MODES OF NUTRITION IN PLANTS

- Organisms depend directly or indirectly on the Sun’s energy to satisfy their nutritional
requirements.

MODES OF NUTRITION

AUTOTROPHS
➢ Organisms convert water and carbon dioxide, with the Sun’s energy, into organic sugars
which they can use for growth and development.
➔ Photoautotrophs - Light energy is used to convert simple substances to complex
organic compounds.
➔ Photoautorophs Organism:
❖ Cyanobacteria
❖ Euglena
❖ Phytoplankton
❖ Macroalgae
❖ Plant
➔ Chemoautotrophs - The oxidation of inorganic compounds is used as an energy
source for the conversion of simple inorganic compounds to complex organic
compounds.
➔ Chemoautotrophic organisms:
❖ Sulfur - Oxidizing bacteria
❖ Iron-oxidizing bacteria
❖ Nitrogen-fixing bacteria

HETEROTROPHS
➢ Organisms that cannot make their own food, such as animals.
➢ They consume the organic sugars produced by autotrophs.

★ While photosynthesis is not the only mode of autotrophic nutrition, it contributes to the
majority of the production of food in the earth’s ecosystem.

PARASITIC
➢ Parasites live on or inside other living organisms called hosts and obtain their food from
them.
➢ The host does not benefit from the parasite.
❖ Ticks
❖ Fleas
❖ Tongue-eating louse
❖ Barnacles
❖ Ascaris (roundworm)
 ❖ Brain-eating amoeba

SAPROPHYTIC
➢ Saprophytes obtain their food from dead organisms (decomposers).
➢ They secrete enzymes that are released into the food. The enzymes break down
complex food into simple forms.
❖ Molds
❖ Mushroom

HOLOZOIC
➢ Ingest food that is mechanically broken down and is subsequently digested by enzymes
produced within the organism.
➢ Digested food is absorbed into the body and undigested product is egested (expelled).
❖ Herbivores
❖ Carnivores
❖ Omnivores

DIGESTION
➢ holozoic nutrition in humans
➢ breaking down food into parts that can be utilized by the body.

INDIGESTION
➢ the process of eating or taking in food.

BULK FEEDERS
➢ include most animals including humans, who eat large pieces of food
➢ Mechanical and chemical digestion

MECHANICAL DIGESTION
➢ Breaking down food into small pieces is when food is chewed and ground by the teeth.
➢ this does not alter the chemical composition of food.
➢ this simply increases the surface area upon which the chemical of digestion can act.

CHEMICAL DIGESTION
➢ usually involves enzymes in breaking down food into simpler molecules like glucose and
amino acids that can be absorbed or stored by the cells.
➢ this alters the chemical composition of the food.
➢ nutrients from the digested food are then absorbed into the bloodstream through the
capillaries that straddle the walls of the small intestine.

NUTRITION ABSORPTION
➔ Small Intestine
➔ Circular Folds
 ➔ Villi
➔ Cellular level

LESSON 2: REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
➢ Results in new organisms formed by mitotic cell division producing offspring that are
genetically similar to their parents.
➢ This does not require the fusion of gametes or sex cells in order to produce offspring.
➢ A single parent cell will form a group of “clones”
➢ This does not require the fusion of gametes or sex cells in order to produce offspring.
➢ A single parent cell will form a group of “clones”

1. Binary fission - is typically observed in prokaryotes and a few single-celled

eukaryotes.
➢ In this method of asexual reproduction, there is a separation of the parent cell
into two new daughter cells.
➢ This process happens with the division and duplication of the parent’s genetic
matter into two parts. Here, each daughter cell receives one copy of its parent
DNA.

2. Budding - a new organism is developed from a small part of the parent’s body. A
bud that is formed detaches to develop into a new
➢ organism. The newly developed organism remains attached as it grows further
➢ The newly developed organism is a replica of the parent and is genetically
identical.

3. Spore formation - During unfavorable conditions, the organism develops

sac-like structures called sporangium that contain spores.
➢ When the conditions are favorable, the sporangium burst opens and spores are
released that germinate to give rise to new organisms.
 4. Fragmentation - parent body divides into several fragments and each fragment
develops into a new organism.
➢ Exhibited by organisms such as spirogyra, planaria, etc

5. Vegetative Propagation - Asexual reproduction in plants occurs through their

vegetative parts such as leaves, roots, stems, and buds.
➢ Example: potato tubers, runners/stolon, onion bulbs, etc.,

➢ Involves fusion of gametes or sex cells from two parent organisms which are produced
through meiosis.
➢ Results in genetically unique offspring.

