paper 1

What it consist of
analyze and evaluate the impact Of device's writer's methods
developyour own interpretation's
Use evidence effectively
structure and Organize a response
write using persuasive and sophisticated language
Criteria tables
 How to achieve it
Do not read passively
read with a highlighter or pen in your hand
pick out important
themes
ideas
devices
informationrelevant question
Plan before writing
mind map is
Outline What
table atreve
Audience Purpose speaker
Content theme Ocasión
Audience assaf
TorreMood
style purpose your SCOPE
structure Subject the
Tone
How to write an effective essay ME
indicating
ojeó
Introduction with a Clear thesis
1 body paragraph go.gg
link to thesis µg
argumente
2 body paragraph contains
thedaosDe
to
It
link to thesis summarize
have verbs
argument 2 doesnot
specific
3 bodylink
paragraph Use
to thesis
argument3
4 body paragraph optional
a conclusion evaluating what you have learned
Introduction
short and focused
outline your answer
answer directly
key words
give some context
Stylistic devices
refers to the pronunciation of a language Creates aninformal
realisticsituation

repetition of soundsBibilance is repetitionof s Sound

when the author refers to a StoryIcontext that thereaderknows
transferring characteristics of onethingLevent to another
is the repetition of the same wordphrasesuccession of phrases
a contrast betweenideas
persuading people throughfear
 repetition of consonant to create harsh and unpleasantsounds

metaphorthathasbeenUsedoverand over again

linkingwords like before so because slowdownthepaceandbuilduponaction
theomissionfromspeechorwritingof a wordsthataresuperfluos
extreme exageration
theexpression ofone'smeaning by usinglanguagethat normally signifiestheopposite
twothingsbeingplacedbeenclosetogetherwithcontrastingested
a statement appears to contradictitself
a conclusionreached on the basis of evidence and reasoning
be a warning or indication of a future event
a figure speech in which apparently contradictorytermsappear inconjura

logictreasonproof
metaphorsstructureofspeech referencestostudies comparisons analogies

credibility trust emotionsvalues

personalbranding stories
confidence indelivery inspirationalquotes
citescrediblesources vivid language

narrative
descriptive
argumentative
expository
 Language Devices and their Effects 
 

Device  Description  Effect(s) Model response

Writer’s use of evidence and support
Facts  A fact is a piece of information  ‐ Facts are used to demonstrate or emphasise  The facts used in this article provide medical 
  that can be demonstrated or  a writer's point by providing evidence to  evidence that cigarettes are dangerous.  The 
proven to be true.  support claims  reference to’4,000 different chemicals’ is a 
  ‐ For example:   fact that is designed to shock the reader; this 
'As well as nicotine, each cigarette contains  makes the text more powerful. 
more than 4,000 different chemicals, many of 
which are harmful to the body'. 
Opinions  An opinion is an individual's  ‐ Like facts, opinions emphasise the point of a  By expressing the strong opinion that smoking 
  own thoughts or beliefs  writer but make the message more personal  is an ‘awful habit’ and that ‘anyone who 
rather than completely factual  smokes stinks,’ the writer makes the message 
‐ For example:   more personal, emphasises the negative 
'Smoking is an awful habit and anyone who  points of smoking, and makes the reader feel 
smokes stinks'.  almost obliged to have a response. 
Statistics  A statistic is numerical data  ‐ Numerical data can be used like facts to  The statistic ‘9 out of 10 people’   emphasises 
    emphasise and demonstrate the point of the  the significant numbers opposing the 
writer  development and lends weight to the 
‐ For example:   argument that the building programme should 
'9 out of 10 people voted against the proposal   not go ahead. 
anecdotes  A mini‐story from personal  ‐ Enhances the argument.  It makes the text  When the writer describes her experience 
experience about a person or  more personal and connects to the reader’s  with an anecdote ‘Just yesterday  I …’ she 
incident   experiences  gives the text a very personal edge and many 
  ‐For example:  of us can connect here with similar 
 ‘Just yesterday I was walking home from  experiences of our own which adds 
school when …’  immediacy to her text. 
Quotations   Evidence from source – and in  ‐It can create added authority to make the  The study stating that ‘elephants could be 
non‐fiction writing often an  text more convincing.  extinct in 20 years’ is convincing because we 
expert source  Adds credibility to an argument.  know it is given by an ‘animal research expert’ 
‐For example:   and this helps the article persuade us that 
‘Animal research expert Martin Davis said’ All  something needs to be done since the 
the evidence from our studies point to the  evidence is being provided by an expert in the 
fact that elephants could be extinct in 20  field. 
years if nothing is done to prevent tusk‐
hunting.’ 
Writer’s  text  design ‐  devices across  a text
Formal voice   ‐This makes a text seem more authoritative,  The use of formal voice in this letter gives it an 
We use formal language in  with more power of persuasion  authoritative tone. The word ’compelled’ 
situations that are serious or  ‐For example:  makes the reader aware of the seriousness of 
that involve people we don’t   ‘After reading an article about the frightening  the writer’s intention. The phrase 
know well.  increase in truancy rates in Britain, I feel  ‘astoundingly high’  is a formal expression 
Formal language is more  compelled to offer my views on the subject. I  which maintains the serious tone. 
common when we write;  was shocked and surprised at the astoundingly 
There are also examples  high numbers of students who truant every 
where spoken English can be  day.’ 
very formal, for example, in a 
speech or a lecture.

