ABSTRACT 2022-2024

Illinois Junior Academy of Science

This form/paper may not be taken without IJAS authorization.

CATEGORY Astronomy STATE REGION # 6

SCHOOL NAME Niles West High School
CITY/ZIP Skokie, 60077 IJAS SCHOOL # 6063
SPONSOR
SPONSOR NAME Rachael Swiercz E-MAIL racswi@D219.org

MARK ONE: EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION X ☐ DESIGN INVESTIGATION ☐

NAME OF SCIENTIST* Derek Heinyang Kyan GRADE 11

NAME OF SCIENTIST GRADE
NAME OF SCIENTIST GRADE
NAME OF SCIENTIST GRADE

PROJECT TITLE The Effect of Low Frequency Gravitational Waves on Millisecond Pulsar Times of Arrival

Purpose:
The odd signals that had been a cosmic query in the science community were intermittent and regular, and they later
discovered that the radio emissions were neutron stars with quick spin periods. LIGO and Virgo detect gravitational waves (GWs), but
they can only detect ones with gigahertz frequencies. Millisecond pulsars (MSP) are essential in understanding GWs. The purpose of
this investigation is to look at the changes of arrival of MSP times of arrival to understand the cosmic effects of low frequency GWs.

Procedure:

The methods of the experimental project begins with a standard laptop that is compatible with Python and coding language
written in C. Identify a subset of millisecond pulsars that are in binary systems that will yield the predicted results of the experiment.
The pulse profiles are then extracted using the NanoGrav PsrSigSim that already has observational data of these pulsars. By finding the
period for each pulsar, Tempo2 can run computer generated simulations of gravitational waves through the given pulse periods. Data
graphs can also be rendered.

Conclusion:
The data shows that there were short deviations throughout the trials of the simulated gravitational waves. After the estimated pulse
of the millisecond pulsars, the pre and post-fit residuals were taken to calculate the following timing deviations. When the gravitational
wave was passed through the pulsar run by the software, the pulse period changed minutely and measured in nanoseconds.

1) Limit Abstract to 3 paragraphs (about 250 words or less). a) Purpose - what you set out to investigate; b) Procedure - how you did
it; c) Conclusion - based on your results. Label each paragraph.
2) Must be typed, single-spaced on the front of this form. Do not write on the back of this form.

This form must be used. This form must be displayed on the front of the exhibitor’s display board. It may be reduced to half a sheet of p
8.5 inches (vertical) X 5.5 inches (horizontal).
 SAFETY SHEET 2022-2024
Illinois Junior Academy of Science

Directions: The student is asked to read these introductions carefully and fill out the bottom of this sheet. The
science teacher and/or advisor must sign in the indicated space. By signing this sheet, the sponsor
assumes all responsibilities related to this project.

Safety and the Student: Experimentation or design may involve an element of risk or injury to the student, test
subjects and to others. Recognition of such hazards and provision for adequate control measures are joint
responsibilities of the student and the sponsor. Some of the more common risks encountered in research are
those of electrical shock, infection from pathogenic organisms, uncontrolled reactions of incompatible
chemicals, eye injury from materials or procedures, and fire in apparatus or work area. Countering these
hazards and others with suitable safety practices is an integral part of good scientific research. In the chart below,
list the principal hazards associated with your project, if any, and what specific precautions
you have used as safeguards. Be sure to read the entire section in the Policy and Procedure Manual of the Illinois Junior
Academy of Science entitled "Safety Guidelines for Experimentation" before completing this form.

Possible hazards Precautions taken to deal with each hazard

1. Electric shock 1. No water near the laptop

2. Overheating of computer 2. Keep the laptop conditioned in room
3. Fall damage temperature
3. Laptop should be used on a flat surface

Specific safety practices related to materials requiring endorsement sheets should be detailed on the specific
endorsement sheet and not included on this safety sheet.

Please check off any other possible endorsements needed. Include these documents in your paper and on your board.
_____Humans as Test Subjects –for any projects involving humans including survey administration;
_____Microorganisms-for any projects involving bacteria, viruses, yeasts, fungi or protazoa;
_____Non-Human Vertebrates -for any projects involving fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds or mammals;
_____Tissue Culture-for any projects involving growing eukaryotic tissues or cell cultures;
_____Letter from institution where research was done or IJAS SRC, if an exception to the IJAS rules has been granted…

SIGNED
Student Exhibitor(s)
SIGNED
Sponsor *
*As a sponsor, I assume all responsibilities related to this project.

