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BAA 322 

Ancient Indian Paleography and Epigraphy 

Semester – VI 

Q1. Ancient Indian History writing is incomplete without uses of

inscriptions. Discuss. 
The greatest handicap in the treatment of history of ancient India, both political and
cultural, is the absence of a definite chronology. 

The literary genius of India, so fertile and active in almost all branches of study, was
somehow not applied to chronicling the records of kings and the rise and fall of the states. 

Ancient India did not produce historians like Herodotus and Thucydides of Greece or
Levy of Rome and Turkish historian Al-beruni. We have a sort of history in the Puranas.
Though encyclopedic in contents, the Puranas provide dynastic history up to the
beginning of the Gupta rule. 

They mention the places where the events took place and sometimes discuss their causes
and effects. Statements about events are made in future tense, although they were
recorded much after the happening of the events. Thus inscriptions and coins become
very important to reconstruct early Indian history. 

Inscriptions were carved on seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls and
bricks or images. In the country as a whole the earliest inscriptions were recorded on
stone. But in the early centuries of Christian era copper plates began to be used for the
purpose. The earliest inscriptions were written in Prakrit language in the 3rd century BC.
Sanskrit was adopted in the second century AD. 

Inscriptions began to be composed in regional languages in the 9th and 10th centuries.

Most inscriptions bearing on the history of Maurya, Post-Maurya and Gupta times have
been published in a series of collection called “Corpus Inscription Indecorum”. 

The earliest inscriptions are found on the seals of Harappa belonging to about 2500 B.C.
and written in pictographic script but they have not been deciphered. The oldest
inscription deciphered so far was issued by Ashoka in third century BC. The Ashokan
inscriptions were first deciphered by James Prince in 1837. 

We have various types of inscriptions. Some convey royal orders and decisions regarding
social, religious and administrative matters to officials and people in general. Ashokan
inscription belong to this category, others are routine records of the followers of different

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religious. Still other types eulogize the attributes and achievements of the kings and their
persons. 

The inscriptions engraved by emperors or kings are either prosthesis composed by court
writers or grants of land assigned to individuals. Among the prismatic of emperors, the
most prominent are the prasharti of Samudra Gupta engraved on Ashokan pillar at
Allahabad. This was prepared by his court poet, Harisena, the Hathigumpa-Prashasti
inscription of king Kharavela of Kalinga. 

Some of the notable inscriptions are – the Nasik inscription of King Gautami Balasree, the
Gwalior inscription of King Bhoja, the Girnar inscription of King Rudradaman, the Aihole
inscription of the Chalukaya King Pulkesinll, the Bhitri and Nasik inscriptions of the
Gupta ruler Skandia Gupta and the Deopara inscription of the Sena ruler Vijaya Sen. The
inscriptions which were used for the grants of lands were mostly engraved on copper­-
plates. 

These inscriptions besides many more, of private individuals or local officers have
furnished us with the names of various kings, boundaries of their kingdoms and
sometimes useful dates and clues to many important events of history. 

Thus inscriptions have been found very much useful in finding different facts of the
history of ancient India. The history of Satavahana rulers is fully based on their
inscriptions. In the same way, the inscriptions of the rulers of South India such as that of
Pallava, the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Cholas, and the Pandayas have been of great
help in finding historical facts of the rule of their respective dynasties. Certain inscriptions
found outside India have also helped in finding facts concerning the history of ancient
India. One among such inscriptions is that of Bhagajakoi in Asia Minor, which was
inscribed in 1400BC. 

The study of coins, called numismatics, is considered as the second most important
source for reconstructing the history of India. Coins are mostly found in hoards. Many of
these hoards containing not only Indian coins but also those minted abroad, such as
Roman coins have been discovered in different parts of the country. Coins of major
dynasties have been catalogued and published. 

The punched mark coins are the earliest coins of India and they bear only symbols on
them. These have been found throughout the country. But the later coins mentioned the
name of kings, gods and dates. The areas where they are found indicate the region of their
circulation. This has enabled us to reconstruct the history of several ruling dynasties,
especially of the Indo-Greeks. Coins also throw significant light on economic history. 

Some coins were issued by the guilds and merchants and goldsmiths with the permission
of the rulers. This shows that craft and commerce had become important. Coins helped
transactions on a large scale and contributed to trade. We get the largest number of coins
in post-Maurya times. 

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These were made of lead, potion, copper, bronze, silver and gold. The Guptas issued the
largest number of gold coins. This indicates that trade and commerce flourished during
post- Maurya and a good part of Gupta times. But the fact that only a few coins belonging
to post-Gupta times indicate the decline in trade and commerce in that period. 

In conclusion, careful collection of materials derived from texts, coins, inscriptions,

archaeology etc. is essential for historical construction. These raise the problem of relative
importance of the sources. Thus, coins and inscriptions are considered more important
than mythologies found in the Epics and the Puranas. 

Q2. Discuss the Historical importance of ‘Mehraulli Iron Pillar Inscription

of Chandra. 

Mehrauli inscription praises the Gupta emperor Chandragupta

Vikramaditya’s achievements. The iron pillar of Chandragupta dates from the
late fourth to early fifth century A.D. It is situated in the Qutb Mosque’s courtyard. It
is thought to have had the emblem of the mythical bird Garuda, the Guptas’ symbol, at
the top, but it is now missing. 

Mehrauli Inscription / Garuda Pillar – Background 

The Mehrauli Iron Pillar was originally located on a hill near the Beas River and was
transported to Delhi by a Delhi king. 
This pillar attributes the victory of the Vanga Countries to Chandragupta,
who fought alone against a confederacy of opponents gathered against him. 
It also praises him for defeating the Vakatkas in a battle that spanned Sindhu’s
seven mouths. 
The Mahrauli Iron Pillar is a historical landmark that entices visitors with its
intriguing iron structure that has not corroded since its creation over 1600 years
ago. 
Despite being exposed to the elements, the Iron Pillar remains robust, serving as a
great illustration of ancient India’s scientific and engineering progress. 
Archaeologists and materials scientists are still working to answer one of the world’s
oldest riddles. 
Iron Pillar, which rises magnificently at a height of 24 feet, is located within
the Qutub Complex, which also houses the famed Qutub Minar. It is located in
the Qutb Complex, in front of the Quwwatul Mosque. 
It contains verses composed in the Sanskrit language, in shardulvikridita metre. 

