7 P9 P9 P7 P1
P7 P7
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1 P1 P9 P9 P1
P7 P7
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1 P1 P9 P9 P1
P7 P7
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1 P1 P9 P9 P1
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1 P1 P7 P9 P9 P7 P1
P7 P7
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1 P1 P9 P9 P1
P7 P7
P1 P3 P5 P5 P3 P1 P1 P9 P9 P1
C 1 frame 2 ABCD C 2 frameB 1234
P1 = 5 x 73,81 + 3 x 11 = 402,5 kN P5 = 3 x 73,81 = 221,43 kN P9 = 1.8 x 73.81 = 132.86 kN
P2 = 5 x 78,8 = 394 kN P6=3x78,8=236,4kN P10=1.8x78.8=141.84kN
P3 = 3.5 x 73.81 = 258.34 kN P7 = 1,7 x 73,81 = 125,48 kN
P4=3,5x78,8=275,8kN P8 = 1,7 x 78,8 = 133,96 kN
Figure E 4.1.8
The axial forces from gravitational loads, for the pillars placed at the intersection of the
two current frames, will result by adding the axial forces corresponding to the two loading
schemes.
The maximum values corresponding to the seismic action will be combined according to one of
the rules in paragraph 4.5.3.6.1. In the analyzed case, since the criteria of regularity in the plane
and vertically are satisfied, based on the provisions of paragraph (6) of paragraph
4.5.3.6.1, the action of the earthquake can be considered separately in the two main horizontal
directions without making the combinations in the paragraphs (2) or (3) of the same paragraph
[1].
For reasons of geometric symmetry and loading, it is not necessary to do so

of ± sign combinations for the seismic action.
E 4.2 Dual reinforced concrete structure irregular in plan and elevation
E 4.2.1. Description of the structure
The response to the seismic action of an office building with basement, ground floor and five
levels located in Bucharest is determined.
The building has an irregular shape in plan, but also vertically, imposed by
the configuration of the land and for architectural reasons.
The resistance structure is of a dual type, being composed of a longitudinal frame placed in
axis 1 with circular posts with a diameter of 80 cm and rectangular beams with a cross-section size of
30x60 cm, a transverse frame in axis F and transverse frames in axes B÷E with circular pillars and
walls with a thickness of 40 cm. In axis A there is a structural wall made of reinforced concrete
arranged transversely with a thickness of 40 cm. It was taken into account, when evaluating the
conventional seismic forces, the tube of the elevator house, which has walls of 30 cm. The thickness
and size of the reinforced concrete walls was established through tests in order to avoid the presence
of torsion in the first two modes of vibration. The height of the transverse and longitudinal beams falls
within the ratio l / 10 l , being their interaxial length. The plane has a thickness of 14 cm. The floor
levels are 2.78 m in the basement, 4.20 m on the ground floor, 3.65 m on floors 1-4 and
,
3.35 at the last withdrawn level.
C 20/25 concrete and S355 steel were used in all elements of the resistance structure.
Figures E 4.2.1 and E 4.2.2 show the vertical sections AA and BB through the building.
The position and dimensions of the resistance elements are shown in the formwork plans of the
current planes in figure E 4.2.4. The formwork plan for the top level plan is shown in figure E 4.2.5.
It is 4.2.2. Calculation scheme for seismic action verification
The basement is made in the form of a rigid box with perimeter walls having a thickness of
30 and 40 cm and it rests on a general screed with turned beams with a height of 1.00 m, a file of 50
cm and a slab of screed 30 cm thick.
Accepting the rigid box of the basement as an embedded support, the basic shear force produced
by the seismic action will be considered above the basement, at the -0.08 m level of the building.
Since the structure does not have a regular shape in plan and elevation, the effects of the
seismic action will be established on a spatial model according to Annex C of P 100-1. The vertical
component of the seismic action will not be considered in the calculation.
Conventional horizontal seismic forces will be established for each main direction of the
building as a whole. These directions are obtained from the first proper form of translational vibration
resulting from a modal click (with the smallest modal factor participating in torsion
,k
0)
Machine
284
E 4.2.2.1. Normative gravity loads