This Sheet Must Be Typed and This form must be displayed on the front of the exhibitor’s display board. It may be
reduced to half a sheet of paper 8.5 inches (vertical) X 5.5 inches (horizontal).
 The Detection of Low Frequency
Gravitational Waves Through Timing
Analysis and Radio Emissions of
Millisecond Pulsars

Derek Heinyang Kyan

Niles West High School

Region 6

Regional Science Fair

Poster Session

March 4, 2023
 Kyan

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements 2

Review of Literature 3

Introduction and Relevance 3

Purpose 7

Independent Variable 8

Entity 14

Dependent Variable 16

Closure 17

Hypothesis/Prediction 18

Materials 19

Procedure 19

Visuals 25

Components of Experimental Design 27

Results 28

Data Analysis 30

Overall Error Analysis 31

Conclusion/Further Investigation 32

References 33

1
 Kyan

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge the level of independence and scientific freedom that

I was given by my SIRS (STEM Inquiry/Research Students) class. Niles West has provided

my project and scientific research with the tools and materials needed to accomplish this.

Without the efforts my early bird teacher made for each student in her class, I would not

have completed this project. Thank you to Mrs. Swiercz for teaching me how to become a

better scientist and thinker.

Coming into this computer based science project, I had no idea where to begin

with the ideas I had. Thankfully, the mentorship program prevented me from running into

challenges I could not have solved for myself. I was able to connect with a Northwestern

mentor to help with the software. Thank you Connor Terry Weatherly and his

knowledge of computational analysis and computer programming.

A scientist is not a strong thinker alone. My peers have encouraged me to work

hard, persevere through challenges, and complete arduous goals throughout the school

year. The STEM students in my class challenged me to be better and produce work that is

exceptional and exemplary. I followed their experience and advice.

I appreciate the pride that my parents take in me when I talk to them about my

project for this year and that has only furthered my research from their motivation. Thank

you mom and dad.

2
 Kyan

Review of Literature:

The Detection of Nanohertz Gravitational Waves from Timing Analysis and Pulsating

Radio Emissions from Millisecond Pulsars

Derek H. Kyan

3
 Kyan

Introduction & Relevance

Pulsars have been studied in astrophysics and they have led to numerous scientific

discoveries. Jocelyn Bell detected the first recording of a pulsar in 1967 at Cambridge

University through radio emission. However, there was little to no knowledge of these

signals initially and what source was producing it. The odd signals that had been a cosmic

query in the science community were intermittent and regular, and they later discovered

that the radio emissions were neutron stars with quick spin periods. They were known as

pulsating stars, and the name pulsars was denoted. Ongoing observations to this date

continue to detect large collisions of massive celestial objects from pulsar signals. Due to

the nature of pulsars, spin periods which are extremely consistent have formed the

foundations of radio astronomy and the detection of gravitational waves.

The detection of gravitational waves is an issue among astronomers and

observatories around the world. They are waves of gravity that rippling the space around

Figure 1. 3 Dimensional visualization of the ripples that gravitational waves create

them and distorting space-time. However, when they pass through Earth, gravitational

waves are almost unnoticeable. Gigahertz gravitational waves, or high frequency

4
 Kyan

gravitational waves are detected in sizable laser facilities such as LIGO, VIRGO, and Kagra

(G. B. Hobbs, Shi Dai, 2017) There are two LIGO (Laser Interferometer

Gravitational-Wave Observatory) detector sites in North America located in Hanford and

Livingston. The detectors must be incredibly precise in order to capture the signals of

gravitational waves, and they are already difficult to detect as they get weaker, traveling

across the universe. The issue arises in the fact that gravitational wave detectors can only

record data from high frequency gravitational waves. There are no instruments which can

detect the existence of low frequency gravitational waves, which are often found in the

nanohertz range, since Earth-based technology is not precise enough. Nanohertz

gravitational waves come from the collision of supermassive black hole binaries (SMBHB)

and primordial fluctuations in the early universe. Therefore, their detection is essential for

understanding the physics and nature of the universe and cosmology.

Gravitational wave detectors exist in North America, Japan, and Europe and data

can be compared to show that the same gravitational wave was detected at all

observatories. LIGO has so far detected ten pairs of merging black holes and two pairs of

colliding neutron stars. The detectors are limited due to the fact that LIGO and other

gravitational wave observatories can only receive timing deviations from passing high

frequency gravitational waves (Liu, K., 2019).

While gravitational waves are caused by massive collision events from merging

super massive black hole binaries and binary neutron stars, they create changes in the

timing patterns of pulsars that are only around one part in 1,000,000,000,000 (Verbiest, J.

P. W., 2009). Earth-based detectors such as LIGO are simply not advanced enough for low

frequency GWs.

At the end of this investigation, this research will define the boundaries and limits

5
 Kyan

of experimental astrophysics of nanohertz gravitational waves by analyzing timing

patterns of millisecond pulsars and determining whether low frequency gravitational

waves produce an arrival time which is sooner or later than expected based on predicted

pulsar times of arrival.