Mahrauli Inscription / Garuda Pillar – History 

According to academics, the Mehrauli Iron Pillar was built during the early Gupta
dynasty (320-495 AD). This conclusion is based on the workmanship style and
inscription on the pillar, as well as the language. 
Scholars have discovered the name “Chandra” in the third stanza of the
inscription on the Iron pillar, which signifies kings of the Gupta Dynasty. 

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 The king is identified
as Chandragupta II (375-415
CE) who was the son of King
Samudragupta. 
Chandragupta-II of the Gupta dynasty
named this pillar Vishnupada in
honor of Lord Vishnu. 
According to one popular theory, the
Iron Pillar was erected on top of a hill
in Madhya Pradesh called Udaygiri,
from which King Iltutmish (1210-36
AD) carried it to Delhi following his
triumph. 
According to some experts, King
Anangpal II, Tomar King, lifted the
Delhi Iron Pillar and installed it in the
main shrine at Lal Kot in New Delhi
around 1050 AD. 
When King Prithviraj Chauhan,
Anangpal’s grandson, was defeated by the Muhammad Ghori army in 1191, Qutb-
ud-din Aibak erected the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque at Lal Kot. 
The pillar was then relocated from its original site in front of the mosque to its
current location. 

Features 

Mehrauli Inscription / Garuda Pillar – Features 

Mehrauli’s Iron Pillar stands at a height of 7.2 metres. It rests on a 48-centimetre-

diameter intricately carved foundation that weighs 6.5 tonnes. 
The pillar’s summit is embellished with carvings. It also includes a deep hole
that is claimed to be the foundation where Hindu Lord Garuda‘s statue was
placed. Inscriptions are engraved onto an iron pillar. 
The most intriguing aspect of Iron pillar architecture is that it has not rusted in
over 1600 years of exposure to the elements. 
Some of the inscriptions on the iron pillars hint to its origin. However, the original
place where it was created is still being investigated. 
At roughly 400 cm from the present ground level of the pillar, there is a conspicuous
depression in the centre of the otherwise smooth Iron Pillar. 
It is reported that the devastation was caused by the close-range fire of cannonballs. 

Mehrauli Inscription 

Conclusion 

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The Mehrauli iron pillar, also known as the Delhi iron
pillar or Lohe ki Lat, is located within the Qutb complex.
It was constructed in the fourth or fifth centuries CE and
moved to this position 800 years later during the Delhi
Sultanate period. The Pillar is remarkable for its rusty
state, despite being made of 99% iron and having been
built in the 5th century CE, giving it a lifespan of roughly
1600 years. It is thought to have featured the insignia of
the mythological bird Garuda, the Guptas’ symbol, at the
top, but it is now lost. 

Q3. Throw light on the development of Brahmi Script from Mauryan to

Kushana Period with examples. 

Brahmi script is one of the oldest writing systems, having been used in the Indian
subcontinent and Central Asia during the final centuries BCE and
the early centuries CE. Some believe that Brahmi was derived from the
modern Semitic script, while others believe it was an Indus script. The Brahmi is the
ancestor of all surviving Indic scripts in South East Asia. In India writing developed
during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization. Brahmi script is credited with giving
rise to several modern scripts found in South and Southeast Asia. 

Origin and Evolution 

Various schools of thought are prevalent regarding the origin of Brahmi script, some of
which are discussed below: 

Georg Bühler argued that Brahmi was initially derived from the Semitic

script that was later used by the Brahman scholars as appropriate for Sanskrit and
Prakrit. 
Professor K Rajan thought that the ancestor of the Brahmi script is a
combination of symbols present on graffiti marks in various places in Tamil Nadu. 
This argument ha has been supported by excavations at Mangudi, Tamil Nadu 

Some believe that Brahmi has its origin from the Indus script used during Indus
Valley Civilization. 
Some think that the Brahmi script has its origin earlier to the 3rd century BCE. 
The above argument is supported by the existence of Brahmanas, which
were attached to the Vedic literature during the 6th century BCE. 
This belief was further strengthened by the discovery of pottery belonging
to the 450-350 BCE period from Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. 

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Brahmi Script 

Characteristic Features of Brahmi Script 

Initially, Brahmi was referred to as the “pin-man” script or the “stick figure”

script, a clear reference to the appearance of its letters. 
The best-known Brahmi inscriptions are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka, which
date from 250–232 BCE and are found in north-central India. 
James Prinsep deciphered the script in 1837. 
Brahmi is typically written left to right. 
Brahmi is an abugida, which means that each letter represents a consonant,
while vowels are written with obligatory diacritics called matras in Sanskrit
unless the vowels begin a word. 
Its writing units include different types of syllables such as CV, CCVV, etc 
It is an alpha syllabic writing style. 
The V and C components of the Brahmi script are distinct. 
In the north and central India it represents the Prakrit language. 
In southern India it represents Tamil-a Dravidian language. 
It became widespread in usage from the 2nd century BCE. 
It evolved into various regional forms. 
It uses three vowels a; I; u. 

Features of Brahmi Script 

Usage 

Usage of Brahmi Script 

It found its use on various Ashokan inscriptions. 

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 During the Mauryan period it was also
used on carved rocks, caves, stones slabs,
etc. 
It was used on copper plates. 
With the spread of Buddhism it was used on
various structural monuments. 
From the 2nd century BCE it was also used
on coins. 
It was also used on ceramic surfaces to
suggest ownership of the item. 

Various Scripts 

Various Scripts Derived from Brahmi 

It became an ancestor to several languages as it could be modified to suit the

phonetics of different languages. 
Various languages across the south and southeast Asia such as Gurmukhi, Kanarese,
Sinhalese, Telugu, etc. trace their origin to Brahmi script. 
Punctuation is rarely used in Ashokan Brahmi. 
It developed into a rounded form in southern India. 
In northern India it was commonly used as a regularized form. 
Northern Brahmi in turn gave rise to the Gupta script called Late Brahmi. 
The Gupta script gave rise to Siddham (6th century), Sharada (9th
century), and Nagari (10th century). 
Southern Brahmi is responsible for the origin of Pallava Grantha (6th
century), Vatteluttu (8th century) scripts. 

