MID-SEMESTER EVALUATION FOR DISSERTATION PRELIMS

“EARTHQUAKE ANALYSIS OF DIAGRID STRUCTURES”

SUBMITTED TO

SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

SURAT
OF

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
with specialization in
(STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING)
SUBMITTED BY
KSHITIJ CHAUDHARI
(ROLL NO. P21ST022)
UNDER THE ESTEEMED GUIDANCE OF

DR. C. D. MODHERA

PROFESSOR (HAG) (DoCE, SVNIT)

P.G. SECTION IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING,

DEPARTMENT OF CIVILENGINEERING
SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
SURAT – 395007, GUJARAT, INDIA
OCTOBER– 2022

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 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, SURAT

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mid-Semester Dissertation Prelims report entitled “Earthquake

Analysis of Diagrid Structures” submitted by Mr. Kshitij Chaudhari (P21ST022) in

partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of Master of Technology in Civil
Engineering with specialization in Structural Engineering of the Sardar Vallabhbhai National
Institute of Technology, Surat is a record of his own work carried out under research
supervisors’ supervision and guidance. The thesis report has been approved as it satisfies the
academic requirements prescribed for M.Tech. degree.

Dr. C. D. Modhera Dr. Shiwanand R. Suryawanshi

Research Supervisor P.G. In-Charge (SE)
Professor(HAG) Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
SVNIT, Surat SVNIT, Surat

Dr. Gaurang R. Vesmawala Dr. G. J. Joshi

Section Head (SE) Professor &Head
Associate Professor Department of Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering SVNIT, Surat
SVNIT, Surat

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 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, SURAT

EXAMINER’S APPROVAL CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “EARTHQUAKE ANALYSIS OF
DIAGRID STRUCTURES” submitted by Kshitij Chaudhari (Roll No. P21ST022) is
approved for the award of the degree of Master of Technology in Civil Engineering (Structural
Engineering).

Professor A.J. Shah Dr B. K. Vendhan

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
SVNIT, Surat SVNIT, Surat

Date: 29/12/2022

Place: Surat

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 AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness from bottom of
heart to my guide Dr. C. D. Modhera, Professor(HAG), Department of Civil Engineering,
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, under whose guidance this
dissertation prelim has been successfully completed. I am thankful for his persistent interest,
constant encouragement and critical evaluation. His invaluable suggestions and scholastic
guidance are culminated in the form of present work.

I am also thankful to all faculty members of Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar

Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat for their special attention and
suggestions towards the dissertation work.

My family members and friends, who motivated and supported me all throughout my
work, contribute a lot in making this work successful. I thank them from the bottom of my
heart. I would like to thank all who’s direct and indirect support helped me to complete my
work in time.

Kshitij Chaudhari

(P21ST022)

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 ABSTRACT
Enhancement in construction technologies, evolution of efficient structural system and scarcity
of urban land caused the development of the high rise building around the world. Structural
design of high-rise building is governed by lateral loads due to wind or earthquake. Usually
shear wall core, braced frame and their combination with frames are interior system where
lateral load is resisted by centrally located elements. While framed tube, braced tube structural
system resists lateral loads by elements provided on periphery of structure. It is very important
that the selected structural system is such that the structural elements are utilized efficiently
while satisfying design requirements. In Rigid frame system, tall building should be limited to
20 stories as it leads to shear racking of deflection due to bending of columns and beams which
causes storey drift too great. To reduce the storey drift in tall building an additional diagonal
or V-braces within the frame is created to eliminate the bending of columns and beams. The
high stiffness is achieved because the horizontal shear is now primarily absorbed by the web
members not by the columns. Thus, the web which is used in tall building to resists the lateral
forces is known as bracing system.
Now a days, the diagrid structural system is widely used for tall buildings due to its structural
efficiency, architectural design, Interior design point of view due to its column free area and
aesthetic potential provided by the unique geometric configuration of the system. It is a form
of space truss consists of multiple diagonal inclined elements to form a diagonal grid on the
periphery of structure and perimeter grid form series of triangulation truss system. In the system
almost all the conventional peripheral columns are eliminated. Diagonal member in diagrid
structure act as both inclined column and bracing element and carry gravity loads as well as
lateral forces due to triangulation configurations. Whereas braced system carries only lateral
forces. Diagrid structures are much more effective in minimizing shear deformation as they
carry shear by axial action of the diagonal members, while conventional framed tubular
structures carry shear by bending of vertical columns.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
CERTIFICATE ........................................................................................................................ 2
EXAMINER’S APPROVAL CERTIFICATE .......................................................................... 3
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................................... 4
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTHER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 7
1.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................................. 7
1.2 DIAGRID ............................................................................................................................. 10
1.3 WHY TO CHOOSE A DIAGRID ..................................................................................... 11
1.4 HISTORY OF DIAGRID SYSTEM ................................................................................. 11
1.5 EXAMPLES OF DIAGRID SYSTEM .............................................................................. 13
1.6 ADVANTAGES OF DIAGRID ......................................................................................... 16
1.7 LIMITATION OF DIAGRID ............................................................................................ 17
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 18
2.1 PREVIOUS RESEARCHS: ............................................................................................... 33
2.2 LITURATURE SUMMARY: ............................................................................................ 37
2.3 NEED OF THE STUDY: .................................................................................................... 57
2.4 OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................... 58
2.6 REFRENCES ...................................................................................................................... 59

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 CHAPTHER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1GENERAL
Enhancement in construction technology, evolution of efficient structural system and scarcity
of urban land caused the development of the high-rise building around the world. Lateral
loading due to wind or earthquake are governing in design of high-rise buildings along with
gravitational loading. The widely used lateral load resisting systems in high rise buildings are
rigid frame, shear wall, wall-frame, braced tube system, outrigger system and tubular system.

In Rigid frame system; tall building should be limited to 20 stories as it leads to shear racking
of deflection due to bending of columns and beams which causes storey drift too great. To
reduce this storey drift in tall building an additional diagonal or V-braces within the frame is
created to eliminate the bending of columns and beams. The high stiffness is achieved because
the horizontal shear is now primarily absorbed by the web members not by the columns. Thus
the web which is used in tall building to resists the lateral forces is known as bracing system.