Figure 2. Two large objects in space interacting with each other on a plane, creating gravitational waves among the fabric of

space

6
 Kyan

Purpose

The purpose of this investigation is to look at the predicted times that a pulse from

a millisecond pulsar will arrive at Earth. Hence, the pulse is the time of arrival of the

particular pulsar. Since millisecond pulsars are regular and predictable, observation of the

pulses over a period of time ranging from a couple years to a decade will provide

sufficient predictions of their pulse periods. The pulse periods can be looked at through

radio emissions sent from the pulsar. Low frequency gravitational waves have not been

studied enough due to the limitations of Earth based interferometers. Therefore, pulsars

can be used as a timing mechanism for the detection of gravitational waves. By using a

computer software created by Hobbs called Tempo2, low frequency gravitational waves

can be studied from a standpoint of computational astrophysics. Because this software is

easily accessible and convenient for individual projects, it gives a simplified version of the

functions a radio telescope can perform. It is important to observe the characteristics of

low frequency gravitational waves through their effects on millisecond pulsars, because

there is so little astrophysics known about primordial black holes and the Big Bang. This

investigation tries to test the limits of computer software for the detection of nanohertz

gravitational waves.

7
 Kyan

Independent Variable

Millisecond pulsars are otherwise known as neutron stars that rapidly spin on an

axis that emits hundreds of energy pulses, denoting its name. Dispersion measure of

millisecond pulsars (MSP) reveals the distance of the pulsar to Earth using the measured

density of electrons within that distance (Lam, M. T., & Hazboun, J. S., 2021). Dispersion

measure is key in understanding radio signals in pulsar astronomy. PSR J0437-4715 is the

brightest known MSP and has the lowest dispersion measure of the many pulsars that

have already been observed to date and due to its low dispersion measure, the interstellar

medium is reduced for this pulsar (Lam, M. T., & Hazboun, J. S., 2021). This makes it

easier to measure the signal

Figure 3. Optical image of the binary system containing PSR J0437-4715 by Andrew S. Fruchter

to noise pulses coming from the pulsar (Lam, M. T., & Hazboun, J. S., 2021). In pulsar

astronomy, the dispersion measure is shown as a broadening of a distinct pulse which is

observed over a finite period of time on a bandwidth. Radio waves are low frequencies of

electromagnetic radiation, so the electrostatic interaction between light and protons and

8
 Kyan

electrons which are charged particles causes a delay in the arrival of the pulse (Kulkarni,

S. R. (n.d.) 2020). The dispersion is influenced more by the electrons than the protons,

because electrons have a greater reaction to light passing through it than protons

(Kulkarni, S. R. (n.d.) 2020). Electrons cause a greater delay in the propagation of time for

a pulse traveling to Earth. The dispersion measure is determined by the slope of the pulse

(Kulkarni, S. R. (n.d.) 2020). Calculating the dispersion measure of pulsars is essential in

understanding the distance it takes for light to travel when a pulse is emitted. The distance

changes the amount of time the light takes to arrive at Earth and the timing of arrival is

needed to determine the short deviations of the pulse and precisely measure pulsar

timing.

Parkes Pulsar Timing Array (PPTA) observes a subset of MSPs. It includes 26 MSP

in its pulsar observing system. Throughout the 16 years of its observation period, it has

been producing precise measurements of the pulse times of arrival. The PPTA has

received data for 21,000 hours which is analyzed to use for the search of gravitational

waves (Goncharov et al., 2020). The PPTA has been used to search for the nanohertz

stochastic gravitational wave background (Goncharov et al., 2020). If all pulsars exhibit a

process with the common spectrum of fluctuations in timing residuals, then the spectral

density can be observed (Goncharov et al., 2020). Predictions by Hellings and Downs can

determine if the process is spatially correlated (Goncharov et al., 2020).

9
 Kyan

Figure 4. Evidence comparing Hellings-Down's red process over the evidence for noise-only hypothesis yields a spurious
detection, which comes from the red process (spatial self-correlation).

There were around 26 millisecond pulsars that were studied in the PPTA. The more

pulsars that are observed in an array, the more accurate the timing of arrival

measurements are, because gravitational waves affect a broader variety of pulsars. That is

why just looking at one pulsar is difficult in detecting high or low frequency gravitational

waves. Detection of nanohertz gravitational waves relies heavily on pulsar timing arrays

such as the PPTA, since they are natural and precise in producing time measurements of

pulses. Timing array experiments are only sufficient when the pulsars are observed in the

long-term so that the various time noises can be accurately modeled for pulse profiles

(Kerr et al., 2020). PPTA makes it easy for scientific researchers to study and analyze

gravitational waves through raw data files.

Highly stable pulse rates make the expected time of arrival predictable. The timing

analysis of pulsars is simplified because of its stability which opens up a plethora of

discoveries and variables that can be studied given a group of pulsars. The prospects of

this pulse time shows hopes for the detection of low frequency gravitational waves in

10
 Kyan

nanohertz units (Verbiest et al., 2022). The rotational stability of a millisecond pulsar is

three to four orders of magnitude greater than normal pulsars, which increases the

reliability of MSPs for nanohertz gravitational wave detection (Verbiest et al., 2022). The

data in collaboration with the Parkes radio telescope shows that in some of the pulsars

there are timing residuals of a few hundred nanoseconds that are plausible for

observations that run for a couple of years. Hotan, Bailes, & Ord (2006) discovered a

timing rms of 200 ns within the span of two years of timing while working with PSR

1713+0747 and PSR J1939+2134. However, one of the difficulties that has arisen from this is

that MSPs have not yet been timed such that the rms timing residual is less than or equal

to 100 ns in a 5 year span (Verbiest et al., 2022).

