Reviewer for 3rd Monthly Test
( Day 1 )
English
< Multimedia Resources >
Multimedia is a broad term for combining multiple media
formats. Whenever text, audio, still images, animation, video
and interactivity are combined together, the result is
multimedia. Slides, for example, are multimedia as they
combine text and images, and sometimes video and other
types.
Multimedia is a form of communication that combines
different content forms such as text, audio, images,
animations, or video into a single presentation
Multimedia can be recorded for playback on computers,
laptops, smartphones, and other electronic devices, either on
demand or in real time (streaming).
Multimedia Formats
Texts and Graphics
1. Sildeshow or Presentation - A slide show is a
presentation of a series of still images on a projection
screen or electronic display device, typically in a
prearranged sequence. The changes may be automatic
and at regular intervals or they may be manually
controlled by a presenter or the viewer. Slide shows
originally consisted of a series of individual photographic
slides projected onto a screen with a slide projector.
2. Prezi - It engages the audience in a way which PowerPoint
presentations can rarely match. In the same way that even
great content on slides can be lost amid the 'death by
PowerPoint' despair of the viewer, even mediocre content on
Prezi can wow and audience and make them far more
interested in what you are actually saying! Prezi allows you to
choose from set themes (which dictate your colour scheme,
fonts and style) or to customize any theme to create your own.
3. Diagrams - A diagram type is a diagram with a specific shape
and methodology, relatively independent of any field of
application.
4. Infographics - Infographics (a clipped compound of
"information" and "graphics") are graphic visual
representations of information, data, or knowledge intended
to present information quickly and clearly. They can improve
cognition by utilizing graphics to enhance the human visual
system's ability to see patterns and trends.
Texts and Graphics
1. Podcast - A podcast is an episodic series of spoken word
digital audio files that a user can download to a personal
device for easy listening. Streaming applications and
podcasting services provide a convenient, integrated way
to manage a personal consumption queue across many
podcast sources and playback devices.
Video
1. Screen capture may refer to:
1.1. Screenshot, an image file which shows the content of a
computer's screen at the moment of shot.
1. 2 Screencast, also known as a video screen capture, a digital
recording of computer screen output, often containing audio
narration.
2. Lecture Capture - The lecture capture is the process of
recording classroom lectures as videos, and making them
available for students to review after the class. The term
“lecture capture” is actually quite broad and can be used to
describe a variety of solutions, software, and hardware.
3. Animation - Animation is a method in which figures are
manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional
animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on
transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited
on film. Today, most animations are made with computer-
generated imagery (CGI). Computer animation can be very
detailed 3D animation, while 2D computer animation can be
used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth or faster real-time
renderings.
Others
Blog
A blog is a discussion or informational website published on the
World Wide Web consisting of discrete, often informal diary-style
text entries (posts). Posts are typically displayed in reverse
chronological order, so that the most recent post appears first, at
the top of the web page. Until 2009, blogs were usually the work
of a single individual, [citation needed] occasionally of a small
group, and often covered a single subject or topic.
< Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication >
Communication is the act of sharing information from one
person to another person or group of people. There are many
different ways to communicate, each of which plays an
important role in sharing information.
Verbal Communication
It is the use of language to transfer information through
speaking or writing.
It is one of the most common types, often used during
presentations, video conferences and phone calls,
meetings, and one-on-one conversations.
How are you going to develop your verbal communication
skills?
Use a strong, confident speaking voice.
Use active listening.
Avoid fillers.
 Types of Verbal Communication
1. Written Communication
Written communication is the act of writing, typing, or
printing symbols like letters and numbers to convey
information. It is helpful because it provides a record of
information for reference. Writing is commonly used to share
information through books, pamphlets, blogs, letters,
memos, and more.
How are you going to develop your written communication
skills?
Strive for simplicity.
Don’t rely on tone.
Take time to review your written communication.
Keep a file of writing you find effective or enjoyable.
2. Oral Communication Communication that happens
through word of mouth, spoken words, conversations, and
also any messages or information that is shared or
exchanged between one another through speech or word
of mouth is called oral communication.
Non-Verbal Communication
It is the use of body language, gestures, and facial
expressions to convey information to others.
It can be used both intentionally and unintentionally.
Non-verbal communication is helpful when trying to
understand others’ thoughts and feelings.
How are you going to develop your nonverbal
communication skills?
Notice how your emotions feels physically.
Be intentional about your nonverbal communication.
Mimic non-verbal communication you find effective.