Conclusion 

While Brahmi’s influence appears to have been limited to areas with a strong early Indian
influence, the Baybayin script system of the Philippines is an exception. Brahmi’s colossal
influence can still be felt today, from modern-day Punjab and Kashmir to South-East Asia
and beyond. 

Q4. Bringout the cultural importance of ‘Besanagar Pillar Inscription’ of

Heliodorus. 

The Heliodorus pillar is a stone column that was erected around 113 BCE in
central India in Besnagar (near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh). The pillar was called
the Garuda-standard by Heliodorus, referring to the deity Garuda. The pillar is
commonly named after Heliodorus, who was an ambassador of the Indo-
Greek king Antialcidas from Taxila, and was sent to the Indian ruler Bhagabhadra. A
dedication written in Brahmi script was inscribed on the pillar, venerating Vāsudeva,
the Deva deva the “God of Gods” and the Supreme Deity. The pillar also glorifies the

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Indian ruler as “Bhagabhadra the savior”. The pillar is a stambha which symbolizes
joining earth, space and heaven, and is thought to connote the “cosmic axis” and express
the cosmic totality of the Deity. 

The Heliodorus pillar site is located near the confluence of two rivers, about 60 kilometres
(37 mi) northeast from Bhopal, 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) from the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi,
and 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from the Hindu Udayagiri site. 

The pillar was discovered by Alexander Cunningham in 1877. Two major archaeological
excavations in the 20th-century have revealed the pillar to be a part of an ancient
Vāsudeva temple site. Aside from religious scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita,
the epigraphical inscriptions on the Heliodorus pillar and the Hathibada Ghosundi
Inscriptions contain some of the earliest known writings of Vāsudeva-Krishna devotion
and early Vaishnavism and are considered the first archeological evidence of its
existence. The pillar is also one of the earliest surviving records of a foreign convert
into Vaishnavism. Alternatively, making dedications to foreign gods was only a logical
practice for the Greeks, intended to appropriate their local power. This cannot be
regarded as a “conversion” to Hinduism. 

Q5. Throw light on the History of Chalukya dynasty upto the Pulakshin II
on the basis of the ‘Aihole Inscription’. 

The Aihole Inscription, also known as the Aihole prashasti, is a nineteen line

Sanskrit inscription at Meguti Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka, India. An eulogy dated
634–635 CE, it was composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti in honor of his patron king
Pulakesin Satyasraya (Pulakeshin II) of the Badami Chalukya dynasty. The inscription is
partly damaged and corrupted – its last two lines were added at a later date. 

Since the 1870s, the inscription was recorded several times, revised, republished and
retranslated by Fleet, Kielhorn and others. The inscription is a prashasti for the early
Western Chalukyas. It is notable for its historical details mixed in with myth, and the
scholarly disagreements it has triggered. It is also an important source of placing political
events and literature – such as of Kalidasa – that must have been completed well before
634 CE, the date of this inscription. 

The Aihole inscription of Ravikirti, sometimes referred to as the Aihole Inscription of

Pulakesin II, is found at the hilltop Meguti Jain temple, about 600 metres (1,969 ft)
southeast of Aihole town’s Durga temple and archaeological museum. 

The Aihole inscription is found on the eastern side-wall of the Meguti Jain temple. Aihoḷe
– also known as Ayyavole or Aryapura in historic texts – was the original capital of
Western Chalukyas dynasty founded in 540 CE, before they moved their capital in the
7th-century to Badami. Under the Hindu dynasty of the Badami Chalukyas, the
Malprabha valley sites – such as Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta – emerged as
major regional center of arts in early India and a cradle of Hindu and Jain temple

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architecture schools. They patronized both Dravida and Nagara styles of temples. Meguti
Jain temple is one among the hundreds of temples built in that era, but one built many
decades after the famed Badami cave temples and many others. 

Fleet was the first to edit and publish a photo-lithograph of the Aihole inscription in
1876. However, errors led to another visit to Aihole and then Fleet published an improved
photo-lithograph, a revised version of the text with his translation in 1879. The
significance of the inscription and continued issues with reconciling its content with other
inscriptions, attracted the interest of other scholars. In 1901, the Sanskrit scholar
Kielhorn re-edited the inscription at the suggestion of Fleet. He published yet another
improved version of the photo-lithograph. 

Q6. Discuss the contents of Kahaum stone Pillar inscription of

Skandgupta. 

This is the inscription of the Gupta ruler Skandagupta.  

In this inscription, Skandagupta has been called “Shukraditya”. 
It also describes 5 Jain Tirthankaras. 
Information about the local administration is also available in this record. 

Kahaum pillar is an 8 m (26 ft 3 in) structure located in Khukhundoo in the state
of Uttar Pradesh, and dates to the reign of Gupta Empire ruler Skandagupta. The 5th
century an 8 metres (26 ft) pillar known as Kahaum pillar was erected during the reign
of Skandagupta. This pillar has carvings of Parshvanatha and other tirthankars with Jain
Brahmi script. 

Kahaum pillar is a grey-sandstone was erected during the reign of Skandagupta, Gupta

Empire. According to inscription of the pillar, the pillar was erected by the Skandagupta
in the Jyeshtha month of year 141 of the Gupta era (A.D. 460–61). The pillar was erected
by Skandagupta upon receiving counsil from Madra. 

There is a 0.673 by 0.51 metres (2 ft 2.5 in by 1 ft 8.1 in) on the pillar with writing with
characters belonging to eastern variety of Gupta alphabet similar to that of Samudragupta
inscription of Allahabad Pillar. The inscription is written in Sanskrit language, and
written in verses except for the first word, siddhaṁ. The inscription defines reign of
Skandagupta as peaceful and describes him as “commandar of a hundred kings”. The
inscription also has an adoration to Arihant of Jainism. 

There is carving of five Jain Tirthankara in kayotsarga posture — one in a niche square

face, two below the circular stone and two on the pinnacle of the column. These images
are identified to be of Rishabhanatha, Shantinatha, Neminatha, Parshvanatha
and Mahavira. According to inscription, these images were carved by Madra who is
described as devotee of dvija, guru and yati. 

