MODULE 2

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES (MELCs)

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. recognize the formulas of common chemical substances;
2. represent compounds using chemical formulas;
3. name compounds given their formula and write formula given the name of the
compound;
4. write the formula of molecular compounds formed by the nonmetallic elements of
the representative block;
5. write and balance chemical equation.
Specific Learning Objectives:

After this lesson, students will be able to:

1. differentiate between elements and compounds;

2. name compounds given their formula and write formula given the name of the
compound;
3. give the similarities and differences between the empirical formula and the molecular
formula of a compound;
4. write equations for chemical reactions and balance the equations;
5. interpret the meaning of a balanced chemical reaction in terms of the law of
conservation of mass;
6. describe evidences that a chemical reaction has occurred;
7. perform exercise on writing and balancing chemical equations.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

engage

Why names are important? How significant is your name?

Names are the identity of a person or object that distinguishes one from another.
The names of compounds reveal information about the identity of the elements in the
compound. Without the names of the compounds, we have no idea what we are dealing
with unless we choose to indicate the chemical formula (H2O, C2H4O2, etc.).
In our previous lesson, we learned how to write the electronic configuration of
atoms and how to determine the position of elements in the periodic table. These
fundamental concepts will help us write names and formulas for inorganic compounds.
Review questions (Use periodic table):
1. Tell how many electrons are there in the outermost energy level (valence
electrons) and what orbitals they are in.
a. Gallium
b. Strontium
c. Cadmium

2. Which periodic group forms +1, +2 and -1 ions? Why?

What are valence electrons and why are they important?

Valence electrons are the electrons that reside in the outermost electron shell of
an atom. They are significant because they determine how an atom will react. You can
determine how many electrons occupy the highest energy level by writing an electron
configuration. You can also use the periodic table to figure out how many valence
electrons an element (specifically, a neutral atom of the element) has.
Review the element's group, as the group number indicates the number of valence
electrons the element has.

What is the Octet Rule?

The Octet Rule refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to have eight electrons
in the valence shell. When atoms have fewer than eight electrons, they tend to react and
form more stable compounds.

Sample problems:
Determine the stable and unstable elements.
1. 27
13��

40
2. 20��

84
3. 18��

64
4. 29��

Solution:
1. 13Al = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
valence electrons = 3 (unstable)

2. 20Ca = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

valence electrons = 2 (unstable)

3. 18Kr = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

valence electrons = 8 (stable)

4. 29Cu= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10

valence electrons = 1 (unstable)

exp ain
A chemical formula provides insight into the chemical composition of a
compound. It contains letter symbols and numerical subscripts to represent the type and
number of elements it contains.

Types of Chemical Formulas

A. Molecular formula - also called as true formula
- represents the actual number of atoms of each
element present in one molecule of a compound

B. Empirical formula - also called as simplest formula

- indicates the smallest whole-number ratio of atoms
present in a compound
 Substance Molecular Formula Empirical Formula
benzene C6H6 CH
acetylene C2H2 CH
glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
water H2O H2O

RULES IN FORMULA WRITING:

1. Write the symbols side by side. The convention is to write first the element
symbol of the cation followed by the anion
2. Above each symbol, write the valence.
3. Use the criss-cross method, that is, valence of the cation becomes the subscript
of the anion while the valence of the anion becomes the subscript of the cation.

ex. cation Zn+2 ; anion Cl-1

The resulting formula is ZnCl2

 Note that the + and - signs are omitted and the subscript 1 is no longer
indicated.

4. Where the subscript is supposed to be one (1), it is no longer written since with
no number written after a symbol, it is understood that there is only one atom of
the element or a unit of the radical present.

ex. cation Na+1 ; anion Cl-1

The resulting formula is NaCl.

5. When a radical needs a subscript, enclose it with a parenthesis

ex. cation Ca+2 ; anion OH-1

The resulting formula is Ca(OH)2.

 Always get the simplest ratio of subscripts.

ex. cation Mg+2 ; anion O-2
Use of criss-cross: Mg2O2
The final formula is MgO.

6. Omit subscripts whenever subscripts are numerically equal (except peroxides).

ex. cation Mg+2 ; anion O-2

Use of criss-cross: Mg2O2
The final formula is MgO.

7. Reduce subscripts to the smallest whole-number ratio.

ex. cation C+4 ; anion O-2

Use of criss-cross: C2O4
The final formula is CO2.