Informal voice   ‐This Involves the reader at a more personal  The use of informal voice helps engage the 

Informal language is more  level.   reader as it seems more familiar and relaxed, 
commonly used in situations  ‐It engages and makes the text more  and it helps to form a clear picture of the 
that are more relaxed and  accessible.  writer and his attitudes. It makes for lively, 
involve people we know well.  ‐For example:   entertaining reading. In fact you could almost 
Although more common  The problem with being a parent is kids! I  imagine him sitting in front of you saying 
when we speak, there are  know I am sounding like something out a TV  these words. It certainly stimulates a response 
times where writing can be  sitcom, but that’s the way I see it. Now don’t  from the reader. 
very informal eg, letters to  get me wrong, I love my kids, but come on – 
friends, emails or texts.  I’ve got a life, they’ve got a life, we all have. So 
let’s try to meet half way.  
First person  A narrative mode that  ‐ This makes the text more personal, gives it a  By involving himself and his own eating habits 
perspective   involves one narrator  personal voice, which interests the reader as  he makes his case stronger. The text feels 
  speaking of and about  they may feel like they can 'relate' to the  more personal and we can relate to his 
themselves – use of ‘I’ and  writer or that they 'know' them somehow. It  experience because eating meat is something 
personal pronouns like ‘we’  invites empathy as the writer is likely to  most of us do. He opens out to include the 
‘us’  express personal thoughts and feelings.  personal pronoun ‘we’ which gives his text an 
The inclusive pronoun ‘we’ can make the  inclusive feel and makes it more powerful. 
reader feel   part of what is being written. 
For example: 
As a committed meat‐eater I have to 
acknowledge that if I want my grandchildren 
ever to enjoy a perfect steak I must address 
my habits now: all this animal munching 
cannot go on. We all need to see meat eating 
as more of a luxury. 
 
Third person  In narrative, it is a mode that  ‐ Third person narration allows for a  The use of third person perspective here helps 
perspective  involves the narrator referring  separation between the narrator and the  create a more impersonal and reflective 
  to characters as  character and allows for more information to  report. The purpose is to inform and it helps 
  "he"/"she"/"it"/etc .  be revealed to the audience of which even the  maintain a distance between the subject and 
  character may not be aware.  the opinions of the writer. It is for the 
In non‐fiction it works in a  Third person perspective in non‐fiction is  audience to read, reflect and form an opinion 
slightly different way  appropriate to retain a more impersonal and  on the subject. 
distant perspective. 
‐For example:  
As a means of discouraging children from a 
couch potato lifestyle, it ranks among the 
more bizarre solutions. 
A designer has come up with a device that 
stops the user watching television until they 
have done enough exercise. 
 