Now a days, the diagrid – Diagonal Grid – structural system is widely used for tall steel
buildings due to its structural efficiency, architectural design, Interior design point of view due
to its column free area and aesthetic potential provided by the unique geometric configuration
of the system.

A classification for the structural system of a high-rise was introduced in 1969 by Fazlur-Khan
and was extended to incorporate interior and exterior structures. The primary lateral load-
resisting systems are defined based on whether a structural system is an interior or exterior one.
Figures shown below show the interior and exterior structural systems respectively for varying
number of storeys.

The following are the interior structural system.

• Rigid frame
• Braced frame
• Shear-wall structures
• Wall-frame structures
• Outrigger structures

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 Figure: Interior Structural System

The following are the exterior structural systems:

• Tube
• Diagrid
• Exoskeleton
• Space Truss Structure
• Super Frame

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Figure: External Structural System

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 1.2 DIAGRID

A Diagrid is a particular form of space truss as shown in figure, which is type of exterior
structural system. It consists of multiple diagonal elements that form a diagonal grid on the
periphery of the structure and perimeter grid form the series of triangulated truss system. In
diagrid structures, almost all conventional columns are eliminated. The diagonal grid makes
the structure stable even without having any conventional vertical columns.

Figure: Diagrid Structural System

Diagrid has good appearance, and it is easily recognized. The configuration and efficiency of
a diagrid system reduce the number of structural elements required on the facade of the
building, therefore less obstruction to the outside view. The structural efficiency of diagrid
system also helps in avoiding interior and corner columns, therefore allowing significant
flexibility with the floor plan. Perimeter diagrid system saves approximately 20 percent of the
structural steel weight when compared to a conventional braced moment resistance steel frame
structure.

The diagonal members in diagrid structural systems can carry gravity loads as well as lateral
forces due to their triangulated configuration. Diagrid structures are more effective in
minimizing shear deformation because they carry lateral shear by axial action of diagonal
members. Diagrid structures generally do not need high shear rigidity cores because shear can
be carried by the diagonal members located on the perimeter. In diagrid structures, diagonals
carry both storey shear and moment. Thus, the optimal angle of the angle of minimum cost of
steel which is made with the horizontal. So, it is very important to place diagonal at the

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periphery at optimal angle in terms of reduce structural steel with better resistance to gravity
loads as well as lateral loads.

The Diagrid systems are the evolution of braced tube structures, since the perimeter
configuration still holds for preserving the maximum bending resistance and rigidity with
respect to the braced tube, the mega-diagonal members are spread over the face of building,
giving rise to closely spaced diagonal elements and allowing for the complete elimination of
the conventional vertical columns. Therefore, the diagonal members in diagrid structures act
both as inclined columns and as bracing elements, carry gravity loads as well as lateral forces;
due to their triangulated configuration, mainly internal axial forces arise in the members,
minimizing shear racking effects.

The Swiss Re in London, Hearst Tower in New York, Lotte Super Tower in Seoul, Cyclone
Tower in Asan (Korea), Capital Gate Tower in Abu Dhabi, Bow Tower in Canada and Jinling
Tower in China are the examples of diagrid structures all around the world. The new
headquarter for Central China Television (CCTV) in Beijing is also one of the examples of
utilization of diagrid structural system to support the challenging shape.

1.3 WHY TO CHOOSE A DIAGRID

For tall building, bracing system is very important to resist lateral forces which are acting on
the tall buildings. Diagrid structure is an advance form of bracing system used in today’s world.
Diagrid system not only helps in resisting lateral forces acting on the tall buildings but it also
act as a column of the structure to resist different types of loading system like gravity load,
shear load, lateral load. By using diagrid system approximately 20 percent of saving can be
made on the structural steel weight when compared to conventional braced moment resisting
steel frame structure.

1.4 HISTORY OF DIAGRID SYSTEM

The 13 story IBM Building in Pittsburgh the was completed in 1963 is an early example of
successful implementation of diagrid system as shown in figure. Diagonal bracing members
are very efficient structural elements in resisting lateral loads. Thus, to resist the lateral load
effectively, most of the high-rise buildings consist of steel frame with diagonal bracing of
different configuration like X, K and eccentric etc. Generally, diagonal bracings are embedded
in the building cores which are usually located inside the building.

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 Figure: IBM Building

A major departure from this design approach occurred when braced tubular structures were
introduced in the late 1960s. For the 100-storey tall John Hancock Building in Chicago as
shown in figure, the diagonals were located along the entire exterior perimeter surfaces of the
building in order to maximize their structural effectiveness and to capitalize on the aesthetic
innovation. Diagrid structural system is used in recent tall buildings due to its structural
efficiency and flexibility in architectural planning. Compared to closely spaced vertical
columns in framed tube, diagrid structure consists of inclined columns on the exterior surface
on building.

Figure: John Hancock Building

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 1.5 EXAMPLES OF DIAGRID SYSTEM

Some examples of diagrid system which are used in high rise building across the world ae as
follows:

• Swiss Re Building

Swiss Re Building is located in London as shown in figure and also known as 30 Mary Axe. It
is the first modern application and the most representative example of diagrid structural system.
It is designed by Sir Norman Foster, with 40 stories and inter storey height of 4.15 m. The total
height of tower is 180 m.

The plan of Swiss Re Building is shown in figure. The building is circular in plan with diameter
changing along elevation. The diagrid is generated by a series of steel triangles, two-storey
high and 9 m wide, with an intermediate tie connecting the two diagonals. The diagonals are
circular hollow section (CHS) members, with cross section between 508 x 40 mm at the lowest
floors and 273 x 12.5 mm at the top, while the chord members have rectangular hollow section
(RHS), 250 x 300 mm with wall thickness of 25 mm. The circular central core, which has
constant diameter along elevation, does not contribute to the lateral resistance and rigidity,
being a simple frame structure.