 This rule applies to radicals, but, the original subscripts in the radicals must
always be retained.
ex. cation Sn+4 ; anion C2O4-2
Use of criss-cross: Sn2(C2O4)4
Final formula is : Sn(C2O4)2

8. If a radical already contains a parenthesis, enclose it with a bracket.

 ex. cation Al+3 ; anion Fe(CN)6+4
Final formula is: Al4[Fe(CN)6]3

*** 4 POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS ***

Positive (+) Negative (-) example
element element NaCl
element radical NaOH
radical element NH4Cl
radical radical NH4OH

For further discussion, refer to pages 79 to 85 of your textbook.

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE OR SYSTEMATIC NAMING OF COMPOUNDS

A. Binary compounds - contain 2 elements
1) metal + non-metal -- Give the name of the metal (+ element),
then the name of the non-metal (- element) changing the
last letters to ide.
ex. NaCl - sodium chloride
K2S - potassium sulfide
AlBr3 - aluminum bromide

2) non-metal + non-metal
-- The Latin or Greek prefix is attached to the name of each
element to indicate the number of atoms of that element in a
compound.

Common Greek Prefixes and their Numerical Values

name of prefix number name of prefix number
mono 1 hexa 6
di 2 hepta 7
tri 3 octa 8
tetra 4 nona 9
penta 5 deca 10

ex. H2O - dihydrogen monoxide

CO - carbon monoxide
CO2 - carbon dioxide
CCl4 - carbon tetrachloride
N2O3 - dinitrogen trioxide
SO3 - sulfur trioxide
 Drop the mono-prefix on the first element in a compound.
 non-metal + non-metal -- Although all compounds have
systematic names, many also have trivial or common names.

Common (trivial) names of some compounds

H2O - water NH3 - ammonia
CH4 - methane C2H6 - ethane
l2O3 - alumina Mg(OH)2 - milk of magnesia
NaHCO3 - baking soda Ca(OH)2 - limewater
CaCO3 - marble CCl2F2 - freon
 N2O - laughing gas NaClO - chlorox
CaO - lime K2CO3 - potash
NaOH - caustic soda NaCl - table salt
NaOCl - bleach CaCO3 - chalk

B. Compounds which contain a multivalent ion (exists in more than one oxidation
state).

1) Old Method
higher oxidation state -- affix the suffix ic
lower oxidation state -- affix the suffix ous

2) New or Stock Method

-- indicate oxidation state by the use of Roman numeral
enclosed with a parenthesis

examples Old method New/Stock method

FeO ferrous oxide iron (II) oxide
Fe2O3 ferric oxide iron (III) oxide

SnCl4 stannic chloride tin (IV) chloride

SnCl2 stannous chloride tin (II) chloride

C. Hydroacids -- hydrogen + non-metal

formula name of pure compound name of acid

(hydrogen + nonmetal ide) (hydro + root ic + acid)
HCl hydrogen chloride hydrochloric acid
HBr hydrogen bromide hydrobromic acid
HI hydrogen iodide hydroiodic acid
HF hydrogen fluoride hydrofluoric acid
H2S hydrogen sulfide hydrosulfuric acid

D. Ternary compounds -- contain 3 different elements

1) Oxyacids -- hydrogen + non-metal + oxygen

OS of the middle element

per (root) ic acid +7
(root) ic acid +6, +5
(root) ous acid +4, +3
hypo (root) ous acid +1

+7 +3
ex. HClO4 - perchloric acid H3PO3 - phosphorous acid
+5 +4
HClO3 - chloric acid H2SO3 - sulfurous acid
+5 +3
H3PO4 - phosphoric acid HNO2 - nitrous acid
+6 +3
H2SO4 - sulfuric acid HClO2 - chlorous acid
+5 +1
HNO3 - nitric acid HClO - hypochlorous acid
 2) Salts of oxyacids -- give the name of the positive part + the name of
oxyanion changing ic to ate or ous to ite

NaClO4 - sodium perchlorate

NaClO3 - sodium chlorate
NaClO2 - sodium chlorite
NaClO - sodium hypochlorite

name of prefix number name of prefix number

mono 1 hexa 6
di 2 hepta 7
tri 3 octa 8
tetra 4 nona 9
penta 5 deca 10

E. Hydrates -- compounds that contain a definite amount of water called water

of hydration or crystallization

ex. CaCl2 . 6H2O - calcium chloride hexahydrate

Na2CO3.10H2O - sodium carbonate decahydrate

OXIDATION NUMBER/STATE
When determining how a reaction will occur or naming compounds, the
oxidation number is important. This is shown only when atoms are combined.
An oxidation number is the electrical charge that an atom gains or loses in
order to have the same stable electron structure as its nearest noble gas
neighbor.