Loads on the roof plane (non-passable terrace) - permanent
loads Gp
2
plane: kN/m 50,32514,0
thermo+waterproofing: 2
1 kN/m ,50
2
technical space: 0 kN/m ,50
2
false ceiling: kN/m ,150
2
kN/m 65,5 Gp
- load Qki variables
– zpad:
2
sccs ,0
kteck kN/m 28,10,20,18,08,0
(conf. CR 1-1-3/2012)
2
– or useful: kq kN/m 75,0
(cf. SR EN 1991-1-1, tab. NA.6.10)
Loading at the level of the current planes (above ground floor, 1st, 2nd and 3rd floor)
- permanent charges Gp
2
plane: kN/m 50,32514,0
2
pardoseal: kN/m 76,12208,0
2
2
2
perished in the interior (gips): kN/m ,500
2
kN/m 41,6 Gp
- load Qki variables

2
k ,q kN/m 02 ; corresponding to category B - buildings for
OFFICE
(conf. SR EN 1991-1-1, tab. NA.6.1 and NA. 6.2)

Boarding at plane level above the 4th floor
- permanent charges Gp
2
plane: kN/m 50,32514,0
2
2
thermo+waterproofing: 1 kN/m ,70
2
2
separating pears: kN/m ,001
2
kN/m 85,6 Gp
- încrcri useful Qki

2
,qk kN/m 02
Permanent perimeter loads from closures

2
a) Curtain rods kN/m 05.0 for in front of the main and side right at the level
planes over:
- parties
65,320,4
kN/m 97,150,0
2
- floors 1, 2 and 3
kN/m 83,150,065,3
- 4th floor
35,365,3
kN/m 75,150,0
2
b) Brick walls with gaps having a thickness of 30 cm, in axes 4,5 and 6
2
( kN/m ,35 of the wall) at the level of the planes above:
- parties
kN/m 61,193,55,020,4
- floors 1, 2 and 3
kN/m 70,163,55,065,3
- 4th floor
kN/m 11,153,55,035,3
Machine
286
It is 4.2.2.2. Calculation load combinations in case of seismic action
The combinations of the seismic action with other loads for checks at the ultimate limit
state (according to CR 0 – 2012) are made using the relationship:
AG,,
EkeIk ,,2 Q
to
in which it is noted:
GG pjk
,
normalized permanent loads
QQlight
normalized variable loadings
,
,2 i 3.0 corresponds to table A1 of [CR 0 – 2012] for variable actions
,2 i 4.0 corresponds to table A1 from [CR 0 – 2012] for actions from

zpad
AEk the design load of the seismic action
, no
= 1.0 building importance factor, according to [P 100-1], for class III
of matter.
Loads on the roof plane (figure E 4.2.6)
Gp ,2 Qii
2 2
in which: ,2 i 4,0 ; sQ kN/m 28,1 ; kN/m 65,5 Gp
to
,2 kN/m 512,028,14,0 Qii
2
result: Gp ,2 Qii kN/m 162,6
Boarding the plane above the 4th floor (fig. 7)

2
kN/m 85,6 Gp
,2 i 3,0 ; qQ
to kN/m 0,2 2 ;
Gp ,2 Qii kN/m 45,70,23,085,6
-perei cortin: kN/m

p
75,1 G
- infill masonry: kN/m 11,15 Gp
Loading at the plane level above the ground floor and floors 1, 2 and 3 (figure E 4.2.8)
2
kN/m 41,6 Gp
2
,2 i 3,0 ; qQto kN/m 0,2 ;
Gp ,2 Qii kN/m 01,70,23,041,6

- curtain walls: ground kN/m 83,1 Gp ( kN/m 97,1 to the plane above
floor)
- infill masonry: the plan above the

kN/m 70,16 Gp ( kN/m 9,611
the ground floor)
Plane loads serve to define the plane masses
G Q
p ,2 ii 2
( m k ;g m/s 81,9 = acceleraia gravitaional)
g
take the gravitational loads considered in the case of the combination containing the
seismic action.
It is 4.2.3. Calculation of the structure under seismic action in the elastic domain.
Modal calculation method with response spectra
The analyzed building does not satisfy the conditions of regularity in plan and vertically due
to its shape, the variation in height, the edge of the consoles in axis 1, as well as due to the withdrawn
position of the 5th floor compared to the current floors. As a result, the seismic action calculation will
be performed on a spatial model. The model considers the planes rigid in their plane and neglects the
contribution of the board, through the related active area, to the definition of the stiffness of the beams.
The masses calculated from the gravity loads established previously from the combination of loads
specific to the seismic action, are considered to be uniformly distributed at the level of the building
planes. The contribution of the columns and beams at each level will be added to their masses and
moments of inertia reduced in relation to the center of mass at each level. The concentrated masses
and the coordinates of the center of mass can be calculated automatically with specialized calculation
programs or manually. In the spatial model, three dynamic degrees of freedom, two horizontal
translations and a rotation around the vertical axis Oz will be considered in the center of the level
masses.
The modal analysis on a spatial model will determine the following elements: - the position of
the centers of mass and the centers of rigidity at each level; - vectors and eigenvalues; - the character
of the oscillations corresponding to each specific mode of vibration; - overall compliance to
eliminate torsional oscillations from
the first two proper modes of vibration;