Pulsars do not originally begin as millisecond pulsars. The transition of a normal

pulsar to a MSP begins when the emission of pulsars shape kinetic rotational energy into

radiation (ESA, 2013). While the pulsar is converting the energy, the rotation and spin

period of the pulsar slows down (ESA, 2013). The theoretical model which is called the

recycling scenario states that if a pulsar in a binary system is accreting matter from

another large object through an accretion disc, then the pulsar will gain angular

momentum (ESA, 2013). The gravitational pull of the pulsar draws matter from its binary

counterpart, the rotation becomes extremely rapid again resulting in a millisecond pulsar

(ESA, 2013). Millisecond pulsars are the source of detection for gravitational waves and

11
 Kyan

Figure 5. Visual of an artist’s impression of the evolutionary process turning a normal pulsar into a millisecond pulsar.
European Space Agency (2013)

the stability of their pulses allows scientists to calculate the expected arrival time of its

radio emissions. Therefore, if there are any disturbances caused by a collision of two

supermassive blackholes, hypothetically speaking, there would be a gravitational wave

which would denote an arrival time later or sooner than expected.

Radio emissions are the main detectors of pulsars. They emit cones of radio waves

in all directions because of their magnetic poles while they spin rapidly (Liu, K., 2019).

The radio emissions are stronger at the poles, but they can emit radiation wherever there

are magnetic fields present (Liu, K., 2019). Pulsar radio emissions are used for the direct

detection of gravitational waves which is key information as to why pulsars need to be

observed in the radio wavelength (Liu, K., 2019). Pulsars are radio sources which has

resulted in the overwhelming majority of pulsars being discovered at frequencies that are

under 2 GHz (Liu, K., 2019). While observations at high frequencies give a more well

rounded understanding of pulsar emission, observations of low frequencies gravitational

waves through pulsars are effective to backtrack them to collisions of massive objects (Liu,

K., 2019). The model below is the separation of emission of the cone and core of a pulsar.

Pulsar radiation is generated by plasma which can amplify its normal modes of emissions.

Pulsar astronomy is based on radio emissions to conduct experiments that originate in this

field.

12
 Kyan

Figure 6. Example of emission geometry

that produces core and cone profiles.

13
 Kyan

Entity

Tempo2 is a good model entity for this experiment, because it eliminates Earth

based experimentation on gravitational waves, and it solely relies on the high-precision

clocks of pulsars. Tempo 2 is the latest version of a pulsar timing analysis which provides

output from a subset of observed millisecond pulsars (G. B. Hobbs, R. T. Edwards, R. N.

Manchester, 2006). The package contains a set of tools that are essential for the aid and

visualization of pulsar-timing data. The timing technique built into the program results in

the precise measurement of the estimated times of arrival. So, if there are significant

deviations seen in the models, then the model is not showing the true pulsar parameters.

These discrepancies can be caused by irregularities of the pulsar or binary systems that

were not considered during the modeling process. Pulsar astronomers use Tempo2 for

gravitational wave simulation as well. ToAs are analyzed from Tempo2 and it's important

for the astrophysics community because it can lead to the direct detection of gravitational

waves. Algorithms implemented in Tempo2 make it efficient in spitting out information

that is needed in order to detect gravitational waves (G. B. Hobbs, R. T. Edwards, R. N.

Manchester, 2006).

Tempo2 is a software package that can help this investigation, because it already

includes pulsar data that have been recorded over a period of ten or more years (G. B.

Hobbs, R. T. Edwards, R. N. Manchester, 2006). This means that the predicted arrival of

pulsars in this timing package are incredibly accurate to its true times of arrival. Tempo2

can be downloaded from GitHub and is compatible with Python. The code can be written

on Python with libraries from the Tempo2 software. The software can calculate pulsars

and includes a variety of different methods and quantities that can help specify pulsars (G.

B. Hobbs, R. T. Edwards, R. N. Manchester, 2006). There have been numerous

14
 Kyan

investigations that have used Tempo2 for pulsar data analysis. Simulating gravitational

waves on Tempo2 is plausible, because there has been code that has already been written

to simulate the outcome of pulsar times of arrival when gravitational waves pass through

them (G. B. Hobbs, R. T. Edwards, R. N. Manchester, 2006). The foundation of this

investigation will be on simulating low frequency gravitational waves and looking at the

effects on the times of arrival in millisecond pulsars.