A. ION - an atom carrying a positive or negative electric charge

1. cation --- positively (+) charged ion
ex. Na+ ; Ca++ ; Al +++

2. anion --- negatively charged (-) charged ion

ex. Cl- ; O -2

B. POLYATOMIC ION / RADICAL - ion that involves more than one

element, either positively (+) or negatively (–) charged
ex. OH - ; SO4-2 ; PO4-3

** Rules in assigning oxidation number / state **

1. The oxidation state (OS) of a free, neutral element is zero.

ex. The OS of Na in Na is 0.
The OS of Cl in Cl is 0.
The OS of O in O is 0.

2. The oxidation state of Group IA elements is always +1.

ex. The OS of Li in Li+1 ions is +1

3. The oxidation number of Group IIA elements is always +2.

ex. The OS of Ca in Ca+2 ions is +2

4. Oxidation number of oxygen is typically -2.

The oxidation state of oxygen in oxides is equal to (-2)
 ex. The OS of oxygen in Na2O (sodium oxide) is -2

5. Oxidation number of hydrogen is typically +1.

The OS of Hydrogen is 1+ when in a regular compound. However,
when the Hydrogen is bonded to a metal (LiH or NaH for example) then
the charge is -1.

6. The oxidation state of oxygen in peroxide is -1.

The oxidation state of oxygen in compounds is usually -2, but it is -1 in
peroxides. The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a neutral
compound is 0. Since the oxidation number of H is +1 (Rule 5), you can
immediately assign the oxidation state of oxygen to be -1.

7. Oxidation number of Fluorine is ALWAYS -1.

ex. The OS of F in F-1 ions is -1

8. Oxidation number of other halogens (non-Fluorine) is typically -1 but can vary.

+7 +1
ex. HBrO4 - perbromic acid HBrO - hypobromous acid

9. The total oxidation number of a neutral compound is zero. The algebraic sum
of the oxidation numbers of elements in a compound is zero.
ex. Determine the oxidation state (OS) of the middle element.
1. HNO3
2. NaClO3
3. KMnO4
4. H3PO4
5. MgSO4

Solution: Apply Rule 9

* let x be the OS of the unknown element

1. 1(+1) + 1(x) + 3(-2) = 0 4. 3(+1) + 1(x) + 4(-2) = 0

x = +5 x = +5

2. 1(+1) + 1(x) + 3(-2) = 0 5. 1(+2) + 1(x) + 4(-2) = 0

x = +5 x = +6

3. 1(+1) + 1(x) + 4(-2) = 0

x = +7

10. The total oxidation number/algebraic sum of elements in a polyatomic

ion/radical will sum the charge on the polyatomic ion/radical .
ex. Determine the oxidation state of :
1. N in NO3 -1
2. Cl in ClO3 -1
3. Mn in MnO4 -1
4. P in PO4 -3
5. S in SO4 -2

Solution: Apply Rule 10

* let x be the OS of the unknown element
1. 1(x) + 3(-2) = -1 4. 1(x) + 4(-2) = -3
x = +5 x = +5
 2. 1(x) + 3(-2) = -1 5. 1(x) + 4(-2) = -2
x = +5 x = +6

3. 1(x) + 4(-2) = -1
x = +7

TABLE OF VALENCES
POSITVE VALENCES: CATIONS
+1 +2 +3 +4 +5
Cu Copper (ous) Ba Barium Al Aluminum Pb Lead (ic) Bi Bismuth (ic)
Au Gold (ous) Cd Cadmium Sb Antimony (ous) Sn Tin (ic) Sb Antimony
(ic)
H Hydrogen Ca Calcium Bi Bismuth (ous) As Arsenic
Li Lithium Co Cobalt (ous) Cr Chromium (ous) N Nitrogen
Hg Mercury (ous) Cu Copper (ic) Co Cobalt (ic) P
Phosphorous
K Potassium Pb Lead (ous) Au Gold (ic)
Ag Silver Mg Magnesium Fe Iron (ic)
Na Sodium Hg Mercury (ic) Ni Nickel (ic)
Sr Strontium N Nitrogen
Ni Nickel (ous) P Phosphorous
Sn Tin (ous)
Fe Iron (ous)
Zn Zinc