Meiosis consists of two rounds of cell division called “germ cells”.

➢ Germ cells- develop into gametes or sex cells.
➢ Two types of gametes:
➢ Egg cell- female gamete
➢ Sperm cell- male gamete
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
➢ Sexual reproduction gives the offspring half of the maternal traits and half of the
paternal traits.
➢ The number of chromosomes in gametes is half the number of body cells.
➢ Zygote restores the complete number of chromosomes.

ANIMAL FERTILIZATION CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS:

➢ Internal Fertilization
➢ External Fertilization

EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
➢ Usually occurs in aquatic animals where gametes are released by both the male and
female.
➢ Fusion takes place outside the body

INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
➢ Usually observed among terrestrial animals
➢ Is a strategy used to prevent dehydration of gametes on land.
➢ Enhances the fertilization of eggs by a specific male.
➢ Survival rate is higher than external fertilization.

Ovipary Ovovivipary Vivipary

Internal and external Internal fertilization Internal fertilization

fertilization

Fertilised eggs that laid out of Fertilized eggs are kept Zygote, embryo, and foetus
the body some enclosed by a inside the body enclosed by a develop in the uterus-
leathery or calcareous shell. soft shell. protected by a membrane

Embryo gets its food from the Embryo gets its food from the Get its food from the mother
yolk yolk. via the umbilical cord

Egg hatches outside of the Egg hatched inside of body Live young born
body. just before birth

With or without parental care. With or without parental care Parental care

OVIPAROUS ANIMAL
➢ Salmon
➢ Ostritch
➢ Crocodile

VIVIPAROUS ANIMAL
➢ Cow
➢ Cat
➢ Donkey
➢ Monkey
➢ Giraffe

GEMETOGENESIS
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
➢ Seminiferous tubules - where sperm cells are produced
➢ Epididymis - where sperm cells are stored until maturation
➢ Testes are found outside the abdominal cavity, in a sac called the scrotum.
➢ During the release of sperm, muscular contraction causes the sperm to pass through the
vas deferens with various glandular secretions to produce seminal fluid.
➢ This passes through the urethra and then through the penis.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
➢ Comprised of two ovaries.
➢ Either of these two ovaries releases an egg each month.
➢ The mature egg meets and is fertilized by the sperm in the fallopian tube.
➢ The zygote then passes to the uterus for nourishment and embryonic development.
➢ The lower portion of the reproductive tract, the vagina, serves as the passage of sperm
during copulation and as the birth canal during childbirth.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

BRYOPHYTES (nonvascular plants)

➢ A mat of moss actually consists of many gametophyte plants growing in a tight pack,
holding one another up. The stalks are the sporophytes.
➢ Liverworts are bryophytes named for the liver-shaped appearance of the gametophyte.
➢ Hornworts are bryophytes named for their hornlike sporophytes, which grow from their
parental gametophytes.
➢ Male and female gametes are usually produced in reproductive structures in separate
locations on the tips of the gametophytes.
➢ In the life cycle of moss or another bryophyte, the sporophyte remains attached to the
gametophyte. The gametophyte provides water and nutrients to the sporophyte.
LIFE CYCLE OF A FERN

➢ The fern life cycle requires two generations of plants to complete itself. This is called the
alternation of generations.
➢ One generation is diploid, meaning it carries two identical sets of chromosomes in each
cell or the full genetic complement (like a human cell).
➢ The leafy fern with spores is part of the diploid generation, called the sporophyte.

LIFE CYCLE OF A MOSS

LIFE CYCLE OF A PINE (gymnosperm)

Sexual Reproduction in Flowers (angiosperm)

LIFE CYCLE OF A FLOWER (ANGIOSPER M)

LESSON 3:TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMAL

BREATHING OR RESPIRATION
➢ Process of inhaling and exhaling air
➢ Concerned with the taking in of oxygen and giving off of carbon dioxide.

GAS EXCHANGE
➢ The means and mode of gas exchange vary across species of organisms depending on
whether oxygen is dissolved in water or mixed with gases in the atmosphere.