Q7. Kharoshthi Script. 

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The Kharosthi script (3rd Century BC – 3rd Century AD) is an ancient script used
to write Gandhari Prakrit and Sanskrit in ancient Gandhara (present-day
Afghanistan and Pakistan). It is a sister script to Brahmi and was deciphered
by James Princep. Since early times Kharosthi has been one of the major scripts of the
Indian sub-continent. It comes second in popularity to Brahmi script. 

Origin of Kharosthi Script 

Different theories are put forward regarding the origin of the Kharosthi script some of
which are discussed below: 

The earliest evidence has been found from major rock edicts of Ashoka. 
Between the first century BCE to the third century CE it was in use by Kushanas. 
It was put forward by Buhler. Kharosthi script was related to the parts of the
Indian subcontinent that were ruled by Persians. 
Kharosthi script has various alterations done from Aramic prototypes. 
It is also believed by B.N. Mukherjee said that this script was created by
the Achaemenids during the 5th – 4th century BC. 
It was originally adapted for the local language of common people but was later
adapted by foreign conquerors to connect with the local population. 

Kharosthi Script 

Discovery of Kharosthi Script 

In Lalitavistara, a 3rd century

BCE text written in Kharosthi, it
is mentioned as second to
Brahmi script. 
It was first encountered in edicts
of Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. 
It was first discovered on coins of the 19th century from the northwestern part
of the Indian subcontinent. 
Kanishka inscriptions from 1830 to 1834 were found at Manikiyala in
Pakistan with Kharosthi script. 
It was called Bactrian Pahlavi by James Prinsep as it was found on various
Bactrian coins. 
James Princep deciphered 11 out of the 12 letters of Kharosthi script, rest were done
by C. Lassen, A. Cunningham, etc. 

Inscriptions in Kharosthi 

Distribution 

Distribution of Kharosthi Script 

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 This script was used in various parts of
the Gandhara Kingdom such as Indus,
Swat, and Kabul river valleys. 
Kharosthi scripts have also been discovered
from Qunduz in north Afghanistan,
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan. 
These have also been discovered
from Kumrahar (Patna) and Bharhut (a
famous stupa site in Madhya Pradesh). 
The Minor Rock Edicts I and II of Asoka in
Karnataka, the name of the scribe Chapada is
mentioned in Kharosthi. 
It also found its use in Central Asia such as in the Shan-shan kingdom on the
Tarim Basin. 
Due to patronage by Kushana rulers it was also found in areas outside Gandhara. 

Characteristic Features 

Characteristic Features of Kharosthi Script 

It is a middle Indo-Aryan dialect. 

It is written from right to left. 
It includes numbers similar to Roman numerals. 
It mostly consists of the use of Indian, Greek, and Iranian words. 
It consists of only one basic form of the vowel. 
In this script medial vowels are also expressed. 
Its original letters were based on Arabic and the remaining have evolved with the
addition of diacritic marks. 
It is cursive. 
It is a top-oriented script as each letter has a character on its upper part. 

Conclusion 

Kharosthi script was used in the Indian subcontinent by rulers to establish a connection
with the local population, for use on religious relics, etc. It was initially confined to the
Gandhara region. But with the spread and movement of people, it reached Central Asia,
some parts of northern India, and even South East Asia. Thus in the last decade of the
nineteenth century ‘Arian Pali’ was identified as ‘Kharosthi’ scripts. 

Q8. Gupta Script. 

Gupta script is also known as Late Brahmi Script. It was used for writing Sanskrit
language during the Gupta period. It was used from 320 to 550 AD. The Nagari,
Sharada, and Siddham scripts all descended from the Gupta script, which descended
from Brahmi. These scripts gave rise to many of India’s most important scripts,

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including Devanagari, Gurmukhi script for Punjabi, Assamese script, Bengali
script, and Tibetan script. All of these descendants of the Brahmi script are referred to
as Brahmic scripts. 

Origin of Gupta Script 

It traces its origin from Brahmi script. 

It gave rise to Sarada, Siddham and Devanagari scripts. 
It became widespread in Gupta empire as a result of which it also underwent
regional variations. 
These are found on gold coins, stone and iron pillars from Gupta dynasty. 
It includes Prayagraj Prasasti by Harisena. 

Gupta Script 

Characteristics of Gupta Script 

Each letter is represented by a consonant and an inherent vowel. 

There is absence of separate vowel letters. 
Letters are combined together based on their pronunciation. 
It is written from left to right in horizontal lines. 
In this script shapes and forms of diacritic are different. 
This script consists of 37 letters. 
Independent vowels are 5 in number, whereas consonants are 32. 
Combination of consonants called conjunct consonants are also present. 

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Vowels and Consonants in Gupta Script 

Conclusion 

The Gupta Empire was a period of religious and scientific developments. This era has
records of various inscriptions on coins, pillars, etc. Gupta script was evolved from the
Brahmi script and it further is considered to be responsible for emergence of Sarada, and
Siddam scripts. 

Q9. Write ‘Jna’ alphabet in Mauryan Brahmi Script. 

Q10. Where Mansehra inscription has been found? 

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan 

Mansehra Rock Edicts are fourteen edicts of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, inscribed

on rocks in Mansehra in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The edicts are cut into three
boulders and date back to 3rd century BC and they are written in the ancient Indic script
of Gandhara culture, Kharosthi. The edicts mention aspects of Ashoka’s dharma. The site
was submitted for inclusion in the World Heritage Sites and is currently in the tentative
list. 

Q11. What was the main title of Buddhamitra in Saranath inscription of

Kanishka? 

Bala Bodhisattva 

Q12. Convert 634 A.D. into saka era. 

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556 Saka Year 

Q13. Which seasoned is mentioned in Saranath inscription of Kanishka? 

At the back of the base of the statue: “In the 3rd year of the Maharaja Kanishka, the 3rd
(month) of winter, the 23rd day, on this (date specified as) above has (this gift) of Friar
Bala, a master of the Tripitaka, (namely an image of) the Bodhisattva and an umbrella
with a post, been erected.” 

Q14. Who edited the book “Select inscriptions”? 

Sircar,Dines Chandra dc 

Q15. Lumbini Pillar Inscription. 