Figure: Swiss Re Building Figure: Plan of Swiss Re Building

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 • Hearst Tower
Hearst Tower is located in New York as shown in figure. It is designed by Sir Norman Foster,
with 46 stories and 183 m tall, has a prismatic and rectangular floor plan, 48 x 37 m as shown
in figure and is built on an existent 6-storey building. The diagrid structure creates the diamond
effect in the façade. The diagrid module is 12.25 m wide and 16.54 m high, and covers 4 stories.
The diagonal cross section is I shape, with the maximum size W14 x 370 at the base of the
diagrid. The mega column between the tenth and the ground level are concrete filled box
section of 1100 x 1100 x 10 mm.

Figure: Hearst Tower Figure: Plan of Hearst Tower

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 • CENTRAL CHINA TELEVESION (CCTV)
Central China Television Tower is located in Beijing, China as shown in figure and is a good
example of utilization of diagrid structural system to support building with challenging shape.
CCTV is designed by the Rem Loolhass of OMA (Office for Metropolitan Architecture). The
234m tall tower redefines the form of skyscraper, _ with the primary system comprised of a
continuous structural tube of columns, beam and braces around the entire skin of the building.
Uniform bracing pattern of CCTV Tower is shown in figure.

Figure: CENTRAL CHINA TELEVESION (CCTV)

• CAPITAL GATE TOWER

Capital Gate Tower is located in Abu Dhabi as shown in figure. It is 35-storey iconic tower of
160 meter, part of the capital gate development around the Abu Dhabi national exhibition
centre. It features a presidential-style luxury hotel and office spaces. Leaning towards one
direction to an angle of 18 degrees, the tower has been nominated for the consideration of
Guinness book of world record as the world’s most inclined buildings. External diagonals are
of rectangular hollow tubes whereas the internal diagonal members are of circular hollow pipes.
Connection details are shown in figure.

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More than 13,000 tons of material is consumed for main structural steel work in addition to the
metal decking. Capital Gate is constructed on the top of the 2 meter deep concrete base filled
with an incredibly mesh of reinforced steel. This base sits above an intensive distribution of
490 piles which have been drilled 30 meters under-ground to accommodate the gravitational
and lateral pressure caused by the lean of the building.

Figure: Capital Gate Tower

1.6 ADVANTAGES OF DIAGRID

Following are the advantages of diagrid structural system:

• Generous amounts of day lighting due to a smaller number of interior columns and
Structure.
• Diagrid system offers mostly column free exterior and interior space.
• Diagrid system has higher torsional rigidity than the others.
• Full exploitation of the structural material.
• Free and clear, unique floor plans are possible.
• Aesthetically dominated and expressive.
• Combination of gravity as well as lateral load bearing system, potentially providing
more efficiency.
• Ability to reduce dependency on the core for lateral stability.

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 1.7 LIMITATION OF DIAGRID

Following are some of the limitations of diagrid structural system:

• Lack of availability of skilled workers.

• Diagrid Construction techniques are not thoroughly explored.
• It is hard to design windows that create a regular language from floor to floor.
• The diagrid system becomes difficult if not executed properly.
• Complicated joints.

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 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
Literature survey is carried out to familiar with the amount of work done in this area. This survey
gives ideas about the extent of work to be carried out during this project. It helps in framing the
scope of work. It also helps in deciding the line of action of work. It generates the clear vision of
the work and gives overall scenario of it. During this survey many new things, concepts, and
ideas will emerge which improve the clarity of the work. The literature is summarized as below.
In this literature review the behaviour of Diagrid structural system for group of stack floors each
representing the Diagrid module is studied and also different papers of Diagrid system are studied
here. It also content a brief description of Response Spectrum Method for calculating the
earthquake forces which will be acting on the steel structure and also a brief description of Wind
Load for calculating the wind forces which will be acting on the steel structure. Various research
papers are also referred for the understanding of behaviour, limitation, advantages, optimal angle;
nodes used for diagrid and analysis of the Diagrid structural system are studied in this chapter,
which has been done by different researchers in the field of Diagrid system.
2.2 BEHAVIOUR OF DIAGRID STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
2.2.1 GENERAL
Diagrid is a triangulated beam which is either straight or curved, and horizontal rings that form a
structural system on the periphery of the tall building such system is known as a Diagrid system.
Diagonal members of Diagrid structures can carry shear with the help of axial action to minimize
the shear deformation of Diagrid structures while framed tubular structures carry shear by
bending of vertical columns. The requirement of shear rigidity core is reduce as shear which is
carried by Diagrid and it is placed on the periphery of the structure. Diagrid system which forms
as an exterior tube helps in increasing moment arm to resist overturning of the structure. It has
high torsional rigidity than others.

2.2.2 BEHAVIOUR UNDER GRAVITY LOADING

The analysis of the Diagrid structures is carried out in a preliminary stage by dividing building
elevation into a group of stacking floors each represent the Diagrid module. As shown in fig [2.1]
; Diagrid module under gravity load is subjected to a vertical downward force , which causes
compression in two diagonal and tension in horizontal chord. The internal forces in Diagrid
element due to gravity loading can be calculated by using equation given below.
Here it is assumed that external loads are transferred to the Diagrid module only at the apex joint
of the module

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2.2.3 BEHAVIOUR UNDER LATERAL LOADING
Lateral load W, helps the structure to generate Shear force and overturning moment . Under this
horizontal load W, Shear force causes horizontal force in the apex joint of the Diagrid modules .
This shear force is mainly resisted by the web of the panel of Diagrid module. This horizontal
force causes compression in one diagonal and tension in another diagonal. Internal forces in
Diagrid element are calculated using equation given below when the Shear force is generated by
the lateral load W. The behavior for shear force which is generated by lateral load W is shown in
Fig [2.2]. Here it is assumed that external loads are transferred to the Diagrid module only at the
apex joint of the module.