GAS EXCHANGE IN COMPLEX ANIMALS

➢ Complex animals that are adapted to terrestrial life have lungs which are localized
respiratory organs that are not in contact with other parts of the body.
➢ Despite this non-contact, the lungs are bridged by the cardiovascular system which
transports gases between the lungs and the rest of the body.
➔ Gas exchange happens in air sacs called ALVEOLI.
➔ Oxygen that enters the alveoli dissolves in the moist film lining the inner surface and
rapidly diffuses into the web of capillaries that surrounds the alveoli
 ➢ Oxygen flows from the alveoli, where oxygen concentration is higher to the blood in the
capillaries where oxygen concentration is lower.

➢ Simultaneously, the diffusion of carbon dioxide also occurs in the opposite direction, from
the capillaries to the alveoli and out of the body.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD CIRCULATION

THE HEART
➢ The human heart is a muscular organ that is about the size of a clenched fist.
➢ The heart has two upper chambers called ATRIA and two lower chambers called
VENTRICLES

FUNCTION OF THE HEART

➢ One of the primary functions of the human heart is to pump blood throughout the body.
 ➢ Blood delivers oxygen, hormones, glucose, and other components to various parts of
the body, including the human heart.
➢ The heart also ensures that adequate blood pressure is maintained in the body.
➔ ATRIUM/ATRIA – have relatively thin walls, collecting blood to the heart.
➔ VENTRICLES – have thicker walls; pump blood.

PARTS OF THE HEART

➢ INFERIOR VENA CAVA
➔ is the largest vein of the human body. It is located at the posterior abdominal wall
on the right side of the aorta.
➔ function is to carry the deoxygenated blood from the lower region of the body to
the heart
➢ SUPERIOR VENA CAVA
➔ carries blood from the upper region of the body (head, neck, upper chest, and
arms) to the heart
➢ RIGHT ATRIUM
➔ receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the vena cava.
➢ LEFT ATRIUM
➔ receives oxygenated blood from the capillaries of the lungs through the
pulmonary veins.
➢ RIGHT VENTICLE
➔ receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and pumps it into the
pulmonary circulation.
➢ LEFT VENTRICLE
➔ receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps it into the aorta.
➢ PULMONARY ARTERY
➔ carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the capillaries of the lungs.
➢ PULMONARY VEIN
➔ transfers oxygenated blood from the capillaries of the lungs to the heart.
➢ AORTA
 ➔ is the largest artery in the body. It carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle
of the heart to other parts of the body.
➢ VALVES
➔ prevent the backflow of the blood.
➢ ATRIOVENTICULAR VALVES
➔ Tricuspid valve - right atrioventricular valve
➔ Mitral valve - left atrioventricular valve
➢ SEMI VALVES
➔ Aortic valve - the valve between the aorta and left ventricle.
➔ Pulmonary valve - the valve between the pulmonary artery and right ventricle.

TYPE OF BLOOD VESSEL

❖ ARTERIES - (thick-walled) carries blood away from the heart towards the rest of the
body.
❖ VEINS - (thin-walled) carries blood to the heart
❖ CAPILLARIES - tiny vessels that are involved in the exchange of gases and nutrients.

TYPES OF BLOOD CIRCULATION

➢ Pulmonary circulation - carries the deoxygenated blood from the right chambers of the
heart to the lungs to pick up oxygen and return to the left chambers of the heart.
➢ Systemic circulation - carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the different parts of
the body.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM: REMOVAL OF WASTE IN THE BLOOD

FUNCTIONS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
➢ It removes the waste products of cellular metabolism, maintains salt-water balance, and
filters out toxins from the body.
➢ The three main functions of the excretory are filtration, reabsorption, and production of
waste products.

FUNCTION OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

1. FILTRATION
➢ The excretory tubule collects filtrate from the blood water and solutes are forced
by blood pressure across the selectively permeable membranes of a cluster of
capillaries and into the excretory tubule.