- modal equivalence coefficients; - determining
the main directions of oscillation; - calculation of modal
seismic forces; - the composition of the modal responses
obtained by considering the seismic movement acting independently along each main direction
of oscillation;
- the composition of the answers associated with the two main directions of
oscillate;
- highlighting the effect of the general torsion resulting from the uneven distribution of the level
masses and the spatial variation of the seismic movement of the land
05,0
1i The i
Machine
288
Figure E 4.2.1 Vertical section AA

Table F.2 Stiffness of Beams in The Case of Frames With Fixed Nodes

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Table F.2 Stiffness of Beams in The Case of Frames With Fixed Nodes

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Machine Translated by Google 303

Case Stiffness K of beams in the case of frames with fixed nodes

Case Stiffness K of beams in the case of frames with movable nodes

Figure F.3. Distribution factors for continuous columns

Table F.4 Stiffness of a beam from a reinforced concrete slab structure

The stiffness K of a beam from a structure with reinforced concrete slabs

Structure with fixed Structure with

Case Stiffness K of beams in the case of frames with fixed nodes

Case Stiffness K of beams in the case of frames with movable nodes

(a) frames with fixed nodes:

(b) frames with movable nodes: ( )

F.3. Dissipative bar stiffeners

Figure F.4. Placement of stiffeners on the short dissipative bar

Figure F.5. Placement of stiffeners at the long dissipative bar

c c' a' a' a' c' c

Figure F.6. Placement of stiffeners at the intermediate dissipative bar

(11) The distances between stiffeners are: (0)

h t30a w 5 for = 0,08 rad

h t52a w 5 for = 0,02 rad

c = min (1,5b, 0,5d)

a' is determined by linear interpolation between the values:

c’ = min (1,5b, a’)

In the above relationships, the notations were used:

tw - thickness of the heart of the dissipative bar

b - the size of the base of the dissipative bar

e - the length of the dissipative bar

F.4. Beam-column joints with reduced section

Figure F.7. Jointing of a beam with reduced section

(2) To ensure the bending ductility of the dissipative areas of these

- to avoid buckling of the steel component

- to avoid crushing the slab concrete

beam to the column is (1) that of the steel beam. (0)

FRd3 1,1 As world (G.1)

FRd3 = nPRd (G.2)

n is the number of connectors in the actual size of the board

PRd the capable effort of the connector

In this case G 2.1.2(0) applies

G.2.2. The composite beam transmits a positive moment to the marginal

FRd1 = bb deff fcd (G.3)

AT0,25 deff bb(0,15l –bb ) fcd / (0,15l fyd ) (G.4)

moment can be transferred in this case by two mechanisms:

transfer through this mechanism will be given by the relationship:

FRd2=0,7 hc deff fcd (G.5)

where hc is the height of the column section

ATFRd2 / fyd,T (3) (G.6)

where lb is the anchorage length of the bar

G.2.2.3. There is a transverse facade beam. In this case,

for FRd3 given

FRd1+ FRd2+ FRd3 beff deff (G.9)

fcd where beff is the effective limit given in table 7.5

G.2.3. Composite beams transmit moments of both signs to the central

G.2.3.1. There is no transverse beam

(4) In this case, the result of concrete compression cannot exceed:

FRd1 + FRd2 =(0.7hc +bb )deff fcd (G.10)

FSc +FSt=As world +beff deff fcd (G.11)

1,2(FSc+FSt) FRd1+FRd2 (G.12)

G.2.3.2. Exist grind transversal

FRd1+ FRd2+ FRd3=(0.7hc + bb )deff fcd + n PRd (G.13)

where n is the number of connectors in the lime area corresponding to the

1,2 (FSc+FSt) FRd1 + FRd2 + FRd3 (G.14)

PUBLISHER: THE GOVERNMENT OF ROMANIA

Annex to the Order of the Deputy Prime Minister, Minister

APPENDIX H (informative). COMMENTS