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Similarly when the lateral load W, overturning moment causes vertical forces in the apex joint of
Diagrid module . As shown in the Fig [2.3] the direction and intensity of depends upon the
position of the module with respect to the direction of the wind load. The maximum intensity of
upward and downward force for the module located in windward / leeward side gradually
decreases the values for the modules located on the web sides. The vertical upward forces causes
tension in the two diagonals and compression in horizontal chord and when the vertical
downward forces acts it causes compression in the two diagonals and tension in the horizontal
chords. The internal forces in a Diagrid structures for the lateral loads which provides overturning
moment can be calculated by the following equation given below. Here it is assumed that external
loads are transferred to the Diagrid module only at the apex joint of the module.

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2.3 NODE

Node is the junction point of two or more diagrid members. A diagrid structure is constructed by
connecting members of series of nodes. Here, it is assumed that the node act as hinge or pinned
(non-moment resisting). Only axial forces are transferred through nodes (tension or compression).
So there should be adequate stiffness in connection between node and diagrid member. They are
generally design for two main loading vertical load and horizontal shear.

2.3.1 LOAD TRANSFER THROUGH DIAGRID NODE

Generally connection of inclined column in diagrid structures are more complicated than
conventional orthogonal connection and tend to be more expensive, required skilled labor and
prefabrication of node is essential. In diagrid structures connections, are designed for two main
loading type i.e., vertical load and horizontal load are shown in Fig.[2.5]. The vertical load will
be transferred in the form of axial load in the diagonal members above the node to the gusset
plate and stiffener then to the diagonal below the nodes as shown Fig.[2.5]. The horizontal shear
will be transferred in the form of axial load in the diagonal members above the node with one in
compression and one in tension to the gusset plate and stiffener.

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2.4 METHODOLOGY FOR THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF
DIAGRID SYSTEM

2.4.1 GENERAL
In this first the total displacement of the structure due to bending and shear deformation is found.
It is based on the quality of Diagrid structures and behavior characteristics of tall buildings which
is based on the height to width ratio and leads to required values of shear and bending
deformation.
This design methodology is applied to several structures of Diagrid having various heights to
width ratio. Based on this different guidelines has been derived for the contribution of bending
and shear deformation to the total lateral displacement of Diagrid tall structures. Thus different
methodology for design of Diagrid is applied which are as follows:

2.4.2 SHEAR STIFFNESS AND BENDING STIFFNESS

Here, one module is shown in Fig [2.6]. which is a part of a particular building. The building is
considered as a beam which is subdivided into modules according to repetitive Diagrid patterns.
Each module is defined by a single level of Diagrid which extend to number of stories as shown
in fig [2.6]. Depending upon the direction of loading, faces act as either web or flange element.
Diagonal members are assumed as truss element and transverse shear and moment are resisting
through only axial action.

Let Shear force V, bending moment M, are expressed in terms of displacement and rotation
measures, Δu and Δβ

Where is transverse shear and is bending shear as shown in fig [2.7] below

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Here similarly we can write;
Δu = ϒ*h
Δβ = χ*h
Where h is the height of module and χ is the curvature. The module stiffness measures are given
by following equation

Where is the number of diagonals extending over full height in one web plane and is a similar
count for one flange plane.
Lastly, to obtain the expressions for the typical area in the web and flange, the equation will be as
given below:

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2.4.3 DISPLACEMENT DUE TO SHEAR AND BENDING
Optimal design can be obtain through deformation corresponds to a state of uniform shear and
bending deformation under the design loading. Uniform deformation states are possible only for
statically determinate structure. Assuming the diagrid structure is modeled as a cantilever beam,
the deflection at the top is given by,

Here, ϒH is shear deformation and χ*H2/2 is bending deformation.

In order to determine the relation of shear versus bending deformation, a dimensionless factor is
introduced s, which is equal to the ratio of the displacement at the top of the structure due to
bending to the displacement due to shear.

As a building become taller and its height-to-width aspect ratio increases, the building naturally
tends to act more like a bending beam, and a larger bending to shear deformation ratio „S‟, is a
reasonable choice for an economical design. The choice of „S‟ value for the least amount of
structural material usage depends on not only the building’s aspect ratio but also the structural
system employed for the building, because each building has its own unique behavioural
characteristics. The maximum allowable displacement is usually expressed as a fraction of the
total building height.

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2.5 RESPONSE SPECTRUM METHOD
The calculation of design lateral forces is carried out by the Response Spectrum Method as per
Bureau of Indian Standards [IS 1893(Part-1) 2016].

2.5.1 DESIGN HORIZONTAL SEISMIC COEFFICIENT

The design horizontal seismic coefficient Ah for a structure shall be determined by the following
expression:

Where,
Z = Zone factor given in Table 2.1, is for the Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) and
service life of structure in a zone. The factor 2 in the denominator of Z is used so as to reduce the
Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) zone factor to the factor for Design Basis Earthquake
(DBE).
I = Importance factor given in Table 2.2, depending upon the functional use of the structures,
characterized by hazardous consequences of its failure, post-earthquake functional needs,
historical value, or economic importance.
R = Response reduction factor given in Table 2.3, depending on the perceived seismic damage
performance of the structure, characterized by-ductile or brittle deformations. However, the ratio
(I/R) shall not be greater than 1.0.
Sa/g = Average response acceleration coefficient for rock or soil sites as given by Fig. 2.9 and
Table 2.4, based on appropriate natural periods (Ta) and damping of the structure. These curves
represent free field ground motion.
Ta = The approximate fundamental natural period of vibration in seconds of a moment- resisting
frame building with brick infill panels may be estimates by the empirical expression:

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h = Height of building in m. this excludes the basement storey, where basement walls are
connected with ground floor deck or fitted between the building columns. But, it includes the
basement storey, when then they are not so connected.
d = Base dimension of the building at the plinth level in m, along the considered direction of
lateral force.

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2.6.2 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
The wind pressure at any height above mean ground level shall be obtained by the following
relationship between wind pressure and wind speed:
Pz= 0.6 * Vz 2 (2.28)
where
pz = wind pressure in N/m2 at height z,
Vz = design wind speed in m/s at height z.