NEGATIVE VALENCES: ANIONS

-1 -2 -3 -4
Br Bromide O Oxide N Nitride C Carbide
Cl Chloride S Sulfide P Phosphide
F Fluoride
I Iodide
H Hydrogen

POLYATOMIC IONS/RADICALS
+1 -1 -2 -3 -4
NH4 Ammonium C2H3O2 Acetate CO3 Carbonate AlO3 Aluminate Fe(CN)6
Ferrocyanide
HCO3 Bicarbonate CrO4 Chromate AsO4 Arsenate
HSO4 Bisulfate Cr2O7 Dichromate BiO4 Bismuthate
HSO3 Bisulfite SiO3 Metasilicate BO3 Borate

BrO3 Bromate SnO3 Stannate Fe (CN)6

Ferricyanide
ClO3 Chlorate SnO2 Stannite PO4 Phosphate
ClO2 Chlorite SO4 Sulfate PO3 Phosphite

CNO Cyanate SO3 Sulfite

CN Cyanide S2O3 Thiosulfate
CNS Thiocyanate ZnO2 Zincate
OH Hydroxide C2O4 Oxalate
ClO Hypochlorite O2 Peroxide
IO3 Iodate
PO3 Metaphosphate
NO3 Nitrate
 SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY LABORATORY HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA

NO2 Nitrite
ClO4 Perchlorate
MnO4
Permanganate

Problem Solving Exercises:

1. Supply the missing name or formula.

a. __________ potassium dichromate heptahydrate

b. Cu(NO3)2 __________ (old method)
c. ammonium acetate __________
d. __________ mercurous sulfate
e. potassium carbonate __________
f. HIO3 __________
g. __________ Ca(ClO)2
h. __________ N2O4
i. hydrosulfuric acid __________
j. calcium ferricyanide __________

2. Give the oxidation number of the underlined element in each of the following compounds:

1. FeS 6. Pb(MnO4)4
2. Li2SO4 7. H2CO3
3. AlPO3 8. Cu2O
4. PBr5 9. Zn3(PO4)2
5. NaNO3 10.PBr5

II. Determine the empirical formulas of the following compounds given their molecular
formulas.

1. benzene (C6H6) ____________

2. ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) ____________
3. sucrose ____________
4. naphthalene (C10H4) ____________
5. nonane ____________

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
The greatest application of chemical formulas is in writing chemical equations. A chemical
equation is a simplified way of describing a chemical reaction. It must be balanced in order to satisfy
the law of conservation of mass, which states that matter is not created or destroyed in a closed system.
A balanced chemical equation allows us to predict the amount of reactants required and the
amount of products formed.

Steps involved to represent a chemical reaction by means of a chemical equation:

1. Determine the correct formulas for all the reacting substances (reactants) and the
resulting substances (products).
2. Write the reactant/s on the left side and product/s on the right side of the equation
separated by the “yields” sign (arrow). If two or more reactants or products are involved,
separate their formulas with plus sign.
3. Count the number of atoms of each element in the reactants and products.
For simplicity, a polyatomic ion appearing unchanged on both side of the equation is
counted as a single unit.

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4. Balance the elements one at a time by using coefficients. A coefficient is a small whole
number that appears in front of a chemical formula in an equation.
When no coefficients are written, it is assumed to be “1”. It is best to begin balancing
elements that appear only once on each side of the equation. You must not attempt to
balance equation by changing the subscripts in the chemical formula of a substance.
5. Check each atom or polyatomic ion to be sure that the equation is balanced.
6. Make sure that the coefficients are in the lowest possible ratio.

Consider the following examples.

1. Al(s) + Cl2(g) → AlCl3(s) (unbalanced)
To balance the Cl, we put a 3 before the Cl2 and a 2 before the AlCl3. Then we put a 2
before the Al to balance it, to give

2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s) (balanced)

∆
2. C2H6(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g) (unbalanced)

We start with C, by putting a 2 before the CO2. Next, we balance H by putting 3 before
H2O. This gives
∆
C2H6(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) (unbalanced)
7
To balance the oxygen, we need 7 atoms on the left, so we would put in 2 O2, to give
∆
7
C2H6(g) + 2 O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

This is balanced but contains a fraction. To get rid of the fraction, we can multiply
by 2 to give
∆
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) (balanced)