The Lumbini pillar inscription, also called the Paderia inscription, is an

inscription in the ancient Brahmi script, discovered in December 1896 on a pillar of
Ashoka in Lumbini, Nepal by former Chief of the Nepalese Army General Khadga
Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana under the authority of Nepalese government and assisted
by Alois Anton Führer. Another famous inscription discovered nearby in a similar context
is the Nigali-Sagar inscription. The Lumbini inscription is generally categorized among
the Minor Pillar Edicts of Ashoka, although it is in the past tense and in the ordinary third
person (not the royal third person), suggesting that it is not a pronouncement of Ashoka
himself, but a rather later commemoration of his visit in the area. 

Q16. Write the definition of ‘Palacegraphy’ and critically examine the

various theories of the origin of Brahmi script. 

Palaeography or paleography   is the study of historic writing systems and the

deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts, including the analysis of
historic handwriting. It is concerned with the forms and processes of writing; not the
textual content of documents. Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering,
reading, and dating manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the
methods with which writing and books were produced, and the history of scriptoria. 

The discipline is one of the auxiliary sciences of history. It is important for understanding,

authenticating, and dating historic texts. However, it generally cannot be used to pinpoint
dates with high precision. 

Origin of Brahmi 

In spite of nearly two centuries of research on the history of writing in India, the precise
origin of the Brahmi script, the principal script of early India, from which all the later
South Asian and Southeast Asian scripts developed, has still remained improperly known.
The origin of the Brahmi script has been a major debate in the realm of Indian epigraphy
ever since its decipherment in the first half of the nineteenth century. Like most of the
‘origin theories’ scholarly world dealing with the origin of the Brahmi script is also divided

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into two ‘camps’, one advocating for an essentially Indian origin of the script, while the
other providing evidence in support of an extraneous influence and/or derivation.
Although systematic attempts at reconsidering the origin of the Brahmi script was
initiated by scholars like Georg Buhler and G.H. Ojha, attempts were made at explaining
the possible roots of this scripts well predate the researches of these two scholars.
Recently Richard Salomon has made a comprehensive review of the literature dealing
with the problem of the origin of this script. Here we may summarize the discussion on
the issue in the light of the thorough review made by Salomon. 

Theories of Indigenous Origin: 

Among the early scholars dealing with the issue, Alexander Cunningham suggested that
Brahmi had its root from a pictographic-logographic script and tried to explain the
palaeography of some of the Brahmi letters in the light of a kind of ‘pictographic
etymology’. His theory was, however, criticized for obvious reasons by Isaac Taylor and
others. 

G.H. Ojha and later, following him, R.B. Pandey and T.P. Verma suggested that Brahmi of
course had an indigenous genesis, though the precise route of the development leading to
what is seen in the Asokan inscriptions explained by them. In the words of Richard
Salomon: 

G. H. Ojha…was highly critical of Buhler’s Semitic derivation and was inclined to doubt
any foreign derivation, though he avoided denying the possibility altogether. Ojha
concluded that an indigenous origin is most likely, although the precise source and
development cannot be specified. R. B. Pandey argued more categorically in favor of an
indigenous origin, concluding that “the Brahmi characters were invented by the genius of
the Indian people who were far ahead of other peoples of ancient times in linguistics and
who evolved vast Vedic literature involving a definite knowledge of alphabet”. Since the
discovery in the 1920s and subsequent decades of extensive written artifacts of the Indus
Valley civilization dating back to the third and second millennia B.C., several scholars
have proposed that the presumptive indigenous prototype of the Brahmi script must have
been the Indus Valley script or some unknown derivative thereof. This possibility was first
proposed by S. Langdon in 1931, supported by G. R. Hunter, and endorsed by several later
authorities, most significantly by D. C. Sircar.’ 

It is important to note here that a protohistoric connection of the Brahmi script was also
offered by B.B. Lal on the basis if some graffiti marks on pottery from a site called
Vikramkhol and these were taken by Lal to argue an early antiquity of the Brahmi script,
the ‘Vikramkhol inscriptions’ being explained as ‘missing links’ between Harappan and
Early Brahmi scripts. However, Lal’s theory was not generally accepted. Some recent
scholars have argued that Brahmi, as we see in the inscriptions of Asoka, must have had
underwent preceding stage of development and refinement from a pre-existing system of
writing, particularly in view of the uniform and monumental version of the script

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appearing in the Asokan edicts. There are also proposals based on textual reference in
Buddhist, Jain and Classical literature that Indian knew the art of writing well before the
Maurya period. 

Theories of Foreign Origin: 

Compared to the school of Indian origin, the group supporting a non-Indian origin of the
script has more supporting evidence. This school, however, is again subdivided into a
number of sub-schools. James Prinsep believed that Brahmi had evolved from the Greek
script, obviously on the basis of the long-drawn cultural and political contacts of India
with the Macedonian world. But Prinsep was only able to explain the palaeography of a
few Brahmi letters as direct derivatives of Greek. A more refined theory of Greek
derivation was later proposed by J. Halevy. However, the theory gained importance
recently when Harry Falk accepted partially the proposal of Halevy and suggested a
modified argument, explaining the derivation of the earliest version of Brahmi from and
mixed Kharosthi and Greek progenitor. But here again, the problem was that none of
these latter scholars could explain the systemic on which their theories of derivation rest. 

Scholars debating on the origin of Brahmi from a probable Semitic origin are, likewise,
divided into two subgroups: those supporting a likely South Semitic origin and the others
favouring the North Semitic derivation. Supporters of the South Semitic derivation have
based their argument more on the direction of writing than the actual palaeographic
features, as Salomon has rightly pointed out. Different branches of the North Semitic have
been proposed by different authorities to have been the precursor of the early Brahmi
script. The first scholar to have underlined a probable connection between Phoenician
and Indian scripts was Ulrich Friedrich Kopp who as early as 1821 had prepared
comparative tables in the light of forms of modern Indian scripts and their link with
Phoenician. The most systematic and authentic study of the theme was undertaken by
Albrecht Weber who made a thorough comparison of the Phoenician and early Brahmi.
The theory was later presented in a more articulated and categorical frame by Buhler. An
Aramaic origin of Brahmi was first suggested by A.C. Burnell in the year 1874. In terms of
palaeographic development, a connection between early Brahmi and Aramaic is more
favoured than that of Phoenician., 

Richard Salomon has rightly observed that instead of looking into the problem of origin of
the Brahmi script in terms of the patterns of derivation of individual letter forms, it is
important to consider the systemic that govern the 

‘The system of postconsonantal diacritic vowel indicators looks like a natural adaptation
of the Semitic consonant-syllabic script for use in Indian languages. Similarly, the evident
development of the retroflex consonants as modified forms of the corresponding dentals
suggests an adaptation of a non-Indie prototype, since in an originally Indian system one
would have expected independent signs for the two classes from the very beginning.’ 