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2.6.3 WIND LOAD ON INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS
When calculating the wind load on individual structural elements such as roofs and walls, and
individual cladding units and their fittings, it is essential to take account of the pressure difference
between opposite faces of such elements or units. For clad structures, it is, therefore, necessary to
know the internal pressure as well as the external pressure. Then the wind load, F, acting in a
direction normal to the individual structural element or cladding unit is:
F = (Cpe – Cpi) * Ae * (2.29)
Where
Cpe = external pressure coefficient,
Cpi = internal pressure coefficient,
Ae = surface area of structural element or cladding unit, and
= design wind pressure
NOTE 1 - If the surface design pressure varies with height, the surface areas of the structural
element may be sub-divided so that the specified pressures are taken over appropriate areas.
NOTE 2 – Positive wind load indicates the force acting towards the structural element (pressure)
and negative away from it (suction).

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2.5.5 STOREY SHEAR
The peak shear force (Vik) acting in storey i of mode k is expressed as following:

2.6 WIND LOAD

For tall buildings wind load will produces more lateral forces compared to the lateral forces
produced by the earthquake forces. So, wind loads should be taken into consideration for
designing of tall structure. For wind loads Bureau of Indian Standards [IS 875(Part-3) 2015 is
used for calculating the lateral forces due to wind load on a tall structures.
2.6.1 DESIGN WIND SPEED
The basic wind speed (Vb) for any site shall be obtained from Fig 1 of IS 875(Part- 3)2015 and
shall be modified to include the following effects to get design wind velocity at any height
(Vz)for chosen structure:
a) Risk level

b) Terrain roughness and height of structure

c) Local topography

d) Importance factor for the cyclonic region

Mathematically expressed as follows:

Vz = Vb k1 k2 k3 k4
where
Vz = design wind speed at any height z in m/s,
Vb = basic wind speed in m/s,
k1 = probability factor (risk coefficient),
k2 = terrain roughness and height factor,
k3 = topography factor, and
k4 = importance factor for the cyclonic region

2.6.2 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE

The wind pressure at any height above mean ground level shall be obtained by the following
relationship between wind pressure and wind speed:
Pz= 0.6 * Vz 2 (2.28)
where
pz = wind pressure in N/m2 at height z,
Vz = design wind speed in m/s at height z.
2.6.3 WIND LOAD ON INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS
When calculating the wind load on individual structural elements such as roofs and walls, and
individual cladding units and their fittings, it is essential to take account of the pressure difference
between opposite faces of such elements or units. For clad structures, it is, therefore, necessary to
know the internal pressure as well as the external pressure. Then the wind load, F, acting in a
direction normal to the individual structural element or cladding unit is:
F = (Cpe – Cpi) * Ae * (2.29)
Where

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Cpe = external pressure coefficient,
Cpi = internal pressure coefficient,
Ae = surface area of structural element or cladding unit, and
Pd= design wind pressure
NOTE 1 - If the surface design pressure varies with height, the surface areas of the structural
element may be sub-divided so that the specified pressures are taken over appropriate areas.
NOTE 2 – Positive wind load indicates the force acting towards the structural element (pressure)
and negative away from it (suction).

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• K3-Topography factor clause (5.3.3) IS-875:
The effect of topography will be significant at a site when the upwind slope (θ) is greater than
about 3o, and below that, the value of k3 may be taken to be equal to 1.0. The value of k3 is
confined in the range of 1.0 to 1.36 for slopes greater than 3o. A method of evaluating the value
of k3 for values greater than 1.0 is given in Appendix C. It may be noted that the value of k3 varies
with height above ground level, at a maximum near the ground, and reducing to 1.0 at higher
levels, for hill slope in excess of 17o.

• K4-Importance factor for cyclonic region: -

Cyclonic storms usually occur on the east coast of the country in addition to the Gujarat coast on
the west. Studies of wind speed and damage to buildings and structures point to the fact that the
speeds given in the basic wind speed map are often exceeded during the cyclones. The effect of
cyclonic storms is largely felt in a belt of approximately 60 km width at the coast. In order to
ensure greater safety of structures in this region (60 km wide on the east coast as well as on the
Gujarat coast), the following values of k4 are stipulated, as applicable according to the
importance of the structure:
Structures of post–cyclone importance - 1.30
Industrial structures - 1.15
All other structures - 1.00

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Page | 32
 2.1 PREVIOUS RESEARCHS:

Neha Tirkey and G.B. Ramesh Kumar [1]had done research on Analysis on the diagrid
structure with the conventional building frame using ETABS. The comparative study has been
successfully executed for different diagrid structures using ETABS software to find the
stiffness and flexibility of the high raised structures and also for an asymmetrical structure
through simple framework. The lateral load resisting system is better in resisting the gravity
loads than the structural system when the structure height gets increased. The configuration
and efficiency of the diagrid system has reduced the number of structural elements. The
ETABS software is used to design and analyze the results such as axial, shear and bending
moment. The possibility of failure is much lesser for diagrid structure when compared to the
conventional structure by heavy vibrations
during an earthquake

Kamil Ashraf Bhat and Peerzada Danish[2] had done research on Analyzing different
configurations of variable angle diagrid structures. The diagrid structures are becoming popular
due to their advantages.Many projects have started to adapt diagrids for reducingcost,
versatility and aesthetic appeal of diagrids. However, there is limited academic research on
geometry of diagrids and variable
angle diagrids which can help many construction projects. Also, the variable angle diagrids can
be more efficient and can help reducing cost more than diagrids with constant angle of
inclination.
This paper looks into the different configuration of the variable angle diagrid system and
compares the results based on the efficiency factor calculated for each configuration of the
models selected for the study. Selecting the suitable configuration of the variable angle diagrid
system can help in further reducing cost and material used for construction.