3. Ca(OH)2(aq) + H3PO4(aq) → Ca3(PO4)2(s) + H2O(l) (unbalanced)

Starting with the calcium phosphate (the most complex part) and considering the
phosphate ion as a group, we place a 2 before the H3PO4 to balance the phosphate
groups and a 3 before the Ca(OH)2 to balance Ca, This gives

3Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2H3PO4(aq) → Ca3(PO4)2(s) + H2O(l) (unbalanced)

This just leaves the hydrogen and oxygen. Considering the H, there are 12 atoms on the
left and, therefore we need to place a 6 before the H2O. This also balances the O
atoms, with 6 other those in the phosphate, or a total of 14 altogether. (We could have
used oxygen in the last step in place of hyrogen and obtained the same result). This
gives

3Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2H3PO4(aq) → Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6H2O(l) (balanced)

Check that the number of Ca, O, H, and P atoms on both sides of the equation are the
same.

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Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Direct Combination or Synthesis Reaction

In a synthesis reaction, two or more chemical species combine to form a more
complex product.
A + B → AB

A. Metal + Nonmetal → Salt

ex. Fe + S → FeS
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

B. Nonmetal oxide + Water → Oxyacid

ex. SO2 + H2O → H2SO3
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

C. Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide

ex. 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3

D. Metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide

ex. CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH

E. Nonmetal + Oxygen → Nonmetal oxide

ex. S + O2 → SO2
2C + O2 → 2CO
(limited)

F. Metal oxide + Nonmetal oxide → Salt

ex. MgO + SO3 → MgSO4
Li2O + CO2 → Li2CO

2. Simple Decomposition or Analysis Reaction

In a decomposition reaction, a compound is broken intoits simpler products.
The products formed can either elements or compounds. Often heat is
necessary to cause these reactions to take place.
AB → A + B

A. Heating of oxide, generally oxygen is given off as one of the products

ex. 2HgO → 2Hg + O2

B. Heating of carbonates, yield CO2

ex. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Al2(CO3)3 → Al2O3 + 3CO2

The Group IA carbonates do not decompose readily.

C. Heating of bicarbonates
Ca(HCO3)2 → CaO + 2CO2 + H2O

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When hydrogen carbonates of the Group IA metals are heated, they formed a
carbonate plus water and CO ( recall that the IA metal carbonates are stable
toward heat, whereas other carbonates are not).

ex. 2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

D. Heating of hydrates -- substances that contain one or more molecules

of water for each formula unit
ex. CuSO4.5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O
Na2CO3.10H2O → Na2CO3 + 10H2O

3. Single Displacement or Substitution Reaction

A substitution or single displacement reaction is characterized by one element being
displaced from a compound by another element.

A. Metal : A + BC → AC + B
ex. Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Au + H3PO4 → no reaction

 Activity or Electromotive Series

-- only metals above H in the activity series can displace the hydrogen in acids

B. Nonmetal : A + BC → BA + C
ex. F2 + 2HI → 2HF + I2

4. Metathesis or Double Displacement or Double Decomposition Reaction

In a double displacement or metathesis reaction two compounds exchange atoms or
radicals in order to form different compounds
AB + CD → AD + CB

A. salt + base
ex. Ca(NO3)2 + 2NaOH → 2NaNO3 + Ca(OH)2

B. two salts
ex. 2KCl + Pb(NO3)2 → PbCl2 + 2KNO3

C. salt + acid
ex. Ba(NO3)2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2HNO3

D. metal carbonate + acid

ex. MgCO3 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2O + CO2

E. base + acid (neutralization reaction)

ex. NaOH + HCl → NaCl + HOH / H2O

For detailed discussion and additional examples, refer to pages 103 to 113
of your textbook.

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This part of the module provides opportunities for you to apply what you have learned in this lesson.

I. Complete the table by writing the correct formula (in the appropriate space) of the compound
formed from the corresponding positive and negative ion or radical. Give the name of each
compound below each formula.

CrO4-2 BO3-3 C2O4-2 Fe(CN)6-4 OH-1

1. Fe +2

2. H+1

3. Al+3

4. NH4+1

5. As+5

II. Determine the oxidation state (OS) of:

a. P in sodium phosphite
b. Br in calcium bromate
c. Pb in plumbite
d. Si in silicate

Show all pertinent computations.

III. Complete and balance the equations.

1. Al + I2

2. Mg + AgNO3

3. (NH4)2S + HBr

4. heating of calcium sulfate dihydrate

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IV. Page 86 of your textbook.

V. Page 112 of your textbook.

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