2. REABSORPTION
 ➢ The transport epithelium reclaims valuable substances from the filtrate and
returns them.

3. SECRETION
➢ Other substances extracted from body fluids are added to the contents of the
excretory tubes.

4. EXCRETION
➢ The filtrate leaves the system and the body.

FLOW OF URINE

Kidney (through the Ureter Urinary Bladder Urethra

renal pelvis)

STRUCTURE OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

➢ This system consists of specialized structures and capillary networks that assist in the
excretory process.
➢ The human excretory system includes the kidney and its functional unit, the nephron.
➢ The excretory activity of the kidney is changed by specialized hormones that regulate the
amount of absorption within the nephron.
➢ EXCRETORY SYSTEM
➔ Bladder
➔ Uretha
➔ Meatus
➔ Ureters
➔ Kidneys

KIDNEY
➢ Kidneys are the main organs of the excretory system in human beings where filtration,
selective reabsorption, and urine production occurs
➢ They are dark, bean-shaped organs that measure 10 cm long and 6cm wide
➢ The kidneys contain nephrons which perform the filtration of blood within the organ
➔ Located both sides of the spine between thoracic and lumbar vertebrae.
➔ Blood enters the kidneys through renal arteries and leaves through renal veins.
➔ Tubes called ureters to carry waste products from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder for storage or for release.
➢ During urination, urine is expelled from the urinary bladder through the urethra.

PARTS OF THE KIDNEY

CORTEX
➢ Outer protective portion

MEDULLA
➢ Inner soft portion

HILUM
➢ A depression located in the middle of the concave side of the kidney where blood
vessels, nerves, and the ureters enter and exit the kidneys

➔ The cortex is where the blood is filtered.

➔ The medulla contains the collecting ducts which carry filtrate (filtered substances) to the
pelvis.
➔ The pelvis is a hollow cavity where urine accumulates and drains into the ureter.

NEPHRON
➢ The functional units of the kidney are called nephrons.
➢ Nephrons are located in the renal cortex, except for their loops of Henle, which descend
into the renal medulla.
➢ Has two parts
A. Renal Corpuscle
1. Bowman Capsul
1. Glomerulus
A. Fenestrae- pore in endothelial walls of glomerulus.
B. Podocytes - specialized cells.
C. Filtration slits
B. Renal Tubule - Series of single layer tubules
1. Proximal Convoluted tubule
2. Loop of Henle
3. Distal Convoluted tubule

➢ Kidneys are made up of nephrons. Blood enters the nephron, where impurities are
filtered out and emptied into the collecting duct. The purified blood leaves the nephron
through the renal vein.
➢ Each kidney contains more than 1 million nephrons.
➢ Blood Flow through the Kidneys

Blood enters through the renal artery → Arterioles → Each arteriole leads to a nephron →
Renal corpuscle
➢ The glomerulus filters fluid from the blood, and is the first place where urine is formed in
the kidneys.
➢ Blood flows through the glomerulus at a constant rate.
 ➢ Each glomerulus is surrounded by a capsule known as Bowman's capsule.
➢ Blood then passes into the renal tubules where some substances are reabsorbed and
the remaining become urine.

THE KIDNEYS
How is blood filtered?
➢ As blood enters a nephron through the arteriole, impurities are filtered out and emptied
into the collecting duct.
➢ The purified blood exits the nephron through the venule.
The mechanism of blood purification involves two distinct processes:
➢ Filtration
➢ Reabsorption
➔ Most of the material removed from the blood at Bowman's capsule makes its way
back into the blood. - The process in which liquid is taken back into a vessel is
called reabsorption.
➔ Almost 99% of the water that enters Bowman's capsule is reabsorbed into the
blood.
➔ When the filtrate drains in the collecting ducts, most water, and nutrients have
been reabsorbed into the blood.

URETERS
- A tube approximately 6 to 7 inches long attached to each kidney.
➢ Made up of three layers of tissue
➔ Smooth muscle
➔ Fibrous tissue
➔ Mucous layer
+ Peristalsis, a rhythmic contraction of the ureter smooth muscle which helps to move the
urine into the bladder.

URINARY BLADDER
➢ Hollow, muscular organ that stores urine
➢ Sphincter muscles hold the urine in place
➢ Holds 300 to 400 milliliters of urine before emptying
➢ Walls contain epithelial tissue that stretches to allow the bladder to hold twice its
capacity

➔ The trigone is a triangular area at the base of the bladder where the ureters enter and
the urethra exits

URETHRA
➢ A tube of smooth muscle with a mucous lining that carries urine from the bladder to the
outside of the body.
 ➢ Female Urethra
➔ Approximately inches long
➔ Opens through the meatus
➢ Male Urethra
➔ Approximately 8 inches long Passes through three different regions:
❖ Prostate gland
❖ Membranous portion
❖ Penis

TRANSPORT IN VASCULAR PLANTS

Why does transport need to occur?
➢ materials need to be transported between the root system and the shoot system

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
➢ Does NOT require ATP to occur
➔ Diffusion
➔ Osmosis
➔ Facilitated
➔ Diffusion

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
➢ Requires ATP to occur
➔ Bulk Transportation (endo/exocytosis)

WATER POTENTIAL
➢ Water potential is a measure of where water wants to go in a plant, based on 2 factors.
➔ Solute concentration (where there is more salt, etc.)
➔ Pressure (due to cell wall)
➢ Water potential determines the direction of movement of water
➔ Free water moves from regions of higher water potential to regions of lower water
potential.