Harish Varsani , Narendra Pokar and Dipesh Gandhi[3] had done research on Comparative
Analysis of Diagrid Structural System and Conventional Structural System for High Rise Steel
Building. In this paper, analysis of diagrid structural system and conventional structural

Page | 33
systems are presented. A 36m x 36m size regular floor plan is considered. Modeling and
analysis of structure is done by ETABS software. All structural members are as design code IS
800:2007 considering all load combinations. From the study it is observed that diagonal
columns are resisted the lateral loads of structure, the top storey displacement is very much less
in diagrid structure as compared to the conventional frame building. The max displacement for
conventional structure is 172.7mm where
for diagrid structure max displacement is observed that 31.6mm only. The storey drift and
storey shear is very much less for diagrid structural system. Diagrid provide more resistance in
the building which makes system more effective. More flexibility in planning interior space
and façade of the building is provided by diagrid structural system.

Divya M. S. and B. Saraswathy[4] had done research on COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF

HIGH RISE STEEL BUILDING WITH HEXAGRID, DIAGRID AND CONVENTIONAL
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM. The top storey displacement is very much less in diagrid and
hexagrid compared to the conventional system since the diagonal columns resist lateral load of
the structure. Both diagrid and hexagrid system promise an effective shear distribution than
conventional system. The storey drift and modal time period is very much less for both the grid
system. Length of the diagonal member should be minimum as possible to attain the optimum
performance. Both diagrid and hexagrid system promise highly efficient structure. However
hexagrid system is recommended for making an economical structure, since the material
conception depends on the number of sides.

Dhaval N. Sorathiya and Jasmin Gadhiya[5] had done research on Review on behaviour of
Diagrid Structural System in High-Rise Building. Diagrid structural system provides more
flexibility in planning interior space and facade of the building. Diagrid provide more
resistance in the building which makes system more effective. The optimum angle range of
diagrid is 65° to 75° for most economic section. The parameter like base shear, storey drift,
time period, storey shear, top storey displacement and steel weight is less as compared it with
conventional structural system.

Amruta K.Potdar and G.R Patil [6] had done research on Optimum design of concrete
diagrid building and its comparison with conventional frame building. In this paper,
comparative analysis and design of 20-storey diagrid structural system building and simple
Page | 34
frame building is done here. A regular floor plan of 15m x 15m size is considered. Different
models for different diagrid angle (45, 63, 71, 75 and conventional) are made. ETABS 15
software is used for modelling and analysis of structure. Analysis results like displacement,
storey drift, shear force, axial force are presented here.
• Diagrid building results less lateral displacement and drift in comparison to conventional
building.
• Axial load on internal column is less in diagrid building as compared to conventional building.
• Shear force of interior beam is less in diagrid as compared to conventional building.
• For 20 storey diagrid structure, the optimal range of diagrid angle is from about 60º to 70º.
• diagrid buildings are more aesthetic in look and it is important for high rise building.
• Diagrid structural system provides more flexibility in planning interior space and facade of
the building.
• Torsional rigidity in diagrid structure is less compared to conventional. Torsional factor
should be studied carefully in diagrid.
• Diagrid structures are economical as compared to conventional, as less members required at
interior and exterior of the structure.

Dr.Gopisiddappa, M.Divyashree and Sindhuja G J[7] had done research on

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF HIGH RISE BUILDING WITH DIAGRID SYSTEM UNDER
DYNAMIC LOADING. The present work consists of analysis of 30 storey linear building and
analysis of diagrid systems with different diagonal angles that is 45 degree, 63 degree, 73
degree, 75 degree, 78 degree, 81 degree. The comparison between linear building and diagrid
building is carried out. ETABS software is used for modeling and analysis of structure.
Analysis results like storey displacement, interstorey drift
are presented here.Following are the conclusions inferred from the study. Framing building
without any load resisting system shows highest drift and displacement value as compared to
diagrid system. Top storey displacement is less for diagrid system with diagonal angle 63
dgeree. Between the region 63 degree to 75 degree (diagonal angle) diagrid system posses
better stiffness, storey drift and storey displacement are less in this region.

Aarthi Senthilkumar and R. Umamaheswari[8] had done research on

Comparative Analysis of a Conventional Structure and a Diagrid Structure Subjected to
Seismic Loading. Based on the comparative analysis carried out, the conclusions drawn are
Page | 35
1. The diagrid structure has more efficiency in terms of lateral displacement under seismic
loading.
2. The diagrid structure emerged as a better solution in terms of storey drift.
3. The diagrid structure resists higher lateral forces as it has greater stiffness and can be
preferred over conventional structure.
4. The diagrid structure performed so well, despite all the vertical columns being eliminated in
the interior of the structure.
5. The diagrid structure is evidently more efficient than the conventional structure.

Mohammad Zunnoorain and Ganesh Jaiswal[9] had done research on Diagrid and Bracing
System Comparative Structural Performance and Sustainability Concept. In this paper we have
done modelling and analysis of 40-Story structure on 3 different models i.e., X-Braced frame
Structure,
Diagrid Structure and V-Bracing frame Structures. From the results of Maximum Story
displacement, Story drift and Load distribution on exterior and interior frames we get the best
and economical results in Diagrid Structures. High-rise structures often use the diagrid
structural system, which makes it easier to design and construct complicated structures in the
modern era.
Additionally, braced tube structures have proven to be extremely resilient to lateral
displacements and storey changes. Even though the values of both structures are below the
maximum allowable limits, braced frame structure results are much better for a luxury building
because they will improve the comfort conditions in the building but require a lot of structural
materials because it also includes cross bracing, which increases the cost of the building and
construction ,whereas in diagrid structure, columns are only in the core of the building and
bracing are in the periphery of the building, and building d remain economical along with
values below the allowable limits.
Among the findings are that diagrid structures, as opposed to more traditional steel structural
designs like braced frame structures, outrigger structures, etc., save a significant amount of
(steel) weight. Additionally, the effectiveness of diagrid constructions has been evaluated in
terms of safety, serviceability, and structural resilience in addition to material reduction.
Bhavani Shankar and Priyanka M V[10] had done research on COMPARATIVE STUDY
OF CONCRETE DIAGRID BUILDING AND CONVENTIONAL FRAME BUILDING
SUBJECTED TO SEISMIC FORCE. Lateral displacement is caused due to the lateral forces