15
 Kyan

Dependent Variable

In order to determine the relationship between millisecond pulsars and nanohertz

gravitational waves, this study will look at the pulse time of arrival to determine short

deviations within a given set of pulsars. Gravitational waves (GWs) directly affect pulsar

observations and their pulse time of arrival. This is because they induce a fluctuation in

pulse frequency. The times of arrival (ToAs) are compared to the predictions based on

pulse profiles and pulsar timing models. GW signals cause a timing residual at time t. By

looking at the difference between the theoretical result of times of arrival and the known

measurements is called the pular’s “timing residual.” While there has been so much Earth

based research on GHz gravitational waves, there has been little progress in the search for

nanohertz gravitational waves with pulsar timing.

In a scientific study conducted by a group of researchers and pulsar astronomers, it

was discovered that gravitational waves can result from massive events in the universe

(Lam et al., 2021). Newton was one of the first to theorize about gravity and the law that

states that every object has a gravitational field of its own. If every object has its own

gravitational field, then, therefore, objects interact with the gravitational fields of other

objects in the universe (Caltech., 2022).

Until Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, the problem of how gravity can be

affected with the transfer from one place to another (Caltech., 2022). Hypothetically, by

moving one object to a completely different location in space, then the mass reacts

instantaneously over any distance, so the information can travel faster than the speed of

light (Caltech., 2022). As matter moves, the fabric of space is curved and the disruptions

spread out across the universe and with large scale objects colliding with each other, the

disruption becomes so massive that they create ripples in the fabric of space known as

16
 Kyan

gravitational waves (Verbiest, J. P. W., 2009).

Closure

The highly stable pulsation rates of pulsars can be used as a natural clock for the

detection of gravitational waves and the observance of nanosecond variations in the

timing of arrival (Liu, K. 2019). There are currently 3000 millisecond pulsars that have

been observed and that can be analyzed that are within our galaxy (Liu, K. 2019). They

emit radio waves that can be used to look at the expected timing of arrival. The pulsars

make it possible to detect gravitational waves of little and large magnitudes. They are

almost like nature’s clocks as they spin at a rapid and redundant rate of speed (G. B.

Hobbs et al., 2008).

This research will specifically add to pulsar astronomy, because through the

Tempo2 timing experiments the program can predict the timing of arrivals of pulsars that

have not been observed to detect low frequency gravitational waves (G. B. Hobbs, R. T.

Edwards, R. N. Manchester, 2006). The prospect of this project are baby steps into the

division of pulsar astronomy. While there have been multiple experiments regarding the

nature of gravitational waves and the changes of pulsar times of arrival, The method of the

investigation will be similar to timing experiments that have been done in the past with

computer based analysis. However, the frequency of the gravitational wave will be

changed to look more into the simulated arrival of millisecond pulsars and whether that

may warrant a sooner arrival time or later arrival time.

17
 Kyan

Hypothesis/Prediction

The pulsars will cause the times of arrival of the radio emissions to arrive later or

sooner than expected to Earth because of the passing gravitational wave. The rotational

stability of pulsars makes it easy to look at the timing deviations that occur through

gravitational waves. Detection of nanohertz gravitational waves relies heavily on pulsar

timing arrays such as the PPTA, since they are natural and precise in producing time

measurements of pulses (Kerr et al. 2020). The timing residuals will show the predicted

times as specific as nanoseconds to determine how fast a pulse is moving from the point

of emission to Earth. However, a gravitational wave passing through these millisecond

pulsars stretches the nature of space and time. As the millisecond pulsar releases its radio

waves, the gravitational waves will affect the time that it arrives.

If the millisecond pulsar creates highly stable and quick pulses and the times of

arrivals are consistent in the timing residual, then a low frequency gravitational wave will

cause a short disturbance in the millisecond pulsar’s arrival time. Data from MSPs will be

used to see the effect of gravitational waves on timing residuals. A low frequency

gravitational wave that passes through a millisecond pulsar will show timing deviations

between the predicted time of arrival and the experimental time of arrival.

18
 Kyan

Materials

1. Dell Laptop

a. Latitude 3420 14”

2. Electrical Outlet

3. Dell Laptop Charger 65 Watt

4. Software Programs

a. Anaconda

b. Tempo2

c. PsrSigSim

Procedure

The methods of the experimental project begins with a standard laptop that is

compatible with Python and coding language written in C. The computer that was used

was a Dell Latitude 3420 which allowed for the download of Anaconda. Anaconda

provides pre downloaded software including Jupyter notebook. Identify a subset of

millisecond pulsars that are in binary systems that will yield the predicted results of the

experiment. The pulse profiles are then extracted using the NanoGrav PsrSigSim that

already has observational data of these pulsars. These profiles show the pulse period

which is also the estimated time of arrival (ToA) of the given millisecond pulsar. By finding

the period for each pulsar, Tempo2 can run computer generated simulations of

gravitational waves through the given pulse periods. Data graphs can also be rendered,

since the coding of the software will occur on Jupyter notebook.