Music
< Music of Mindanao >
Mindanao is one of the largest islands in the Philippines.
Mindanao is home to almost about 26 million Filipinos.
Mindanao’s ethnic music is based on two musical and
cultural traditions namely, the Islamic and non-Islamic
ethnic cultures.
Sua-sua is a popular song and dance performance in
Jolo.
Muslim groups play music using drums as they dance to
celebrate weddings.
Tud-ob is a song consists of four notes and sang to
accompany their ritual dance.
Islamic Music (Vocal Music of Muslim Mindanao)
Types of Vocal Music of Mindanao:
Music for Religious Activities
Music for Entertainment
Chanting
Making melodic sounds using only the voice.
Folk epics that uses chanting are the Darangen of the
Maranao and the Rajah Indarapatra.
Tarawe is chanted during the Ramadan or the
Salathuljuma or Friday Prayer chant.
Examples of Chants:
1. Miminsad is a dance song that is also chanted as
people walk before the altar.
2. Darangen is an epic song, which includes a wealth of
knowledge about the Maranao.
3. Ulaging is the most important type of vocal music. It
recalls the adventure of the main hero Agyu and his
siblings.
< INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC OF MUSLIM MINDANAO >
Ethnic People in Mindanao
People of the current –Tausugs
People of the lake –Maranaos
Indigenous people of the South Cotabato –T’boli
People of the food plain –Maguindanao
What are the Instrumental Music of Muslim Mindanao?
Kulintang is a modern term for an instrumental form of
music.
Kulintang music ensembles have been played for
centuries in regions of; 
- Southern Philippines 
- Eastern Indonesia 
- Eastern Malaysia 
- Brunei 
- Timor
Kulintang is also considered a woman’s instrument.
It is associated with graceful, slow, frail, and relaxed
movements that showed elegance and decorum
common among females.
Gandingan is a set of four large hanging gongs which is
played as part of the kulintang ensemble of
Maguindanao.
Agung is one or two suspended gong/s.
Dabakan is a single-headed Philippine drum that looks
like a goblet used by the Maranaos
Babandil is a single, narrow-rimmed Philippine gong
used as the timekeeper of the Maguindanao kulintang
ensemble.
 Bamboo Musical Instrument of Mindanao
Kubing is held horizontally with the bamboo tongue in
front of the opened mouth.
It can be played in solo or in an ensemble.
Suling is also called the ring flute. It is the smallest
bamboo flute of Maguindanao.
The sound is produced when the air passes through the
bottom hole which the pitch is controlled through the
five finger holes at the top and one finger hole located
at the bottom.
Aerophone
Palendag is a lip-valley flute and one of the most
common aerophones of the Maguindanaons.
Kagul is a Maguindanao bamboo scraper gong or slit
drum with a jagged edge on one side.
Other Musical Instruments Used by some Tribes of Mindanao
Kulintangan Ensemble (Tausug Tribe) 
-> Gadding – drums 
-> Tungallan – large gongs 
-> Duwahan – set of two paired gongs
ART
< Arts and Crafts of Mindanao >
Mindanao has been described as the “Land of
Promise”.
It is the hometown of the 16th President of the
Philippines.
Local and international tourists who visited the regions
of Mindanao are now introduced to the colorful arts of
the Mindanaoans.
Mindanao's Attires, Arts and Tapestries
Mindanao has the largest ethnolinguistic groups and
culturally-diverse island.
The pioneer inhabitants, the Moro and the Lumad
strongly retain the influence of the Malayo-Polynesian
arts and culture.
Animism is an indigeneous belief system.
A belief that objects, places and creatures all possess
a distinct spiritual essence.
They believed in a supernatural force that governs and
animates the physical world.
The Tradition Clothing B'laam
The B’laan is an ethnolinguistic group that inhabits
some parts of South Cotabato, North Cotabato and
Davao del Sur.
It is a combination of two words, “bila”, which means
house and “an”, which means people.
They are known for embroidery, brass ornaments and
beadwork that are integrated in their traditional
clothing.
B’laan blouse for women embellished with mother-of
pearls cut into small shapes forming the geometric
pattern or design.
The B’laans, like the Bagobos and the T’bolis, weave
highlypolished abaca textiles using the ikat process.
Ikat is a process of dyeing the fabric where the yarns are
tightly wrapped with strings and dyed before weaving.
The textiles usually contain three colors – shades of black
or brown, red or ochre (darker shade of orange), and
ecru (the color of undyed abaca).
Blankets are considered as an important part of the
bride’s dowry
The Traditional Clothing of the Bogobo and the T'Boli
The Bagobos are a group of people that live in Davao.
- “bago” (new) and “obo” (growth)
T’nalak is a traditional cloth found in Mindanao Island
made by a group of people in Lake Sebu, South
Cotabato called T’bolis.
This traditional cloth is hand-woven made of Abaca
fibers (Manila hemp) which traditionally have three
primary colors: red, black and the original color of the
Abaca leaves.
The making of T’nalak is a skill that young T’boli women
learn through their mothers, grandmothers and even
sisters.
Making the T’nalak is a tedious process taking up to
several months to finish, depending on the length and
intricacy of the pattern.
The men wear T’nalak shorts, an undershirt, and a T’nalak
coat.
The women wear wrap-around t’nalak skirts and blouses.
Similar to the Bagobos, they regard the T’nalak as
sacred. Traditional weddings rituals involve the exchange
of this textile. During births, it is used as a cover.
The weavers believe that their gods and ancestors visit
them in their dreams to teach them the designs and
patterns that they have to weave.
Lang Dulay is the most famous T’boli weaver who
received the National Living Treasures – Gawad
Manlilikha ng Bayan (GAMABA) award by the National
Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCAA) in 1998.
The Tradition Clothing of Maranao
Maranao means “People of the lake”.
The Maranaos are known for their malong.
Malong is a traditional “tube-skirt” made of hand-woven
or machine-made multi-colored cotton, bearing a
variety geometric or okir designs.
The malong is similar to the sarong worn by the peoples
of Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia.
Basilan is the home of the Yakans
Yakan weaving uses bright, bold and often contrasting
colors in big symmetrical patterns.
 The seputangan is a square cloth used by the Yakan
women as a head cover or as belt.
The badjulapi is a tight blouse, long sleeves. It is
ornamented with gold, silver or bronze buttons.
The sawal is the traditional tight-fitting trousers made
of Yakan fabric characterized by its vertical stripes.
The pinalantupan, a type of skirt, is layered over the
trousers.
The Mandaya’s existence can be found in the province of
Davao Oriental, Davao Del Norte, Compostela Valley, Tago
town of Surigao del Sur and Southern part of Agusan del
Sur.
Dagmay is the traditional weaving of abaca fibers of
the Mandaya women.
It has intricate designs revolving around man crocodile.
Each design of the cloth carries a certain story.
It is one of the most popular material cultures. Its
muddyeing technique is believed to be the only one
existing in the Philippines.
The Dagmay has been worn as women’s skirts but it is
also used as blankets to wrap their dead. They also
wear dagum or cotton blouses. These cotton blouses
are decorated with geometric and animal designs and
usually in red, black and blue colors.
P.E.
< Fundamental Dance Steps of Folk Dancing >
What is Dance?
A form of expression of oneself through rhythmic
movement.
It is often performed for social, ritual, entertainment or
other purposes.
According to Richard Krauss, dance is an art performed
by individuals or group of human being, existing in time,
space, force, and flow in which the human body is the
instrument and movement is the medium.
What is Folk Dance?
Oldest form of dance and the earliest form of
communication
Usually performed by a group consisting of members of
a community.
Traditional dance of a given country which evolved
naturally and spontaneously with everyday activities.
(e.g occupations, customs, festivals, rituals
Five Fundamental Position of the Arms
First Position
• Raise arms forward forming a circle in front of the chest
with finger tips of each hand are close to each other.
Second Position
• Raise arms sideways and hands at the level of the dancer’s
belly button.
Third Position
• Remain one arm in second position and raise the other arm
in a half circle above and in front of the head.
Fourth Position
• Remain one arm in half circle above and in front of the
head while the other arm is carried to a half circle in front of
the chest.
Fifth Position
• Raise both arms to form a circle and having the arms close,
above the head.
Five Fundamental Position of the Feet
First Position
• Heels together, turn R and L toes outward. Place the
weight of the body on the balls of the feet.
Second Position
• Slide one foot sideward until the feet are shoulder width
apart diagonally outward without moving the other foot.
Third Position
• Place heel of one foot to the instep of the other foot while
keeping the toes facing outward.
Fourth Position
• Step one foot forward as far as it will go without bending
the knees.
Fifth Position
• Slide one foot back to make a contact with the heel of the
back foot.
Health
< Mental Health >
Health
Health is defined as a state of complete physical,
mental, and social well being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity.
The state of being free from illness or injury
Mental Health
The psychological well-being of a person.
How a person thinks, feels, and acts to cope with life.
State of well-being in which the individual realizes his or
her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of
life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to
make a contribution to his or her community.
What is Stress?
Response of your body and mind to unpleasant or
challenging events in life.
Being tensed, uncomfortable, or worried about
something can cause stress.
 Eustress and Distress Science
< Earth and Space >
Positive Stress also known as eustress, promotes growth
and accomplishments. Theories of Earth's Origin
It motivates you to continue working. 1. Binary Star Hypothesis
Negative stress or distress is when stress affects your 2. Divine Creation Theory
mental health and physical health. 3. Nebular Hypothesis
What are the Common Areas of Stressors that Affect Earth's Composition
Adolescents?
70.8% - Water
Stressor is anything that causes stress. 29.2% - Land
It can be internal or external brought by outside or
environmental conditions or events. The deepest point in Earth’s ocean can be found at
Any source of stress is considered stressor since it Challenger’s deep in the Mariana Trench. 10.994 km deep.
causes the release of cortisol, the primary stress
hormone. < Earth's Lithosphere >
Lithosphere
< Stress >
The lithosphere (geosphere) is the “solid” outer part of
Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes
the Earth. 
physical, emotional, or psychological strain. Stress is your
The name 'lithosphere' comes from the Greek words
body's response to anything that requires attention or
lithos, meaning 'rocky' and sphaeros, meaning 'sphere.'
action. Everyone experiences stress to some degree. The
It has two parts: 
way you respond to stress, however, makes a big difference
> the crust 
to your overall well-being.
> upper mantle
Healthy Ways to Cope with Stress
Crust
1. Exercise and eat healthy. 
Earth’s outermost layer. 
- If you are physically fit and heathy, you can also think
It varies from 5 to 100 kilometers in thickness that