Page | 36
acting on the building. The displacement of diagrid structure is found to be lesser when
compared with the conventional structure. [2] Maximum percentage reduction in displacement
is observed to be more in diagrid structure than that of conventional structure of similar plan
size and same number of storey. [3] Storey shear and Base shear of the diagrid system is found
to be maximum when compared with the conventional structure. [4] It is evident that, the value
of storey drift increases as the number of storey increases upto certain level and then it reduces.
The drift upto G+14 increased gradually but is found to be reduced at G+15 storey. The diagrid
system found to be important for high rise structures as drift decreases with the increase in
altitude of structure after certain level of height. The drift value of diagrid structure is
comparatively less than the conventional structure. [5] The value of storey displacement is
found to be more for M4 when compared with M1 to M10. In M5 maximum reduction in
displacement by 63.4% is observed. Hence provision of diagrid with an angle of 63.40 and
length of 6.7m is found to be more effective in rigidity. [6] Storey shear and Base shear of M5
is more when compared with M1 to M10. A maximum increment of base shear by 73.45% is
observed in M5. But M4 has an increment of only 18.8%. [7] Compared with other models M5
shows good result in terms of Storey drift. Diagrid of angle 63.40 and length 6.7m is found to
be more effective in stiffness. [8] Time Period of M1 is comparatively more than other models.
[9] Diagrid structural system looks aesthetically pleasing and becomes important for high rise
building in comparison to conventional structural system.

2.1 LITURATURE SUMMARY:

From the literature it is been observed that the diagrid structure is the structural system which
are very much useful for resisting the lateral load like wind load and earthquake load. From the
literature it is been experimented that on the different types of diagrid structural system and
from that the result has been concluded. In the diagrid structure the vertical columns are not
there instead of that they have the inclined columns so that it can resist the lateral load like
wind load and earthquake load. From the literature it is been seen that there is an optimal angle
at which the diagrid structure gives the perfect resistance to the lateral load and keep the
structure safe. Diagrid Structure can be performed using the different cross sections so that it
can be resisting the more lateral load then the conventional building.

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Sample Model:
Building Data for braced Building 36m
G + 10
Height of building
Plan size 15mX15m
Storey height 3m
Beams in X-direction 3m
Beams in Y-direction 3m
Bracing type X-type
Type of Section used for beam and RCC section
columns
Type of Section used for bracing RCC section
Seismic zone factor 0.36
Seismic Zone II
Importance Factor 1
Response Reduction Factor 5
Terrain Category 4
Wind Speed 44 m/s
Windward Cp 0.8
Leeward Cp 0.5
Rebar Material HYSD 500
Concrete Material M30
Beam 0.45mX0.23m
Column 0.6mX0.23m
Slab 0.18m
Diagrid 0.35mX0.35m

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Page | 41
Loading Conditions:
• External wall load = 0.23x20x3 = 13.8 kN/m
• Internal wall load = 0.125x20x3 = 7.5 kN/m
• Parapet wall load = 0.125x20x1.2 = 3 kN/m
• Total Dead load = 24.3 kN/m
• Floor load = 0.1x20 = 2 kN/m^2
• Live load = 3 kN/m^2

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Analysis of Building:

Page | 44
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Designing of Building:

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Ductile Detailing:

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Slab Reinforcement Detailing:

Beam Reinforcement Detailing:

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Column Reinforcement Detailing:

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2.1.1 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM

2.1.1.1 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF G+36 STOREY CIRCULAR

CONVENTIONAL STEEL BUILDING WITH INVERTED X- BRACING

2.1.1.2 GENERAL
A steel circular building with G+ 36 storeys with plan dimension dia 40m considered.
In this model all the beams are provided at 4m c/c in X-Direction and Y-Direction. X-bracings are
provided at the periphery of the conventional steel building for resisting the lateral forces. Plan and
elevation of steel structure are shown in fig[3.1] and fig[3.2] respectively.

PROBLEM DATA:
Building Data for braced Building 36m
Height of building
Plan size dia 40m
Storey height 3m
Beams in X-direction 4m
Beams in Y-direction 4m
Bracing type Inverted X-type
Type of Section used for beam and I-sections
columns (IS and Universal sections)
Type of Section used for bracing Tubular section
Seismic zone III
Frame material except slab Structural steel
Density of Steel 78.5 kN/m3

2.1.1.3 BUILDING CONFIGURATIONS

The G+36 storey conventional steel building with inverted V-bracing having plan dimension of
40m X 40m. The model structure is having typical storey height of 3.6m and total height of steel
building is 135.6m. All the beams and columns in this model are analyzed and designed as a
beam element and external bracings which are placed at the periphery of the steel building are
analyzed and designed as a truss element for resisting all the lateral loads due to wind and
earthquake which is acting on the structure. Type of sections used for beam and column elements
in braced building is done by using Indian standards I-sections and Universal sections. Tubular
sections are used for the bracing system.

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2.1.1.4 LOADING DATA
In the present structural modal, the loads have been assigned under the following six categories:
1. Dead Load (DL)

2. Live Load (LL)

3. Wind load in X direction (Wind X)

4. Wind load in Y direction (Wind Y)

5. Earthquake load in X direction (EQ X)

6. Earthquake load in Y direction (EQ Y)

2.1.1.5 DEAD LOAD

The Dead load consists of self-weight of elements and weight of floor finish. Since the rcc slabs
are modelled in ETABS, the self-weight of slab is calculated directly. Considering thickness of
slab as 125 mm and density of concrete is taken as 25 kN/m3.
Floor Finish = 1 kN/m2
Wall load 115mm thick partition wall having density of 20 kN/m3 is applied on the interior
beams.
Wall load = 0.115X20X3
= 6.9 kN/m
7 kN/m
Glass load of 6.5mm thick having density of 0.167kN/m2 , which is applied at the periphery of the
building.
Glass load = 0.167X3.6
= 0.601 kN/m
2.1.1.6 LIVE LOAD
4 kN/ taken as per IS:875(part-2)(2015) as it is taken as commercial building.