 
Direct address  Direct address is when the  ‐ Directly addressing the reader involves them  The writer is sharing a feeling that is not just 
( Second  text addresses the reader in a  in the text and makes them think harder  personal but something many adults will have 
person  way that makes it sound  about what the text is 'saying'.  experienced – that thrill of passing your 
perspective )  personal achieved through  ‐It can create a friendly tone and involve the  driving test and the freedom it gives you. An 
use of second person  reader making it feel as though the text is  adult reader will feel more involved because 
narration 'You'.  addressed directly at the reader involving  they share the same emotional response. 
  them personally. It can feel friendly, inviting 
  even confiding. It can also feel forceful and 
  persuasive. 
   
  ‐For example:  
  ‘It’s a feeling that stays with you forever. That 
  wonderful moment when you sit behind the 
  wheel and notice that for the first time that 
  the passenger seat isn’t occupied by an 
instructor or examiner.’ 
 
 
Tone  Tone is the author’s attitude  Tone affects the way we read and understand  The first extract has an enthusiastic tone. 
  to the topic.  and respond to a text.  Marla’s excitement is conveyed through the 
  Objective tone is impartial – it    use of the words ’flew’ ‘threw’ showing the 
does not show any feelings for  ‐For example:   speed with which she moved.  By stating that 
or against.  Marla leapt down the stairs, two at a time,  she ‘basked’ in the ‘glory’ we are shown 
Subjective tone is personal,  flew into the living room, threw open the  Marla’s delight in the experience of the freshly 
biased, emotional and often  window, and basked in the glory of the freshly  fallen snow. 
informal.   
fallen snow. 
Tone is expressed through the  The second extract has a gloomy tone. The 
words and details the author  Then Marla plodded downstairs to the living  word ‘ plodded’ reflects  her mood and lack of 
selects.   room, where she reluctantly opened the  enthusiasm is shown through the use of 
  window to find that the sticky, freezing white  ‘reluctantly.’ By describing the snow as 
  stuff was falling from the sky for the first time  ‘freezing white stuff’ she is avoiding making 
  that year. Ugh.  any emotional or connection with it. The final 
word ‘Ugh.’ Confirms her negative response. 
Writer’s  text  design ‐  devices within a text
Rhetorical  A question that does not  ‐ Rhetorical questions are used to engage and  The use of the rhetorical question in the first 
questions  require an answer  involve the reader by making them think.  line of this song engages the reader from the 
  These are typically used to make a text more  start and makes them think about the 
persuasive.  metaphor. The rest of the song regularly uses 
‐ For example:  rhetorical questions and so increases the 
'How many roads must a man walk down  persuasiveness of the text. Rhetorical 
before you call him a man?' (Bob Dylan)  questions make demands of the listener; their 
  response is required, even subconsciously, 
and they are no longer a passive listener. 
List of three  Three words or reasons put  ‐ This technique helps emphasise the point of  Presenting   three  key core  skills ‘talented, 
  together in a list  the text   and helps cement the   words in the  skilful and focused’  as a list  is effective as it 
  mind of the reader.  helps fix the words in the reader’s mind. List 
‐ For example:   of three is a powerful tool for making words 
To get to the top of their sport, footballers  memorable; the human brain likes patterns 
need to be talented, skilful and focused.  and structure, and rhythm. By using groups of 
three, the brain recognises the pattern and 
stores it more easily in the memory. 
 
Assertive  Writing which presents  ‐It gives the text an authoritative edge –makes  ‘Everybody knows that…’ is a powerful 
language  information in a powerfully  it sound indisputable  opening phrase to the sentence. The writer is 
worded way   ‐For example:  writing with a sense of authority and it leads 
It often uses  imperatives    ‘Everybody knows that …’  the reader to accept his word on this subject 
eg must / have to  ‘It is undeniable that …. ‘  without question. 
 