19
 Kyan

1. Downloading Python
a. Open a browser to the Python website and download the Windows installer
b. Download Python latest version so it is up to date
c. Double click on the downloaded file and install Python for all users and
click on “Install Now”
d. End the installation

2. Jupyter Coding
a. Anaconda allows you to write code and execute commands line by line.
Download the Anaconda installer
b. Go to the Downloads folder and double-click the installer to launch.
c. Click “Next”
d. Accepts the terms and conditions “I Agree”
e. Install “Just Me” to install the Anaconda Distribution to the current user
account.
f. Click “Next”
g. Select a destination for Anaconda also known as an empty folder.

h. After a successful installation you will see “Thanks for Installing Anaconda”
i. Verify your installation
j. (Picture of Anaconda user interface)
k. Jupyter notebook should already be installed with Anaconda. Open Jupyter

20
 Kyan

3. Tempo2 Software
a. Download Tempo2 from GitHub, an open source library
b. Testing Tempo2
c. vap -nc bw : returns the bandwidth without headers of all the files in the
current directory
d. Type vap -H for a full list of parameters
e. psredit -c type,name,dm <archive> for the observation type, name and
dispersion measure of an archive
f. vip -a <file> the attributes for a particular file
g. To plot the calibrator graphical display, use pacv, psrplot, and pav
h. pacv, -p <archive> plots uncalibrated on-pulse total and polarized influx
i. psrplot scrunches the frequency channels, sub-integrations, and
polarizations

4. Calculating the Pulse Profiles

a. To view an archive: pav and psrplot
b. They can graphically display the content of an archive which allows for the
preprocessing of the archive and produce quality plots
c. There are different plots that can be produced using pav.
i. pav -FTp scrunches all the frequency channels and pols and then
plot the integrated pulse profile
ii. pav -FY folds the frequency channels (-F) and plots the
sub-integration with the pulse phases
iii. pav -G plots the pulse amplitudes and phase frequency in addition to
the dedisperse, correcting the dispersion delay of the interstellar
medium
d. Data profiles can be extracted by taking the arrays of data points and can
simulate real pulsars and fake pulsar data for ideal situations.
e. Load the data array
f. Define the data profile
g. Plot the profile the same way as a Gaussian profile
h. Plot the array to see what the profile looks like

21
 Kyan

5. Solve Pulsar Times of Arrival

a. From the NanoGrav 12.5 year stochastic analysis, obtain data of binary
millisecond pulsars including their parameters and positions.

b. Data and lines seen above should be downloaded from GitHub

c. These lines can be added on the Jupyter Notebook computing software and
the program can run the pulsar profiles and graphs automatically.
d. Data profiles create points on the pulse profile that are called DataProfile
e. Represent the pulse profile with the number of bins in the input data profile
f. Load the data array
g. Define the data profile
h. Initialize and plot the profile the same way as the Gaussian profile

22
 Kyan

6. Simulating the effect of GW on a pulsar

a. Make an ephemeris for the pulsar that is being experimented upon, the
parameters used for a timing model
b. Define the pulsar (PSRJ), declination (DECJ), epoch (PEPOCH), dispersion
measure (DM)
c. Use the command line

$ tempo2 -gr fake -f psr1.par -nobsd 1 -ndobs 14 -randha y -ha 8

-start 50000 -end 53000 -rms 1e-4

d. Produce a file psr1.simulate that contains the simulated arrival time

e. View the timing residual using the plk plugin and make sure they have an
rms residual that is around 100 ns
f. Define the observation length
g. Make the pulses
h. Disperse the data
i. Observe with the telescope

7. Syntax Errors and Debugging Kernel Error

a. Access the back-end of the tool, Jupyter Notebook runs on Anaconda
b. Open the Anaconda command prompt and run as an administrator
c. Open Base Environment and select your directory
d. Input the command; linux, and change the director of the notebook

23
 Kyan

e. Create a new virtual environment using the code, conda create -n py

f. Use the code, conda activate py, to activate the environment created
g. Install ipykernel

conda install ipykernel

h. Add kernel to the environment

i. To test the changes immediately, install libraries

conda install azure

conda install pandas

conda install backports

8. Analyzing the Data

a. There are multiple ways to look at the data: analytically and graphically
b. Graphical analysis: look at the pulse periods of the pulsars
i. Identify what frequency the pulsar was observed in
ii. Things to ask yourself: How large were the pulses?
iii. What times did they arrive on Earth?
c. To view the signal of a pulsar, access the full data array from the command
signal_l.data
d. Plot a single frequency channel
e. Get the phases of the pulse
f. Plot the pulses in the first frequency channels
g. Make the 2-D plot of intensity v. frequency and pulse phase

24
 Kyan

Visual

Image 1

The first lines of the code, rendering signals of pulse profiles and observation
frequencies. The center observing frequency is in Megahertz, so the pulse signals will
have an intensity v. frequency of 1380. The system is running the box marked with the
asterisk. First, the signal must be defined. The PsrSigSim can graph the signal on a
coordinate plane with the x-axis as the pulse phase and the y-axis as the fluctuations.