2.1.1.7 WIND LOAD

The wind loads are calculated as per IS 875 – Part 3(2015) using following data:
Table 3.2 : Wind load Data For braced Building
WIND LOAD (IS:875 PART-3)
Location Surat
Category 2
class C
Topography θ < 3 degree

2.1.1.8 EARTHQUAKE LOAD

Dynamic Analysis is been carried out by using Response Spectrum Method for calculating the
earthquake loads.
Table 3.3 : Seismic load Data for Braced Building SEISMIC

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LOAD (IS:1893 PART-1)
Zone factor Z 0.16
Importance factor 1.5
Response reduction factor 4
Soil type Type II
Damping Ratio 5%
Time Period 1.929

2.1.1.8 LOAD COMBINATIONS

The G+36 storey conventional steel building with inverted V-bracing is analyzed and designed by
using following load combinations:
1. 1.5(DL+LL)
2. 1.2(DL+LL+EQX)
3. 1.2(DL+LL-EQX)
4. 1.2(DL+LL+EQY)
5. 1.2(DL+LL-EQY)
6. 1.5(DL+EQX)
7. 1.5(DL-EQX)
8. 1.5(DL+EQY)
9. 1.5(DL-EQY)
10. 1.5(DL+WIND X)
11. 1.5(DL-WIND X)
12. 1.5(DL+WIND Y)
13. 1.5(DL-WIND Y)
14. 1.2(DL+LL+WIND X)
15. 1.2(DL+LL-WIND X)
16. 1.2(DL+LL+WIND Y)
17. 1.2(DL+LL-WIND Y)
18. 1.2(DL+LL)+0.6 WIND X
19. 1.2(DL+LL)-0.6 WIND X
20. 1.2(DL+LL)+0.6 WIND Y
21. 1.2(DL+LL)-0.6 WIND Y
22. 0.9DL+1.5 WIND X
23. 0.9DL-1.5 WIND X
24. 0.9DL+1.5 WIND Y

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25. 0.9DL-1.5 WIND Y
26. 0.9DL+1.5 EQX
27. 0.9DL+1.5 EQY

2.1.1.9 MODELLING , ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

In this section, modelling of Conventional Braced Steel Structure is done with its analysis and
design with help of ETABS software. For the analysis, the beams and columns are modeled as
beam elements and the bracings are modeled as truss elements which are provided at the
periphery of the structure shown in Fig [3.2].
The steps followed for modelling of G+ 36 storeys steel braced structure with its analysis and
design of structure is as follows:
Prepare three dimensional structure model.

Assign the support condition to model.

Assign the section properties to all elements.

Assign the braced elements as a truss member to take only compression and tension forces.

Apply the loads to the structures with the combinations as per IS 800-2007.

Analysis the model.

From the analysis results, design the structural elements and if required, sections are modified
and analysis is carried out again.

2.2 NEED OF THE STUDY:

• Diagrid Structure can be evaluated on the Response Reduction Factor and can be further
analysis more accurately and find out the displacement vs story graph.
• Diagrid Structure can be evaluated on the higher story.
• Diagrid Structure can be applied to the more complex structure.
• Non-linear analysis can be performed for diagrid structures.

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 2.3 OBJECTIVES

• To understand the behaviour of diagrid structural system for steel buildings.

• To evaluate the efficiency of diagrid structural system compared to conventional
braced structure, like inverted V-bracing.
• To derive optimal configuration of diagrid structure for better adoptability in
construction.

2.4 SCOPE OF WORK:

The Present Work Can be Further Extended to Following:

• Response Reduction Factor Can be evaluated for the Diagrid Structures.
• Diagrid Structure can be studied for higher storey to understand its behaviour.
• Diagrid Structural System Can be Applied for the Complex Shaped Building and Non-
uniform Plan.
• Non-linear Analysis Can be performed for Diagrid Structures.
• Design of Diagrid Structure may be implemented for Composite Structures and R.C.C.
Structures.

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 2.5 REFRENCES

1. Tirkey, N., Ramesh Kumar, G.B.: Analysis on the diagrid structure with the
conventional building frame using ETABS. Mater. Today Proc. 22, 514–518 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.08.107
2. Bhat, K.A., Danish, P.: Analyzing different configurations of variable angle diagrid
structures. Mater. Today Proc. 42, 821–826 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.372
3. Varsani, H., Pokar, N., Gandhi, D.: Comparative Analysis of Diagrid Structural
System and Conventional Structural System for High Rise Steel Building. Int. Res. J.
Eng. Technol. 4, (2017)
4. Journal, I.: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF HIGH RISE STEEL BUILDING WITH
HEXAGRID , DIAGRID AND CONVENTIONAL STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF HIGH RISE STEEL BUILDING WITH.
5. Sorathiya, D.N., Gadhiya, J.: Review on behaviour of Diagrid Structural System in
High-Rise Building. 02, 2–5 (2017)
6. Journal, I., Potdar, A.P.: Optimum design of concrete diagrid building and its
comparison with conventional frame building.
7. Journal, I.: PERFORMANCE STUDY OF HIGH RISE BUILDING WITH DIAGRID
SYSTEM UNDER DYNAMIC LOADING PERFORMANCE STUDY OF HIGH
RISE BUILDING WITH DIAGRID.
8. Senthilkumar, A., Umamaheswari, R.: Comparative Analysis of a Conventional
Structure and a Diagrid Structure Subjected to Seismic Loading. 2, 255–258 (2021)
9. Zunnoorain, M., Jaiswal, G.: Diagrid and Bracing System Comparative Structural
Performance and Sustainability Concept. Int. J. Res. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. 10,
4305–4312 (2022). https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2022.45980
10. Journal, I.: IRJET- COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CONCRETE DIAGRID
BUILDING AND CONVENTIONAL FRAME BUILDING SUBJECTED TO
SEISMIC FORCE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CONCRETE DIAGRID
BUILDING AND.

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