Indirect  A technique which  requests  This technique engages the audience  ‘Imagine’ is a powerful opening word as it asks 
involvement  the reader to be involved  the   ‐For example:  the reader to use their imagination to picture 
in a particular through a key  ‘Imagine …’  the scenario that follows. This is effective in 
word   ‘Think of …’  making the reader feel more a part of the text. 
‘Picture, if you will ….  It is a direct appeal to ethos, and is extremely 
effective at the start or end of a speech, in 
particular. 
Alliteration  The repetition of initial  ‐ Alliteration gives variation in sentences,  The alliteration used for the phrase ‘surging 
  consonant sounds at the start  which interests the reader. It can also be used  snow’ is effective as it gives the idea of the 
  of two or more words  to make a particular point 'stand out'.  snow always moving and helps convey the 
‐ For example:   struggle the writer experienced climbing 
The surging snow buffeted over and around  Everest the hard way. Alliteration is used for 
me  effect within the context of the words on the 
  page, but it always offers the mirroring and 
  pattern that the human brain recognises and 
  stores more easily in the memory.  
 
Repetition  Repetition is the repeated use  ‐ Repetition is used to emphasise a certain  Martin Luther King’s speech is given added 
  of the same word or phrases  point and usually makes a text more powerful  power by the use of repetition. His five 
  ‐ For example:   developed dreams stem from his introductory 
I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply  reference to the American Dream. The 
rooted in the American Dream.  repetiton is given added weight by being use 
I have a dream that one day this nation will …  as the starting phrase for each of his dream 
I have a dream that one day on the red hills of  examples. The use of of a single short 
Georgia…  sentence at the end ‘I have a dream today.’ Is 
I have a dream that one day eve n…  very powerful because the listening can 
I have a dream that my four little children one  connect with each of the ideas he has 
day will …  embedded in listeners’ minds. 
I have a dream today. 
Punctuation  The use of certain marks to  ‐ Punctuation helps structure sentences as   
  clarify meaning of written  well as intonation clues. These variations keep   
  material by grouping words  the reader interested and engaged.   
grammatically into sentences     
and clauses and phrases      
There are three examples  Example 1 ‐ Long sentences  The description is written in one long 
here: Long sentences, short  There is in the   Midlands a single tramway  sentence to give a sense of the continued 
sentences and ellipsis.  system which boldly leaves the county town  onward movement of the tram car. The 
But there are many more uses  and plunges off into the black industrial  changing pace of the tram is dictated by the 
of punctuation.  countryside,  up ‐hill and down dale, through  commas. The overall effect is create a visual  
the long ugly villages of workmen’s houses,  impression for the reader of the relentless 
Be aware of the different uses  over canals and railways, past churches  speed  and distance of the journey 
and the reasons for the uses.  perched high and nobly  over the smoke and  emphasised by words such as ‘plunges’ and 
  shadows, through stark, grimy cold little  ‘rush’ The upward and downward movement 
Long sentences or short  market places, tilting away in a rush past  makes it feels like a rollercoaster ride. 
sentences are chosen for a  cinemas And shops down to the hollow where   
purpose by a writer as part of  the collieries are, then up again past s little   
the crafting process.  rural church, under the ash trees, on in a rush   
  to the terminus, the last little ugly place of   
Long sentences can be  industry, the cold little town that shivers on   
effective when trying to build  the edge of the wild, gloomy country beyond.   
a picture or idea in a reader’s     
mind.  Example 2 – Short sentences   
  A decision was needed. I pointed at my watch.  ‘A decision was needed.’ Is presented as a 
Short sentences make  ‘Ten minutes’ I said. Pertemba agreed. That  short sentence to convey its meaning – that 
information snappy and quick,  helped us – it shifted some responsibility to  there is no time for discussion, only action. 
which can make certain points  the watch. I fumbled in my sack and pulled out  The subsequent short sentences help embed 
'stand out' more or give  our stove to leave behind. The time was up.  the idea that they have to act quickly. They 
variation within the text to   We had to continue the climb.  are experiencing minus centigrade 
keep the reader interested    temperatures so they do not want to linger in 
Short sentences are also    the cold discussing the matter. They need to 
effective in building tension    move on and this is effective conveyed 
and to make a dramatic point.    through the use of short sentences. 
     