TURGOR PRESSURE
➢ Turgor pressure results from the swelling of a plant cell against its cell wall
➢ A plant that is not turgid is said to be flaccid

SHORT AND LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

➢ Water and sugars move differently in plants, depending on whether they’re going a short
or a long-distance
➢ Ie. – walking down the street or taking an airplane across the world
SHORT-DISTANCE TRANSPORT
1. Simple diffusion/osmosis
➢ substances in one cell move out of one cell, across the cell wall, and into another
cell.
2. Plasmodesmata
➢ Plasmodesmata are connections between the cytoplasm of adjacent plant cells
➢ Substances move between cells through these openings
➢ This connection of the cytoplasm is called the symplast
3. Apoplast
➢ The extracellular pathway of cell walls
➢ Substances move between cells through the cell walls, which are connected

LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT

➢ Over long distances, these 3 processes (simple diffusion, apoplast,& symplast) take too
long
➢ Water and solutes move through xylem and phloem by bulk flow, the movement of a
fluid driven by pressure.

TRANSPIRATION
➢ It is the evaporation of water from leaves and other parts of the plan.
➢ An average maple tree loses more than 200 L of water per hour during the summer.
➢ Unless this water is replaced by water absorbed by the roots, leaves will wilt and die.
➢ Xylem transports the water throughout the plant
➔ Pushing and pulling

PUSHING XYLEM SAP

➢ Water is still “collected” by the roots at night, when transpiration is not occurring as
much
➢ As water flows in, pressure is generated which forces the fluid to go up the xylem
➢ This upward push of xylem sap is called root pressure
➢ Can cause guttation (exuding water from margins of the leaf, not through stomata).
➢ This, however, can only move xylem sap a few meters at most
➔ Straw analog

Cells: 2 Types Of Water-conducting Cells

Vessel elements - wide, thin walled, hollow cells; dead at maturity (sclerenchyma
tissue). Transport & support
Tracheids - narrower, tapered cells; have pits at ends that allow water transport

PULLING XYLEM SAP (COHENSION-TENSION THEORY)

➢ Transpiration draws water out of the xylem (tension)
 ➔ The outside air water potential (Ψ) is lower than that inside the plant, therefore
drawing water out of the plant
➢ Water’s unique property of adhesion (water sticking to other surfaces) forces the
water to come up the xylem to replace the lost water
➢ This can occur only through an unbroken chain of water molecules
➔ Cohesion
➔ water sticking together

Photosynthesis -Transpiration Compromise

➢ In order to perform photosynthesis, plants must spread their leaves to the sun and
obtain CO2 from the air
➢ Carbon dioxide enters the plant and oxygen leaves the plant via stomata.
➢ The opening of stomata, however, allows water to escape from the plant (transpiration).
➢ A plant must “judge” how much carbon dioxide it needs and how much water it can
afford to lose

Phloem – Sugar Transport

Phloem carries phloem sap (food) from a sugar source to a sugar sink
➢ Sugar source
➔ an organ where sugar is being produced
➔ Usually leaves
➢ Sugar sink
➔ an organ that consumes or stores sugar
➔ Usually roots, growing stems, buds, and fruit

PHLOEM CELLS
➢ Sieve-tube elements - alive at maturity; long narrow with sieve plates at ends; no
nucleus, ribosomes, vacuole.
➢ Companion cell - attached to side of sieve-tube element; organelles serve both cells;
does NOT transport.

Pressure Flow: Mechanism of Translocation in Phloem

➢ Pressure is created at source as sugar is produce.
➢ Pressure decreases in sink as sugar is used.
➢ Water diffuses into phloem from xylem due to decrease water potential & PUSHES
the sugar from source to sink. This is known as TRANSLOCATION