properly.
includes rocks, minerals and soil. 
2. Think positive  The crust is constantly moving, that is why continents
- You have to learn to see the positive side of even a move and earthquake happen.
negative situation. For example, if you failed in an TWO kinds of CRUST: 
examination, this can be a good motivation for you to study > Continental 
harder in order not to fail gain. > Oceanic
3. Keep your mind active and learn new things. 
Continental Crust
- Train and prepare for conditions causing stress, if
speaking in crowd makes you nervous, take speech class. Less dense, with lighter colored rock, that varies from 30
to 70 kilometers thick. It is older and thicker than the
4. Be sociable. 
oceanic crust.
- Have a group of encouraging friends. They can help you
cope with stress positively. Learn to express your feelings in Oceanic Crust
respectful, definite, and non- aggressive approach like “ A thin layer of dense rock about 5 kilometers thick and
Shouting at me makes me angry, please stop shouting” exist in the ocean basin.
5.Develop useful coping abilities. 
Mantle
- If you know that you will be stressed in doing a task, think
of ways to make it less stressful. An example is solving large layer below the crust 
tasks by splitting it into smaller, more attainable and largest layer of the Earth divided into two regions: the
managebale tasks. upper and lower mantle.
6. Set attainable and reasonable goals.  < Plate Tectonics >
- Aim high within your resources and capacity. Do not set
Tectonics
goals that you know can’t achieve to avoid stress. If you do,
you get pressurred to attain those goals, making you more From the Greek word “Tekton” meaning “carpenter” or
stressed. Be satisfied in having a competent or “good “builder”
enough” accomplishments instead of tryimg to be always Tectonic plates – are massive, irregular slabs of rock
perfect. 7. Take time out form stressful conditions. Do that envelope the surface of the earth.
relaxing activities like unwiding with friends and family or
listening to music.
 Origin of Continents and Oceans
Earth Shrinking Theory
Also known as the raisin theory
According to this theory, Earth is like a grape that
contracted into a raisin due to cooling process that
occurred on Earth after the Big Bang about 13.77 billion
years ago.
Plate Tectonic Theory
The theory of tectonic plates states that Earth’s outermost
layer is fragmented into a dozen or more large and small
solid plates or slabs called lithospheric plates or tectonic
plates, which are constantly in motion relative to one
another as they ride atop hotter, more mobile material
known as asthenosphere.
The Plate Tectonics Theory was developed from earlier
hypothesis and data collected about the rocks of the
ocean floor.
Continental Drift Theory
Alfred Wegener suggested that just before the days of the
dinosaurs. The Earth’s continents were all connected into
one huge landmass called PANGAEA. This huge
supercontinent was surrounded by one gigantic ocean
called PANTHALASSA.
About 200 million years ago, Pangaea broke into two new
continents Laurasia and Gondwanaland. 
The supercontinent called GONDWANALAND had been
formed in the southern hemisphere. 
In the Northern hemisphere, land masses gradually joined
together to form supercontinent called LAURASIA.
Pieces of Evidence Supporting the Continental Drift Theory
Paleontological Evidence
Wegener noticed that fossils of late Paleozoic age found
on several different continents were quite similar. This
suggest that they evolve together on a single, large
landmass. He was intrigued by the occurrences of plant
and animal fossils found on the matching coastlines of
SOUTH AMERICA and AFRICA, which are now widely
separated by ATLANTIC OCEAN.
Aside from fossils, there were also coal deposits found in
Antarctica. Coal is formed from organic matter such as
dead animals and plants. There is no way the fossils found
in Antarctica could have lived in such cold weather. This
only shows that Antarctica used to be inhabited by a lot of
organisms and was once closer to the equator because
that is the place where plants and animals are abundant.
Fossils of the Paleozoic Reptile MESOSAURUS Found in
South America and Africa
Evidence from Glaciation
Another evidence supporting the moving continents was
the glacial till deposits in the Southern Hemisphere.
Considering the present positions of the continents, the till
deposits indicate erratic glacier motion, but when they
were fitted together like a jigsaw puzzle, continents reveal
a much more streamlined motion, of the glacier from
Southern Africa and Northern Australia outward.
This hypothesis gained credibility when scientist discover
great coal deposits in Antarctica that could prove that
fauna and flora have abundantly dominated the now iced
part of the planet.
Evidence from Structure and Rock Type
Along with the development of reliable world maps in
the early 20th century, geographers noticed that the
coastline of several of the present- day continents
would perfectly fit together, particularly Africa and
South America. They also noticed the presence of
various geologic features which sharply terminate at
the Coast of one continent and appear on the facing
continents across the Atlantic. Some good examples
for this are the folded mountains of South Africa,
which appear to be a continuation of the range north
of Buenos Aires, Argentina.
The Rift Valley of Africa are also good evidences for
the breakup of Pangaea. Based on the map of the
valley, several deep lakes are present in the rift valleys.
Saudi Arabia, located in the Arabian Plate, has rifted
from the African plate, forming a valley which has
been flooded by the Red Sea. The two plates meet in
a “triple junction” where the Red Sea meets the Gulf
of Aden, forming the Afar Triangle. It has been
observed that a new spreading center appears to be