  Example 3 – Ellipsis (When elements have  The ellipsis is effective because it gives a 
Ellipsis can demonstrate a  been omitted from a sentence, phrase or  pause for effect allowing the reader to 
more relaxed register and an  word (they're 'missing').   connect the X Factor and ‘talons/talent’ . The 
informal way of writing    pun for ‘got talons’ ( Got Talent’ ) works better 
making the text more  ‘Forget the X Factor . . . Mongolia’s got talons’  with ellipsis because it prepares you for the 
personal.   (Headline for an article about the annual   joke which follows  
Contractions are examples of  Eagle Festival in Mongolia )   
ellipsis,('I'm hungry' is less     
formal than 'I am hungry'.)   
   
    
 
Ellipsis can also be used to 
indicate a dramatic pause 
‘. . .’ showing words are 
missing 
 
Writer’s word  choices 
Emotive  Emotive language is designed  ‐This helps involve the reader and make them  The leaflet is intended to be persuasive and its 
language  to make the reader feel  feel a particular way.  use of emotive language helps convey its 
  something and have an  It creates an emotional response from the  powerful message. Use  of the word 
emotional response to the  reader ( eg anger, shock, guilt ).  ‘agonising’ to describe the chase creates the 
text.  It is often used to manipulate readers’ feelings impression that the suffering experienced in 
  It can create a positive or negative effect  the chase is immense. The word ’ripped’ is a 
  powerfully emotive word which conveys the 
‐ For example:   brutality of the death of these hunted 
The hunted animals are not killed quickly –  animals. 
that is a myth. There is a long agonising chase 
before they are ripped limb from limb. 
 
 
 
 
 
Imagery   Simile  ‐ This helps create an image within the   
  A figure of speech that  reader's mind, which helps interest them in   
  expresses a resemblance  the text   
  between things of different  ‐ For example:    
  kinds (usually formed with  'Cold as snow'   
'like' or 'as')     
Metaphor     
A figure of speech in which an  ‐ This helps create an image within the   
expression is used to compare  reader's mind, which helps interest them in   
 one thing to another by saying  the text  The image of the smoke rising in the sky is 
it 'is' that other thing  ‐ For example:   made stronger in the mind by the use of 
  ‘You are driving me up the wall’  ‘thick’ and ‘black.’ We see the colour but are 
    also aware of the texture. The smell is 
Personification  ‐ This gives a more detailed image in the mind  effectively expressed through the use of the 
Personification is used to give  of the reader much like a simile or metaphor  negatively emotive word ‘stench.’ 
human qualities or  whilst keeping the reader interested through 
characteristics to animals or  varied devices 
objects  ‐ For example: 
   'The pipes screeched in the night' 
   
   
   
Five senses  ‐ Five senses gives more detail to text and 
Imagery descriptions of  helps create an image within the reader's 
sounds, sights, smells,  mind. 
feelings, tastes   ‐ For example:  
  'The smoke was thick and black as it rose from 
  the earth accompanied by the stench of 
  scorched wood'. 
   
   
   