Q17. Why the inscriptions are important as the source of History?

Explain. 

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Inscriptions are more important than coins in his­torical reconstruction. The study of
inscriptions is called ‘epigraphy’, and the study of old writing is called ‘palaeography’.
Inscriptions are writings carved on seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls
and bricks or images. 

The vast epigraphic material available in India provides the most reliable data for
studying history. Like coins, inscriptions are preserved in various museums, but the
largest number is under the Chief Epigraphist at Mysore. 

The earliest inscriptions found were written in Prakrit in the 3rd century bc. Sanskrit
became an epigraphic medium in the 2nd century ad. Regional languages also came to be
employed in inscriptions from the 9th-10th centuries onwards. 

Many inscriptions pertaining to the history from the Maurya to Gupta times have been
pub­lished in a series of collections called ‘Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum’. In South
India, topo­graphical lists of inscriptions have been published. 

The earliest inscriptions are found on the seals of Harappa, which, however, remain
undeciphered. The oldest inscriptions deciphered so far are the Prakrit inscriptions, in
Brahmi and in Kharosthi, of Asoka (third century bc). 

Inscriptions are writings made on hard materials such as rocks, wood, bricks or metals.
The writings were common during the early ages and were used for a series of reasons.
Samudra Gupta was a leader of the Gupta Empire in ancient India and he is also referred
to as the father of inscriptions. Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions. Sir Alexander
Cunningham is known to be the father of epigraphy. Epigraphers reconstruct, translate
and date inscriptions. After that, historians come in to interpret and determine the events
that led to the inscriptions. 

Most of the time, the epigraphers happen to be historians as well. Early inscriptions and
epigraphy have lots of importance and relevance to the world today. Below are some of
the advantages that legends have brought along. 

PROPER DATING OF EVENTS 

Once epigraphers come across an inscription, the first thing they do is to date the writings
on the rock, cave or metal. The dating gives an approximate time that the writings were
engraved. After the legends have been translated, historians can keep records of the
events according to time. The inscriptions mostly tell stories of what happened ages ago
and are therefore perfect for filling some gaps in history. Without proper dating,
historians would not have reliable records. 

MORE INFORMATION 

Early inscriptions could either be formal or informal. The official legends keep records of
the kings and how they managed to conquer battles. The official writings also cover what
happened in the various kingdoms during that era. Informal inscriptions, on the other

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hand, give small details such as the names of the kings and queens, their habits, what they
preferred to do in their spare time and sometimes their favourite foods. Such details
enable historians to form profiles of the people they are dealing with and therefore tell the
stories better. 

Where inscriptions are made sheds a lot of light on the lifestyle of the people. There are
writings found in caves. From this, historians can tell that the people in that era lived in
caves. At other times, the records are found on buildings made of bricks. Such
information shows that bricks had been invented and people had moved from living in
caves. The same goes for inscriptions made on wood or metals. Apart from the
information itself, the location of the legends gives a clearer picture of the society. 

ANCIENT CULTURE AND BELIEFS 

The early inscriptions could be writings or drawings, giving detailed information on the
happenings. Significant events, such as religious practices and cultural events, were not
left out. Taboos and behaviour that qualified as ideal were also listed. The information left
behind helps people understand the lifestyle of the people better in terms of their culture
and beliefs. Knowing this, people can decipher the events and also classify if the actions of
the ancient kings were commendable or not. 

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 

Apart from the political events that occurred, inscriptions also tell stories about the social
and economic activities people indulged themselves in. Things like food grown for
commercial purposes and the mediums of exchange of goods and services were also
recorded. Social events and what people wore during that time are also important details
that are not left out in the inscriptions. Such features are essential while trying to
understand what happened ages ago. 

ACCURATE INFORMATION 

Inscriptions are the most accurate and reliable source of information about ancient times.
Since the reports were written as events happened, the records become the perfect
baseline to put together the happenings of the era. The inscriptions hint on all the major
transitions and occurrences in history and therefore rule out the speculation aspect. With
accurate information, historians ensure that one uniform story spreads throughout the
world. Without this, there would exist many inaccurate stories about the past. 

LEARNING NEW LANGUAGES 

Early inscriptions were written in different languages depending on the empire. For
epigraphers, this becomes a perfect opportunity for them to learn new words. The
deciphering of the inscriptions is essential and has to be done accurately. Therefore,
before translating what the legends say, epigraphers have to ensure that their mastery of
the language is impeccable. Also, translation is done by a team of epigraphers to ensure
they get everything right. 

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Q18. Who was Chandra? Discuss his achievements on the basis of
Mehrauli Pillar Inscription. 

Mehrauli inscription praises the Gupta emperor Chandragupta

Vikramaditya’s achievements. The iron pillar of Chandragupta dates from the
late fourth to early fifth century A.D. It is situated in the Qutb Mosque’s courtyard. It
is thought to have had the emblem of the mythical bird Garuda, the Guptas’ symbol, at
the top, but it is now missing. 

Mehrauli Inscription / Garuda Pillar – Background 

The Mehrauli Iron Pillar was originally located on a hill near the Beas River and was
transported to Delhi by a Delhi king. 
This pillar attributes the victory of the Vanga Countries to Chandragupta,
who fought alone against a confederacy of opponents gathered against him. 
It also praises him for defeating the Vakatkas in a battle that spanned Sindhu’s
seven mouths. 
The Mahrauli Iron Pillar is a historical landmark that entices visitors with its
intriguing iron structure that has not corroded since its creation over 1600 years
ago. 
Despite being exposed to the elements, the Iron Pillar remains robust, serving as a
great illustration of ancient India’s scientific and engineering progress. 
Archaeologists and materials scientists are still working to answer one of the world’s
oldest riddles. 
Iron Pillar, which rises magnificently at a height of 24 feet, is located within
the Qutub Complex, which also houses the famed Qutub Minar. It is located in
the Qutb Complex, in front of the Quwwatul Mosque. 
It contains verses composed in the Sanskrit language, in shardulvikridita metre. 