developing along the East African Rift Valley, a
movement possibly depicts the drifting of continents
some million years ago.
Evidence from Paleoclimates
Paleoclimatology is the study of the extended climatic
conditions of past geologic ages. To provide the
apparent shifting of climatic belts over time, Wegener
reconstructed old climatic zones. He used the
distribution of specific rock types to determine the
distribution of climates in ancient times. For instance,
glacial till and striations indicate polar climate near
the North and South Poles while sand dunes and coral
reefs represent desert and tropical climates,
respectively. Moreover, scientist discovered great coal
deposits in Antarctica that could prove that fauna and
flora have abundantly dominated the now iced part of
the planet. Paleomagnetism is the study of ancient
magnetic fields.
Primary Plates: Secondary Plates:
African Arabian Plate
Eurasian Caribean Plate
Indo-Australian Cocos Plate
North American Indian Plate
Pacific Juan de Duca Plate
South American Philippine Sea Plate
Scotia Plate
Nazca Plate
< Plate Boundaries >
Seafloor Spreading Theory
According to this theory, the seafloor was created as mid –
ocean ridges, spreading in both directions from the ridge
system. 
The seafloor spreading theory was first proposed by an
American geologist, professor and military officer
HARRY HESS in the 1960s. 
The term seafloor spreading was first coined by
ROBERT S. DIETZ
Different Plate Boundaries
At present, it is clear that all tectonic plates constantly
move around the planet. 
The border between two tectonic plates is called
BOUNDARY. 
The movement of plates varies, some are moving
toward each other, some are moving apart, while some
are simply sliding past each other.
Three types of plate boundary
1.Convergent Boundary
Also called destructive plate boundary
It occurs where two plates are pushing toward each
other.
Types of Convergent Boundaries
1. Oceanic - Oceanic Convergence - occurs when two
oceanic plates meet and one oceanic plate is pushed
underneath the other. (Island arc)
2. Oceanic - Continental Convergence - occurs when an
oceanic plate pushes into and moves underneath a
continental plate. The continental plate that overrides the
oceanic plate lifts up to create volcano.
3. Continental - Continental Convergence -occurs when
two continents meet head on. The result of convergence is
the formation of tall mountain ranges. The HIMALAYAS,
known as Earth’s highest mountain belt, is an example of a
zone of mountains that rose when India collided with the
Eurasian continent.
2. Divergent Boundary
Is a zone where two lithospheric plates move apart
from each other.
Also known as constructive boundary
mid- ocean ridges and rift valley
3. Transform Fault Boundary
zone between two plates that slide horizontally past
one another. Unlike the two boundary types, transform
boundary neither creates nor destroy a crust. 
It is also called conservative boundary 
The San Andreas fault in California is a transform fault that
connects two diverging boundaries, namely, the East Pacific
Rise along the Pacific Ocean and South Gorda in Florida.
< Internal Structure of Earth >
Crust
Outermost layer
Thinnest layer almost about 1% of Earth
Most common elements: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg
Most earthquake occurs in the crust
The MOHOROVICIC Discontinuity separates the crust
from the mantle.
Mantle
The mantle is the layer below the crust.
The mantle is the largest layer of the Earth that is
composed of iron, aluminum, calcium, magnesium,
silicon and oxygen.
The mantle is divided into two regions: the upper and
lower sections.
Upper Mantle
A highly viscous layer which lies between the crust
and the lower mantle.
Rocks are cooler and brittle enough to break under
stress.
They can generate earthquakes.
Lower Mantle
Extend from just under the upper mantle to 2200 km.
Rocks are hot and soft. When subjected to force, they
do not break, instead they just flow along their region.
Core
Last and the innermost layer which is separated into
the liquid outer core and the solid inner core.
Mostly composed of Nickel and Iron
Outer Core
The core of the Earth is like a ball of very hot metals.
The outer core is liquid.
The outer core is made up of iron and is very dense.
Inner Core
The inner core of the Earth has temperatures and
pressures so great that the metals are squeezed
together and are not able to move.
The inner core is a solid.
It is a very important region as the intense heat
reflected from it mobilizes the materials of the outer
core and the mantle.
< Earthquakes and Faults >
How earthquakes are generated?
CRUST – outermost solid portion of Earth that houses
all living things. It is characterized by various land
features like volcanoes, islands, continents, and
mountains.
 LITHOSPHERE
– region that carries the entire crust and extends down
to the upper portion of the asthenosphere.
- have segments called tectonic plates or lithospheric
plates
- a singular collection of all lithospheric plates
- In terms of properties and composition, lithosphere is
“elastic solid” such that, similar to the rocks of Earth’s
crust, the rocks here are elastic but brittle that they
deform or fracture as they receive and store stress due
to force rendered by the movement of rocks in the
asthenosphere below it.
ASTHENOSPHERE
– upper mantle
- from the Greek word asthenes meaning “weak” and
sphere, lies beneath the lithosphere
- it is about 100-650 km deep and is considered “plastic
solid”
- the rocks in the asthenosphere are partially molten
due to high pressure and temperature where they are
exposed.
How earthquakes are generated?
Scientist believe that this extremely slow movement or
tectonic force enable lithospheric plates to collide
(caused by compressional force), separate (caused by
tensional force), or slide past each other (caused by