 
Exaggeration   Hyperbole is extreme  ‐Hyperbole can be used to emphasise a point,   The use of the phrase ‘earth shattering’ 
and   exaggeration.   express a strong emotion, or evoke humour  creates the idea that the event is a major 
Hyperbole  ‘If my mum find out she’ll kill  due to the exaggeration.   event that will impress anyone who attends. If 
  me’  ‐ For example: like 'making a mountain out of  you do attend it ‘will blow you mind way’ 
    a molehill' an exaggeration such as saying 'My  giving the impression that not only is this 
life is over' when the Internet is broken is an  event not to missed – it will never be 
overstatement.  forgotten.  
It can also create a persuasive impact. 
‐For example: 
 ‘This earth‐shattering event will blow your 
mind away’ 
Puns  A pun is a play on words. Puns  ‐ Puns are often considered witty and are used  The pun effectively connects the reader with 
  usually use words that have a  to engage the reader by making them laugh. It  the subject of the article in a sharp and 
double meaning or that  is a clever use of language.  focused way. Deforestation is about the 
sounds the same but have  ‐ For example:   burning down of forests but the writer has 
different meanings  ‘The Burning  Issue’  also established his debating point through 
  ( The headline for an article on deforestation )  the title, because it is a burning issue – a hot 
topic that needs to be considered seriously. 
 
Literary techniques are the tools of analysis.

• diction

• modality
• imperative language

• voice

• allusion

Diction

Diction means "word choice": the specific words that a writer deliberately chooses to
use in a piece of writing.

Diction in action looks like this:

• "The writer's use of emotional diction in line 5 illustrates..."

• "The religious diction such as 'communion' and 'confession' suggests..."

So how can you tell if a word is interesting and therefore worthy of analysis?

• Connotations
• Every word has a denotation (i.e., a boring, literal meaning found in the
dictionary) and connotations.
• A word is interesting if it has interesting connotations. In analysis, we tend
to care less about the denotative meaning of word because it's not interesting.

These ideas, feelings, and impressions that we naturally associate with certain
words are called connotations. They are distinct from denotations: Denotation is
what the thing literally means; connotation is what we think and feel about that
thing. Big difference.

“The town was an infested den of thieves and smugglers.”

What words have interesting connotations?
The word “infested” is interesting. When I read/hear the word “infested”, I
immediately think

Eww.

I think of a gross mental image of disgusting cockroaches and rats crawling around
in some old basement or sewer. To me, the diction of “infested” connotes disgust,
and the writer probably chose this word precisely because it makes the town seem
dirty and disgusting.

“Infested” also connotes a sense of corruption; in this case, it’s not so much the
biological disease, which is the literal meaning, but instead the moral corruption of
these thieves and smugglers who work in morally-questionable professions.

There’s also another really interesting layer of meaning. We usually associate the
diction of “infested” with animals and insects, as opposed to humans. So the writer
uses animalistic diction to dehumanise these criminals to the level of animals,
making us view them with contempt (remember this word from the tone list?).

By thinking about the connotations, we got some great analysis about amorality,
disgust and dehumanisation.

Analysis Advice
When you use the word “diction”, try to precede it with an adjective. For example,
avoid writing

“The diction in ‘infested’…”

Instead, write

“The animalistic diction in ‘infested’…”

The reason is because ‘diction’ itself is meaningless unless we specify a particular
type of word choice. In some cases, the diction is neutral and that is when you have
no choice but to just write “diction”.

The same rule applies to tone, atmosphere and mood. Add a preceding adjective.
There’s no meaning behind tone unless it’s a specific tone. The same goes for
atmosphere and mood.

If you get tired of writing "diction" all the time, you can vary your diction by
replacing it with “language”. For example, you can write “emotional
diction" or “emotional language”, “formal diction” or “formal language”. They
mean the same thing.

Modality (Used with Tone)

High modality: “I must have an ice cream, or else!”
Low modality: “You know, I could have an ice cream, but …”
Modality is a measure of certainty, and it’s expressed through words like these.

High modality words Low modality words

must might

should could

need to perhaps

have to maybe

High modality creates an authoritative and certain tone, which makes the person
seem superior and decisive. High modality = Imperative language
Low modality creates an uncertain tone, which makes the person seem inferior.

When do we normally analyse modality?

1. In relation to the narrator or speaker.

2. In relation to a character.

We often analyse modality in the dialogue between characters, but also in the inner
thoughts (fancy term: internal monologue) of characters. Apart from demonstrating
inferiority, a low modality is also used to show internal conflict, when the character
can’t decide between different choices.