Iron Pillar 

Mahrauli Inscription / Garuda Pillar – History 

According to academics, the Mehrauli Iron Pillar was built during the early Gupta
dynasty (320-495 AD). This conclusion is based on the workmanship style and
inscription on the pillar, as well as the language. 
Scholars have discovered the name “Chandra” in the third stanza of the
inscription on the Iron pillar, which signifies kings of the Gupta Dynasty. 
The king is identified as Chandragupta II (375-415 CE) who was the son of King
Samudragupta. 
Chandragupta-II of the Gupta dynasty named this pillar Vishnupada in honor
of Lord Vishnu. 
According to one popular theory, the Iron Pillar was erected on top of a hill in
Madhya Pradesh called Udaygiri, from which King Iltutmish (1210-36 AD) carried it
to Delhi following his triumph. 

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 According to some experts, King
Anangpal II, Tomar King, lifted the
Delhi Iron Pillar and installed it in the
main shrine at Lal Kot in New Delhi
around 1050 AD. 
When King Prithviraj Chauhan,
Anangpal’s grandson, was defeated by
the Muhammad Ghori army in 1191,
Qutb-ud-din Aibak erected the
Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque at Lal Kot. 
The pillar was then relocated from its
original site in front of the mosque to
its current location. 

Features 

Mehrauli Inscription / Garuda Pillar

– Features 

Mehrauli’s Iron Pillar stands at a

height of 7.2 metres. It rests on a 48-centimetre-diameter intricately carved
foundation that weighs 6.5 tonnes. 
The pillar’s summit is embellished with carvings. It also includes a deep hole
that is claimed to be the foundation where Hindu Lord Garuda‘s statue was
placed. Inscriptions are engraved onto an iron pillar. 
The most intriguing aspect of Iron pillar architecture is that it has not rusted in
over 1600 years of exposure to the elements. 
Some of the inscriptions on the iron pillars hint to its origin. However, the original
place where it was created is still being investigated. 
At roughly 400 cm from the present ground level of the pillar, there is a conspicuous
depression in the centre of the otherwise smooth Iron Pillar. 
It is reported that the devastation was caused by the close-range fire of cannonballs. 

Mehrauli Inscription 

Conclusion 

The Mehrauli iron pillar, also known as the Delhi iron pillar or Lohe ki Lat, is located
within the Qutb complex. It was constructed in the fourth or fifth centuries CE and moved
to this position 800 years later during the Delhi Sultanate period. The Pillar is remarkable
for its rusty state, despite being made of 99% iron and having been built in the 5th century
CE, giving it a lifespan of roughly 1600 years. It is thought to have featured the insignia of
the mythological bird Garuda, the Guptas’ symbol, at the top, but it is now lost.

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Q19. What is the political importance of Besanagar Garud Pillar
inscription? Discuss. 

Garuda pillar is in vidisha(besnagar) in madhya pradesh. It is near to the sanchi

stupa. 
Heliodorous dedicated this pillar to god vasudeva. He was the greek ambassador of
greek king antialkidas in the court of the king bhagabhadra. Heliodorous describes
himself as bhagavata. 
According to the pillar’s information, heliodorus was converted to vaishnavism. 
The pillar symbolizes the joining of earth, space and heaven. This pillar is neither
tapered nor polished as in ashokan pillars. 
The 1st inscription on it describes the private religion of heliodorus. 
The second inscription was a verse from mahabharat. 
The pillar consists of a shaft, a base and a capital and is also carved with bell shaped
and flowers on it. 

Q20. Rummindeipillar Inscription. 

Lumbini Pillar Edict in Nepal is known as the Rummindei Pillar Inscription .The Lumbini
Pillar Edict recorded that sometime after the twentieth year of his reign, Ashoka travelled
to the Buddha’s birthplace and personally made offerings. He then had a stone pillar set
up and reduced the taxes of the people in that area. 

Ashoka’s pillars are a series of columns spread across the Indian subcontinent, erected or
at least engraved by edicts during his rule from c. BC 268 to 232. “pillars of the
Dharma”pillars of the Dharma. These pillars are significant landmarks to India’s
architecture, most of which show the characteristic Mauryan polish. Twenty of the pillars
erected by Ashoka, including those with inscriptions from his edicts, still survive. Out of
which seven complete specimens are known, only a few with animal capitals remain. Firuz
Shah Tughlaq moved two pillars to Delhi. Later, several pillars were moved by Mughal
Empire founders, removing the animal capitals. The pillars were pulled, often hundreds of

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miles, to where they were erected, averaging between 12 and 15 m in height, and weighing
up to 50 tons each. All the foundations of Ashoka were founded in Buddhist monasteries,
several important Buddha-life sites, and pilgrimage sites. There are inscriptions
addressed to monks and nuns on some of the columns. Some were erected to celebrate
Ashoka’s visit. The Pillar marks the astonishing occurrence of the birth of Buddha. With
legal markings and texts on it that can be read, the Pillar is well maintained. 

Q21. Write an essay on Sarnath Buddha Image Inscription of Kanishka I. 

The Bala Bodhisattva is an ancient Indian statue of a Bodhisattva, found in 1904-1905

by German archaeologist F.O. Oertel (1862-1942) in Sarnath, India. The statue has been
decisive in matching the reign of Kanishka with contemporary sculptural style, especially
the type of similar sculptures from Mathura, as its bears a dated inscription in his
name. This statue is in all probability a product of the art of Mathura, which was then
transported to the Ganges region. 

The inscription on the Bodhisattva explains that it was dedicated by a “Brother” (Bhikshu)
named Bala, in the “Year 3 of Kanishka”. This allows to be a rather precise date on the
sculptural style represented by the statue, as year 3 is thought to be approximately 123
CE. 