shearing force).
As lithospheric plates and the crust move overtime,
their rocks interlock and deform, which cause stress
and friction to build up. When the amount of stress and
friction exceeds the strain threshold of rocks, they
fracture, and the accumulated energy stored in it is
release causing tremors – a phenomenon commonly
called an EARTHQUAKE. 
EARTHQUAKE – sudden shaking of the ground, it occurs
due to the sudden burst of energy accumulated from
the fracturing of interlocking rocks in the crust or
lithospheric plates.
The Pacific Ring of Fire
Over a thousand earthquakes occur around the world
daily. 
Based on geological records, most of these
earthquakes are relatively weak and less likely to be
experienced by people. However, there are some areas
where earthquakes are felt more often. 
These places are located in what is called
EARTHQUAKE BELTS where earthquakes are more
destructive.
The Pacific Ring of Fire is known for its very active
tectonic plate activities, which consequently result in
active earthquake activities. Nearly 90% of the world’s
earthquakes and more than 80% of the strongest once
occur here. In addition,
75% of the world’s dormant and active volcanoes are also
found in the Pacific Ring of Fire.
Faults
Are fractures or breaks in Earth’s crust 
On the surface, it appear as cracks 
On a larger scale, the edges of continental and
oceanic crust are considered faults, as well as the
boundaries of lithospheric plates. 
Devastating earthquakes which originate from the
fracturing of rocks in the crust or lithosphere may
result in the formation of faults.
FAULTING occurs when there is a movement or
displacement of rock masses along a fault. It is a
result of tectonic forces applied to rock masses in the
crust.
Types of Tectonic Force
1. COMPRESSIONAL FORCE - which pushes rocks in
the crust to each other.
2. TENSIONAL FORCE - which pulls crustal rocks away
from each other.
3. SHEARING FORCE - that enables rocks in the crust to
slide past each other.
Types of Faults
Reverse Fault
- formed when a rock mass in the crust is pushed up
relative to the other rock mass due to compressional
force.
- the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall as a
result of compression
- also called thrust fault
- Example: Sumatra earthquake fault in 2004
Normal Fault
- when a tensional force acts on rocks in the crust, one
rock mass moves downward relative to the other forming
a normal fault.
- fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to
the footwall as a result of extension
- These are the most common faults
- Example: Cabrillo Fault
Transform Fault
- produced when a rock mass on one side of a fault slides
past the other.
- fault in which two blocks of crust slide past each other
on the same plane. The motion experienced is right or left
lateral instead of up and down
- San Andreas Fault in USA is one of the most famous
transform faults in the world.
Active Faults
- Faults in which all shallow earthquakes occur.
- These faults are believed to have exhibited evidence of
strong and frequent earthquakes in the past thousands of
years, and are likely to exhibit movements sometimes in the
future.
- Active faults are mostly common in plate boundaries
where plates bump into or move away from each other.
Inactive Faults
- Are areas which have not displayed any seismic activity
for more than thousands of years.
- However, due the complexity of earthquake activity, these
faults may trigger bigger quakes, which were already
studied and proven by seismologist.
- Consider what happened to a fault in Sierra Nevada,
USA, which was believed to have been inactive for over
three million years. It turned out that the said fault was
capable of producing strong earthquakes.
Types of Earthquake
Tectonic Earthquake
- Most common type
- Happens when the shifting of Earth’s plate are driven by
the sudden release of energy within some limited region of
the rocks of Earth.
Volanic Earthquake
- Occurs in volcanic regions and can serve as an early
warning of volcanic eruption
Collapse Earthquake
- Are small earthquake located underground and in mines
that are caused by the disintegration of the roof of the
mine or cavern or by massive land sliding.
Explosion Earthquake
- Results from detonation of chemicals or nuclear devices
Parts of an Earthquake
Hypocenter (focus)
- The point within the Earth along the geological faults
where the earthquake originates.
- Underground point where the fracturing of rocks occurs.
Epicenter
- The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
- It is where the sudden movement of the ground is felt
and where the most severe damage by an earthquake is
sustained
How the Earthquakes are Measured
Magnitude
- Pertains to the strength and the size of an earthquake.
- It is a measure of the amount of energy released by an
earthquake at the epicenter using mathematical formulas
and information from seismograms - the writings produced
by an instrument that detects earthquakes.
- Measured by the open-ended RICHTER SCALE developed
by CHARLES RICHTER, an American seismologist in 1935.
- The scale is open-ended because it has no upper and
lower limits. Shallow or little earthquakes can be expressed
in negative numbers, and the stronger ones are
expressed even beyond the highest number in the scale.
Intensity
- Measures the observed effects of an earthquake on
people effects of an earthquake on people, geologic
structures, and man-made structures.
- It varies from one location to another.
- The severity of disaster rendered by an earthquake on
certain location depends on the design and kind of the
construction materials that were used and the type of
ground or soil edifice where infrastructures are built.
- Used scale is the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale,
which classifies earthquake effects into twelve grade. This