Image 2

Graph of the known and

discovered pulsars to date with the
consideration of spin period and
magnetic field strength. From the
linear plot, the researcher and
general science viewer can infer that
millisecond pulsars are within the
bottom left of the graph, closer to
the origin. Millisecond pulsars have
short spin periods and low magnetic
field strength.

25
 Kyan

Image 3

Naming errors of the pulsars and undefined variables. The bugs of the code can be
quickly fixed by backtracking to the point of error (traceback). The pulsar named
J0000+0000 is a default pulsar with 0 defined parameters.

Image 4

This is the confirmation of the

PsrSigSim software download.
Anaconda already has a Jupyter
Notebook that comes with the software
package. However, other computer
softwares such as the one by Nanograv
may need to be downloaded using
GitHub.

26
 Kyan

Components of Experiment Design

Independent variable (IV): Millisecond Pulsar

Dependent variable (DV): Pulsar Times of Arrival

- Measured by the pulse profile taken using NanoGrav’s software and the timing
deviations will be affected through the simulations rendered by Tempo2

Controlled variables: Frequency of the wave, bandwidth, signal to noise

Control group: Subset of MSP

Experimental group(s): Low frequency gravitational wave

Figure 7: The Specifics of Pulsar Radio Emission (Losovsky 2022)

27
 Kyan

Results

Figure 1

28
 Kyan

Figure 2

29
 Kyan

Figure 3

Data Analysis

Figure 1 is an array of the nine different millisecond pulsars I chose for this

investigation. At the start of this project, nine binary pulsars with low magnetic field

strengths and millisecond pulses were chosen to understand the effects that low

frequency gravitational waves have on them. Firstly, the predicted times of arrival for each

pulsar must be calculated using the PsrSigSim software. After the pulsars have been

observed for over several years, the pulses can be compiled and stacked on top of

eachother to create what is known as a pulse profile. The nine pulse profiles correlate to

its millisecond pulsar. The timing of arrival is measured from the start of the wave to the

end of the wave. Each pulse peaks at its highest intensity and ranges from 2 to 8

milliseconds. Pulsars are diverse celestial objects. This is proven in the varieties of peaks

seen in the nine millisecond pulsars.

Figure 2 is the overall timing deviations of the low frequency gravitational wave on

the millisecond pulsar. As the gravitational wave passes through, the millisecond pulsar

30
 Kyan

experiences a small change in its wavelength. The color of each wave represents a

different pulsar. There are two graphs of the same relationship of residual and observation

time. The greater the peaks are, the larger the deviation in the time of arrival. Over a long

period of time the gravitational wave effects dissipate and the pulsar returns to its initial

pulse state. There are error bars for the pulsar at each time it is observed.

Through Tempo2 and its gravitational wave simulation commands, the pulses

appeared to have varying timing deviations. When the low frequency gravitational wave

was simulated, it had an individualized effect on the millisecond pulsars. Pulsar B0329+54

has a time of arrival that changed by 7.15 ns which may suggest that, since the light travels

at a longer wavelength, it was stretched out by the gravitational wave. The uncertainty of

each residual is by plus or minus one nanosecond. This number originates from the

Tempo2 gravitational wave simulation command and it is consistent for the nine

millisecond pulsars.

Overall Error Analysis

The pulsars had different variations in terms of their deviated time of arrival. The

gravitational wave passing through the pulsars should have closer timing deviations when

simulated. However, this doesn’t refute the overall hypothesis made at the beginning of

the investigation. It moreso shows how several pulsars can be used in a timing array to

look at correlated timing effects by the same gravitational wave.

A procedural change can be made by adding a step for different low frequency

gravitational waves. Under the time constraints, only one specific low frequency

gravitational wave could be tested.

31
 Kyan

Conclusion/Further Investigation

The pulsars make it possible to detect gravitational waves of small magnitudes.

They are almost like nature’s clocks as they spin at a rapid and regular rate of angular

velocity. The data shows that there were short deviations throughout the trials of the

simulated gravitational waves on the particular millisecond pulsars. After the estimated

pulse of the millisecond pulsars, the pre and post-fit residuals were taken to calculate the

following timing deviations. When the gravitational wave was passed through the pulsar

run by the software, the pulse period changed by an incredibly tiny amount measured in

nanoseconds. These results provide a nuanced approach to the study of gravitational

waves through computational astrophysics and computer science, as opposed to

observational and experimental astrophysics.

In further investigations, several more pulsars will be added to the subset to

strengthen the data set and add precision to the overall results. While nine pulsars were

chosen specifically for their low magnetic field strength and short pulse longitude, there

are other pulsars that can undergo the same procedures which will produce similar

results, but contribute to the hypothesis that gravitational waves will cause a short

disturbance to millisecond pulsars.