For example in Act 1 Scene 7 of Macbeth, well, Macbeth--yes, the dude's name is
the same as the play's title--is standing around wondering if we will kill King
Duncan to snatch the crown. Lo and behold, Shakespeare uses low modality to
construct his internal conflict:

MACBETH
If it were done when 'tis done, then 'twere well
It were done quickly: if the assassination
Could trammel up the consequence, and catch
With his surcease success; that but this blow
Might be the be-all and the end-all here,
What’s the most important thing to remember about modality?

After explaining the modality, always mention the tone that is constructed by the
high or low modality.
Narrative voice
First person, second person or third person. The voice can also shift back-and-forth
between the three voices throughout a single text.

First person
First person voice sounds like diary writing. “I”, “us”, and “we”. This narrative
stance is inclusive language. Inclusive language has two distinct effects on the
reader:

1. To create a closer relationship between the reader and the narrator or speaker.

2. Inclusive language brings the reader into the immediate situation and
emotions operating within the scene. For example, first person voice works
really well with imagery to create a vivid impression of a physical scene.

Second person
Second person voice is used when the narrator or speaker directly addresses you, the
reader/audience, through the second person pronoun “you.” This technique is also
called “direct address”.

Usually, second person voice creates a confronting and accusatory tone, because it
singles out the reader and points a finger at them, making them feel like they did
something wrong. Common effects on the reader include feelings of guilt and
discomfort. However, it is also used to put the reader in the ‘ideal reader zone’,
implying that the text is directly addressing you and written for you.

Third person
It’s the ‘normal’ voice that writers use for their omniscient, god-like narrator who
can just casually jump into any character’s mind.
Tip on how to analyse
Voice gets really interesting when writer suddenly transitions between first and third
person. It usually goes like this:

1. The text starts of with one type of voice, like first person. The use of “us” and
“we” includes the reader and makes them feel a sense of belonging.

2. Then the writer sprinkles in “they” here and there--exclusive language. The
third person pronoun “they” often refers to other characters who might be
enemies or belong to different social groups. We see this in use in Obama's
speech on the Oregon school shootings.

3. The ultimate result of transitioning from from first to third person voice is to
create an ‘us versus them’ mentality, building themes like conflict and
disagreement.

Allusion
When a writer alludes to something, the writer makes a passing reference to a
historical event, a work of literature, a religion, or a cultural tradition.
Basically, an allusion is a bit of information that:

1. is external to the current text, and

2. contains rich meaning to those who are familiar with the reference.

Why do writers use allusion?

Writers use allusion because it adds deeper layers of meaning that wouldn’t
otherwise be easily achieved.

Let’s look at an example. One day, two friends James and Sarah go ice skating, but
in a horrific turn of events, they fall on the ice and James accidentally scars Sarah’s
face with his sharp, metal skates. Ouch.
To express James’ fear and guilt, we could write:

“I was afraid to look upon her face for fear of staring into the eyes of Medusa herself
and turning into a stony slab of guilt.”

Medusa is a monster in Greek mythology. She has a hideous face and turns anyone
who looks at her into stone. She is very scary. The first example uses imagery,
personification and diction to create fear. The second example only uses allusion to
create a similar, or an even stronger, effect. Whether it’s more effective is a
subjective decision, but in my opinion, the phrase “staring into the eyes of Medusa
herself” is extremely powerful. We can feel the rage of Medusa, I mean Sarah, like a
400-degree oven.

The point is: Allusion takes advantage of the reader’s pre-existing knowledge about
other areas of life in order to add extra meaning to the current piece of writing.

Analysis advice
So how do we analyse allusion?

• First, explain the meaning, connotations, ideas and feelings associated with the
alluded concept, event, person or culture.

• Next, relate these meanings and associations to the current situation in the text.

In the ice skating example, we would analyse the use of allusion by saying that the
allusion amplifies the fearful tone of the narrator. The allusion also highlights the
apprehension and guilt of the narrator, to the point that he physically, and
psychologically, becomes a stone that cannot move as a result of shock, shame and
fear of his consequences.