The inscription further states that Kanishka (who ruled from his capital in Mathura) had
several satraps under his commands in order to rule his vast territory: the names of
the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps Mahakshatrapa (“Great Satrap”) Kharapallana and
the Kshatrapa (“Satrap”) Vanaspara are mentioned as satraps for the eastern territories of
Kanishka’s empire. 

The Bala Bodhisattva with shaft and chatra umbrella, dedicated in “the year 3

of Kanishka” (circa 123 CE) by “brother (Bhikshu) Bala”. The right arm would have been
raised in a salutation gesture. Sarnath Museum. 

Main inscription 

Complete inscription of Bhikshu Bala on the octagonal shaft of the umbrella, with the
phrase  Mahārājasya Kāṇiṣkasya “Of The Great King Kanishka” at the beginning. 

Inscription on the octagonal shaft 

There are altogether three inscriptions, the largest one being the inscription on the
octagonal shaft of the umbrella. The octagonal shaft and its umbrella are visible in
“Avatāraṇa: a Note on the Bodhisattva Image Dated in the Third Year of Kaniṣka in the
Sārnāth Museum” by Giovanni Verardi.[6] 

Original text: 
1. mahārajasya
kaṇiskasya sam 3 he 3 di 20-2 

2. etaye purvaye bhiksusya pusyavuddhisya saddhyevi- 

3. harisya bhiksusya balasya tr[e]pi[ta]kasya 

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4. bodhisatvo chatrayasti ca pratisthapit[o] 
5. baranasiye bhagavato ca[m]k[r?]ame saha
mata- 
6. pitihi
saha upaddhyayaca[rye]hi
saddhyevihari- 
7. hi amtevasikehi
ca saha buddhamitraye
trepitika- 

8. ye saha ksatra[pe]na vanasparena

kharapall[a]- 
9. nena ca saha
ca[tu]hi parisahi sarvasatvanarn 
10. hita[szc]sukharttham 

Translation: 
1. In the year
3 of the Great King Kaniska, [month]
3 of winter, day 22: 

2–3. on this aforementioned [date], [as the gift] of

the Monk Bala, Tripitaka Master and companion of
the Monk Pusyavuddhi [= Pusyavrddhi or
Pusyabuddhi?], 
4. this Bodhisattva
and umbrella-and-staff was
established 

5. in Varanasi, at the Lord’s promenade, together

with [Bala’s] mother 
6. and father, with his
teachers and masters, his
companions 

with the Tripitaka Master Buddhamitra, 
7. and students,
8. with the Ksatrapa Vanaspara and Kharapallana, 

9. and with the four communities, 

10. for the welfare and happiness of all beings. 

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 Gupta ashoka m.svg

Gupta ashoka h.svg

Gupta allahabad raa.jpg

Gupta ashoka j.svg

Gupta ashoka sya.svg

Gupta ashoka kaa.svg

Gupta ashoka nni.jpg

Gupta ashoka ssk.jpg

Gupta ashoka sya.svg

Q22. What is the language and script of ‘Rummindei inscription’? 

Edicts inscribed at the beginning of Ashoka’s reign; in Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic.
Minor Pillar Edicts: Schism Edict, Queen’s Edict, Rummindei Edict, Nigali Sagar Edict; in
Prakrit. 

Q23. What do you understand by ‘Kshatrayasti’? 

Kshatriya, also spelled Kshattriya or Ksatriya, second highest in ritual status of the
four varnas, or social classes, of Hindu India, traditionally the military or
ruling class. 

In the second place were the rulers, also known as kshatriyas. They were expected to fight
battles and protect people. Third were the vish or the vaishyas. They were expected to be
farmers, herders, and traders. 

Q24. What do you mean by Piyadasin? 

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Priyadasi, also Piyadasi or Priyadarshi, was the name of a ruler in ancient India, or
simply an honorific epithet which means “He who regards others with kindness”,
“Humane”, “He would glances amiably”. 

The title “Priyadasi” appears repeatedly in the ancient inscriptions known as the Major
Rock Edicts or the Major Pillar Edicts, where it is generally used in conjunction with the
title “Devanampriya“ (“Beloved of the Gods”) in the formula “Devanampriya
Priyadasi”. Some of the inscriptions rather use the title “Rajan Priyadasi” (“King
Priyadarsi”). It also appears in Greek in the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription (c. 260
BCE), when naming the author of the proclamation as βασι[λ]εὺς Πιοδασσης
(“Basileus Piodassēs”), and in Aramaic in the same inscription as “our lord, king
Priyadasin” 

According to Christopher Beckwith, “Priyadasi” could simply be the proper name of an

early Indian king, author of the Major Rock Edicts or the Major Pillar Edicts inscriptions,
whom he identifies as probably the son of Chandragupta Maurya, otherwise known in
Greek source as Amitocrates. 

Q25. What is the date of Saka Samvat? 

The Shaka era is a historical Hindu calendar era (year numbering), the epoch (its year
zero) of which corresponds to Julian year 78. 

The era has been widely used in different regions of India as well as in SE Asia. 

There are two Shaka era systems in scholarly use, one is called Old Shaka Era, whose
epoch is uncertain, probably sometime in the 1st millennium BCE because ancient
Buddhist and Jaina inscriptions and texts use it, but this is a subject of dispute among
scholars. The other is called Saka Era of 78 CE, or simply Saka Era, a system that is
common in epigraphic evidence from southern India. A parallel northern India system is
the Vikrama Era, which is used by the Vikrami calendar linked to Vikramaditya. 

Q26. Why Sarnath is famous for? 

Sarnath is a place located 10 kilometres north-east of Varanasi near the confluence of the
Ganges and the Varuna rivers in Uttar Pradesh, India. The deer park inSarnath is
where Gautama Buddha first taught the Dhamma, and where the Buddhist
Sangha came into existence through the enlightenment of Kondanna. 

Q27. Who was Ravikirti? 

Ravikriti was the court poet of Pulakesin II, the Chalukya King. 

Q28. Where ‘Kahaum’ is situated? 

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Kahaum pillar is an 8 m (26 ft 3 in) structure located in Khukhundoo in the state of
Uttar Pradesh, and dates to the reign of Gupta Empire ruler Skandagupta. The 5th
century an 8 metres (26 ft) pillar known as Kahaum pillar was erected during the reign of
Skandagupta. 

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