32
 Kyan

References

A Parthasarathy, R. M. Shannon, S Johnston, L Lentati, M Bailes, S Dai, M Kerr, R. N. Manchester,

S Oslowki, C Sobey (2019, August 30) Timing of young radio pulsars - I. Timing noise,
periodic modulation, and proper motion, Retrieved December 3, 2022, from
https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/489/3/3810/5556951

Boris Ya. Losovsky (May 2022) The specifics of pulsar radio emission, Retrieved February 21, 2023,
from https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/astro-2022-0025/html?lang=de

Caltech. (2022). Gravitational Waves | Institute of Physics. Gravitational Waves | Institute of

Physics . Retrieved December 4, 2022, from https://www.iop.org/gravitational-waves

ESA European Space Agency (2013), Retrieved from

https://sci.esa.int/web/integral/-/52867-an-ordinary-pulsar-evolving-into-a-millisecond-pul
sar

G. B. Hobbs, R. T. Edwards, R. N. Manchester (2006) Tempo2, a new pulsar-timing package,

Retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/369/2/655/3101501

G. B. Hobbs, J , M. Bailes, N. D. R. Bhat, S. Burke-Spolaor, D. J. Champion, W. Coles, A. Hotan, F.

Jenet, L. Kedziora-Chudczer, J. Khoo, K. J. Lee, A. Lommen, R. N. Manchester, J. Reynolds,
J. Sarkissian, W. van Straten, S. To, J. P. W. Verbiest, D. Yardley, and X. P. YouI (2008,
December 14) Gravitational-Wave Detection Using Pulsars: Status of the Parkes Pulsar
Timing Array Project, Retrieved from https://www.publish.csiro.au/as/pdf/AS08023

G. B. Hobbs, Shi Dai (2017, December 16) Gravitational wave research using pulsar timing arrays,
Retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/nsr/article/4/5/707/456653

Goncharov, B., Shannon, R. M., Reardon, D. J., Hobbs, G., Zic, A., Bailes, M., Curylo, M., Dai, S.,
Kerr, M., Lower, M. E., Manchester, R. N., Mandow, R., Middleton, H., Miles, M. T.,
Parthasarathy, A., Thrane, E., Thyagarajan, N., Xue, X., Zhu, X. J., … Zhang, S. (2021, August
11). On the evidence for a common-spectrum process in the search for the nanohertz
gravitational-wave background with the Parkes Pulsar Timing Array. arXiv.org. Retrieved
November 13, 2022, from https://arxiv.org/abs/2107.12112

Hobbs GB, Lyne AG, Kramer M. (2010). An analysis of the timing irregularities for 366 pulsars.
MNRAS. 402:1027–1048.10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15938.x

Jeffrey S. Hazboun, Brent Shapiro-Albert, Paul T. Baker, PsrSigSim Documentation (2020, October
15), from https://psrsigsim.readthedocs.io/_/downloads/en/latest/pdf/

Keane EF. 2010. Transient Radio Neutron Stars. Proceedings of high time resolution astrophysics.
May 2010. Crete Greece arXiv, 1008. 3693v1.10.22323/1.108.0015

Kerr, M., Reardon, D. J., Hobbs, G., Shannon, R. M., Manchester, R. N., Dai, S., Russell, C. J., Zhang,
S.-B., van Straten, W., Osłowski, S., Parthasarathy, A., Spiewak, R., Bailes, M., Bhat, N. D. R.,
Cameron, A. D., Coles, W. A., Dempsey, J., Deng, X., Goncharov, B., … Zhu, X. (2020, March
22). The Parkes Pulsar Timing Array Project: Second Data Release. arXiv.org. Retrieved
November 13, 2022, from https://arxiv.org/abs/2003.09780

Kulkarni, S. R. (n.d.). S.R.Kulkarni, 6 Jul 2020. Dispersion measure: Confusion, constants, and

33
 Kyan

clarity. Retrieved November 13, 2022, from https://arxiv.org/pdf/2007.02886.pdf

Lam, M. T., & Hazboun, J. S. (2021, April 21). Precision Timing of PSR J0437–4715 with the IAR
Observatory and Implications for Low-frequency Gravitational Wave Source Sensitivity.
The Astrophysical Journal. Retrieved November 13, 2022, from
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/abeb64

Liu, K. (2019, October 29). [PDF] LOFAR discovery of the fastest-spinning millisecond pulsar in the
Galactic Field by Cees Bassa Retrieved November 13, 2022, from
https://oa.mg/work/10.3847/2041-8213/aa8400

Lorimer, D.R. Binary and Millisecond Pulsars. Living Rev. Relativ. 8, 7 (2005).
https://doi.org/10.12942/lrr-2005-7

Maxim Lyutikov, Roger D. Blandford, George Machabeli (1999, May 2) On the nature of pulsar
radio emissions, Retrieved from
https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/305/2/338/1020666

Verbiest, J. P. W. (2009, November 12). Timing stability of millisecond pulsars and prospects for
gravitational-wave detection. Academic.oup.com. Retrieved November 13, 2022, from
https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/400/2/951/1018980#18037713

34