scale has already undergone several modifications.
GUISEPPE MERCALLI, an Italian seismologist, compiled the
original scale in 1902.
Earthquakes pose great danger and destruction because they
do not happen at once. Oftentimes, they are felt in series.
Foreshocks are small earthquakes that commonly precede a
major earthquake. Foreshock activities contribute to about 40%
of all moderate to large earthquakes and up to 70% for events
lesser than magnitude 7. Foreshock can be felt from few minutes
to days or even years prior the main shock. One good example
for this is the Sumatra earthquake in 2002.
After the major earthquake, smaller earthquakes called
aftershocks occur. These tremors are felt in the same region of
the main rock. They are formed as the crust adjusts to the
effects of the main shock. They are dangerous as they can
trigger the collapse of infrastructure.
Unlike volcanic eruptions, earthquakes cannot be accurately
predicted. As such, its impact is largely felt in the affected
areas.
How Underwater Earthquakes Generate Tsunamis
Tsunami
- a series of huge waves caused by an earthquake that
occurs underneath or near the ocean.
- It is a Japanese term that means “harbour waves”.
- It can also be generated by underwater volcanic
eruptions and landslides and rarely by the impact of an
asteroid or a meteoroid crashing into the ocean from outer
space.
- It can occur any time, day or night, and they can cause
widespread destruction, deaths, and injuries when they
strike coastal areas. - For an underwater earthquake to
cause tsunamis, its magnitude should be over 6.75 on the
Richter scale.
Predicting Earthquakes
The seismic energy released from the rocks in the focus of
an earthquake is referred to as seismic waves. SEISMIC
WAVES are released outward from the focus and travel
horizontally and vertically in different directions.
 4 Types of Seismic Waves
P-waves
- Also called primary wave, are the first to be recorded by
a seismograph because they are high frequency seismic
waves.
- They travel in all types of medium: solid, liquid, and gas.
- They are compressional waves that affect rock masses by
moving them back and forth (parallel) or by alternate
compression and decompression.
- Caused relatively small displacements of the ground
since the direction of its propagation is angled mostly
within Earth’s interior.
S-waves
- Also called secondary waves are shear waves of high
frequency and the second to be detected by a
seismograph.
- The travel only in solid medium.
- When S-waves passed through the ground, rock masses
move perpendicular to the direction of the waves.
- S-waves produce the most damage to buildings and
highways fences while walls are also displaced sideways.
- It also travel within Earth’s interior
L-waves
- Also called Love waves (named after Augustus Edward
Hough Love, a mathematician who made the model of this
wave) are seismic waves of low frequency.
- It is the third to be recorded by seismograph.
- They have long wavelengths and travel on the ground
horizontally, causing it to twist from side-to-side but at
right angles of their propagation, and have the greatest
amplitude.
- Thus, L-waves, like S-waves, cause the worst damage to
building and roads during an earthquake.
R-waves
- Also called Rayleigh waves (predicted by John William
Strutt and 3 rd Baron Rayleigh) travel the slowest among
seismic waves.
- These waves exist at any free surface in a continuous
body; they can be generated by large earthquakes moving
the ground up and down and side-to-side or in a rolling
motion.
- These waves are dispersive, propagating circularly along
surfaces from a source point (from Earth’s surface) and the
amplitude generally decreases with depth in the Earth.
Detecting Earthquakes
Seismograph
- It is used to detect, measure, and record seismic waves
generated by earthquakes.
- The instrument produces a SEISMOGRAM, a visual record
of the severity of earthquake from the focus to the
epicenter.
- SEISMOLOGIST can tell the location of the epicenter by
measuring the time lag between the arrival of the P and S
waves.
- P waves arrive first at the seismograph station because
they travel faster than Swaves.
- The farther the seismograph station from the epicenter,
the longer it takes for the seismic waves to arrive.
- The farther the seismograph station is, the greater the
difference between the arrival of the P- and Swaves
becomes.
- A circle is drawn around each of the three stations. The
radius between the station and the edge of the circle is the
distance of the station from the earthquake location. The
epicenter of the earthquake is the point where the three
circles intersect. This process is called TRIANGULATION.
Business Mathematics
< Cost of Goods Sold >
Finding the Cost of Goods Sold
To determine the cost of goods sold over a period of time,
one could go over the sales slips or make an inventory of
what is left. The cost of goods sold is obtained by
subtracting the cost of goods left from the cost of goods
purchased. That is,
Cost of goods sold = Purchases – Ending Inventory
Example 1:
A retailer purchased 70 reams of typewriting paper for
₱9,730. At the end of the week, he found that there are still
13 reams left, the cost of which was ₱1,807. Find the cost of
goods sold.
Solution:
Given: Purchases = ₱9,730
Ending Inventory = ₱1,807
Thus,
Cost of goods sold = ₱9,730 - ₱1,807
= ₱7,923
When there is an inventory at the beginning of a period, this
must be also taken into account when determining the cost
of goods sold. The value of the merchandise that the
retailer had for sale during the period is the sum of the cost
of inventory at the beginning of the period and the cost of
purchases made. The cost of goods sold is the value of
merchandise less the ending inventory.
Cost of goods sold = Beginning Inventory + Purchases – Ending
Inventory
Example 2: Example 4:

On March 1, the stock of C and L Hardware Store was Arturo Caras bought plumbing supplies costing ₱85,000 less
recorded at ₱76,327. Goods bought during the month of 15%. He sold all the supplies for ₱155,000. He spent ₱ 18,500
amounted to ₱21,584 and on March 31, the inventory was for the rent, ₱ 22,000 for wages his workers, and ₱4,000 for
₱45,611. Find the cost of goods sold. other expenses. Find the net profit.

Solution: Solution:
Given: Beginning Inventory = ₱76,327 Given: Cost of good sold = ₱85,000
Purchases = ₱21,584 Operating expenses = ₱ 18,500, ₱ 22,000 and
Ending Inventory = ₱45,611 ₱4,000
Hence, Discount = 15%
Cost of goods sold = ₱ 76,327 + ₱ 21,584 - ₱ 45,611
= ₱52,300 Cost of good sold = ₱85,000 – (₱85,000 x 0.15)
= ₱85,000 - ₱12,750
To determine the gross profit earned, subtract the cost of
= ₱72,250
goods sold during the period from the net sales for that
period.
Gross Profit = Net Sales – Cost Operating expenses = ₱ 18,500 + ₱ 22,000 + ₱4,000
= ₱44,500
Example 3:

Net Profit = ₱155,000 - ₱72,250 - ₱44,500

On January 1, the merchandise inventory of the Ga nd H
= ₱38,250
Hardware Store was ₱153,217. For the next three months,
the store’s sales reached ₱120,719; and its purchases Finding the percent of gross and net profit based on sales
amounted to ₱76,853. The inventory in March 31 was Merchants generally express gross and net profits or loss as
₱184,625. Find the gross profit for the three months. percent of the net sales rather than the cost. One reason for
doing this is that merchants can readily see from the sales
Solution: records what his sales have been for a certain period of time.
Given: Beginning Inventory = ₱153,217
Example 5:
Sales = ₱120, 719
Purchases - ₱76,853
In December, Ken and Marlyn sold ₱78,635 worth of goods
Ending Inventory = ₱184,625
that cost them ₱36,769. What was the percent of net profit,
based on sales, if the cost of doing the business that month
Cost of goods sold = ₱153,217 + ₱76,853 - ₱184,625
was ₱12,574?
= ₱45,445

Gross Profit = Sales – Cost of Goods Sold

= ₱120, 719 - ₱45,445
= ₱75,274
Operating Expenses or Overhead
Expenses such as rent, electricity, insurance, salaries,
taxes, advertising, delivery expenses and depreciation of
equipment.
Gross Profit
Difference between Net sales and the cost of goods sold .
Gross Profit = Net Sales - cost of goods sold < Profit and Overhead >
Net Profit Profit and Overhead Given as Percent of Net Sales
Total Operating Expense is less than the gross profit. Most business estimate their profit and overhead as percent
Net Profit = Gross Profit – Total Operating Expenses of the net sales. The net profit on a single item can be
Net Loss determined after the estimated share of the overhead is
Net Loss = Total Operating Expenses – Gross Profit deducted the gross profit on the item.
 Example 1:

A director’s chair was bought for ₱2,450, with successive

discounts of 25% and 10%. It was sold for ₱3,500, less 15%. If
the cost of doing business is 18% of net sales, what net profit
is realized?

Solution:
Given: cost = ₱2,450, less 25% and 10%
sales = ₱3,500, less 15%
overhead = 18% of net sales

Required: Net Profit

The single discount equivalent to the two successive

discounts is
(25% + 10%) – (25%)(10%) = 35% - 2.5% = 32.5%
Discount = ₱2,450 (0.325)
= ₱796.25
Net Cost = ₱2,450 - ₱796.25
= ₱1,653.75
Net Sales = ₱3,500 - ₱3,500(0.15)
= ₱3,500 - ₱525
= ₱2,975
Gross Profit = ₱2,975 - ₱1,653.75
= ₱1,321.25
Overhead = ₱2,975 (0.18)
= ₱535.50
Net Profit = ₱1,321.25 - ₱535.50
= ₱785.75
Percent of Profit or Loss Based on Cost
The percent of profit or loss based on the cost of goods, is
the ratio of the gross profit to the cost of goods. In case of
loss, the amount of gross loss is subtracted from the total
cost.
Example 1:

A washing machine is bought ₱6,850, less 20% with buying

expenses amounting to ₱180. If it is sold for ₱8,250, find the
percent of gross profit based on net cost.

Solution:
Cost of washing machine = ₱6,850 – (₱6,850 – 0.20)
= ₱6,850 - ₱1,370
= ₱5,480
Total Cost = ₱5,480 + ₱180
= ₱5,660

Goodluckk!!