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5/4/23, 4:27 PM Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques : Radiography
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Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques > Radiography Testing > High Energy Radiation Systems
High Energy Radiation Systems

After reading this section you will be able to do the
following:
Describe different ways that radiation
Radiation - Energy traveling in the form of electromagnetic waves, photons, alpha particles
(helium nuclei), or beta particles (electrons)
can be generated.
As we mentioned before, there are many different ways that radiation

can be generated. We have looked closely at two of the most widely utilized sources,
radioisotopes
Radioisotopes - elements that are atomically unstable and radioactive.
and x-ray generation. We will briefly introduce a few other means of generating radiation
. These methods are often referred to as the high energy radiation
Radiation - Energy traveling in the form of electromagnetic waves, photons, alpha particle
systems.
Some of our greatest scientific developments include high energy particle accelerators. Many of
the natural and artificial radioisotopes
isotopes - elements that are atomically unstable and radioactive.
along with standard
Standard - A reference object used as a basis for comparison or calibration. - A concept
established by authority, custom or agreement to serve as a model or rule in the measurement of
quantity or the establishment of a practice or procedure.
X-ray systems are limited in terms of energy. Much of the scientific research dedicated to
https://www.nde-ed.org/NDETechniques/Radiography/developingfilm.xhtml 1/25
subatomic
Subatomic Particles - Particles that are smaller than the atom (protons, neutrons, electrons are
the three main ones).
nature would not be possible without particle accelerators.
The Electrostatic Generator

An American physicist, R. J. Van de Graaff, developed one of the first particle accelerators in the
early 1930's, which is known as the Van de Graaff generator, electrostatic generator
Electrostatic Generator - This device accelerates electrons to produce high energy radiation.
. This device accelerates electrons to produce high energy radiation
. Initially, the generator was capable of producing X-radiation in the 1 to 2 MeV
Mev - One million electron volts.
range. Continued design changes produced even higher energies.
The generator operates by projecting electrons onto a moving belt. The electrons ride on the belt
and are collected at the opposite end on a high voltage
Voltage - Electromotive force or difference in electrical potential. Expressed in volts.
terminal. Here, a heated filament supplies electrons for acceleration. A glass/metal tube with a
vacuum provides a path for particle acceleration away from the high voltage
terminal. At the end of the tube is a target
Target - A material bombarded by any radiation, as the target is bombarded by electrons in an x-
ray tube.
, whereby the accelerated particles
Particles - Fundamental units of matter and energy.
can interact producing high energy radiation
ation - Energy traveling in the form of electromagnetic waves, photons, alpha particles
um nuclei), or beta particles (electrons)
.
Not long after the development of the Van de Graaff generator, it was determined that charged
particles
could be accelerated to very high speeds by driving them in a circular path. This was
accomplished by the application of strong electromagnets
magnets - An iron bar placed through the center of the coiled wire would become a
ary magnet, as long as the electric current is flowing through the wire.
. A variety of these have been developed to produce even higher energy radiation
than that of the Van de Graaff generator.
The Cyclotron
Again in the early 1930's, E.O. Lawrence who was also an American physicist developed the
Cyclotron
Cyclotron - A device that is capable of accelerating charged particles (protons) in a circu
to energies that exceed 10 MeV. E.O. Lawrence developed the Cyclotron in the early 193
. This device is capable of accelerating charged particles
(protons) in a circular path to energies that exceed 10 MeV
. The Cyclotron
Cyclotron - A device that is capable of accelerating charged particles (protons) in a circular path
to energies that exceed 10 MeV. E.O. Lawrence developed the Cyclotron in the early 1930’s.
is comprised of a large cylindrical box sandwiched between the poles of an electromagnet
Electromagnet - Wrapping a wire into a coil creates an electromagnet, which behaves just like a
regular permanent bar magnet when the current is flowing.
. The box is evacuated until a high vacuum exists. Charged particles
are fed into the cylindrical box. Two D-shaped electrodes placed back to back with a gap between
them are connected to a high voltage
source
Source (Radiography) - The origin of radiation; an x-ray tube or a radioisotope.
inside of the box. By rapidly reversing the electric charge on the electrodes, and due to the
presence of the magnetic field
Magnetic Field - The space in which a magnetic force is exerted. This space exists within and
around a magnetized material and a conductor carrying electrical current.
of the electromagnets
Electromagnets - An iron bar placed through the center of the coiled wire would become a
temporary magnet, as long as the electric current is flowing through the wire.
, the charged particles
move in a circular fashion. Each time the charged particles

cross the gap of the electrodes, the particles
gain energy and begin moving towards the outside of the cylindrical box. Once the charged
particles
les - Fundamental units of matter and energy.
reach the outer edge of the box, they are deflected towards the target
ray tube.
, resulting in high energy X-radiation.
The Betatron
Another interesting accelerator
Accelerator - A device that accelerates charged atomic particles to high energies. An x-ray
machine or a betatron is an accelerator.
, known as the Betatron
Betatron - A particle accelerator that is used to accelerate electrons (beta particles) and collide
them with a target to produce high energy radiation.
, was developed in the early 1940's by a man name Donald Kerst at the University of Illinois.
Kerst's Betatron
is used to accelerate electrons (beta particles) to produce high energy x-radiation. The first
Betatron
developed produced a radiation
energy of a little more than 2 MeV
. Continued development allowed the Betatron

to generate energies as high as 300 MeV
.
The Betatron
etatron - A particle accelerator that is used to accelerate electrons (beta particles) and collide
em with a target to produce high energy radiation.
operates on the principle of the transformer
Transformer - A transformer is simple a device that transforms electricity form one voltage to
another.
. The primary side consists of a large electromagnet
Electromagnet - Wrapping a wire into a coil creates an electromagnet, which behaves just like a
regular permanent bar magnet when the current is flowing.
, and the secondary side is the electron
Electron - A negatively charged particle that is in constant motion and generally orbits the
nucleus of an atom. The electron is the lightest known particle that possesses a charge.
stream that is being accelerated. The electrons are accelerated in a circular tube known as a
doughnut that has been evacuated. When the electrons have achieved maximum energy, they are
directed to a target
ray tube.
, the resulting interaction is the production of high energy X-rays
X-rays - A form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than those of ultraviolet
light.
.
Linear Accelerator
A particle accelerator
ator - A device that accelerates charged atomic particles to high energies. An x-ray
e or a betatron is an accelerator.
, different from those previously mentioned, is the Linear accelerator
Linear Accelerator - A particle accelerator designed to move charged particles at high velocities
along a straight path to a target.
, designed to move charged particles
les - Fundamental units of matter and energy.
at high velocities along a straight path to a target
ray tube.
. Linear accelerators are comprised of a series of drift tubes mounted inside of an evacuated
chamber. The charged particles

are fed into one end of the chamber, and accelerated by a alternating high frequency
Frequency - The number of waves that pass a given point in a specified unit of time.
voltage
that is applied to the drift tubes. Due to high frequency
, the drift tubes alternate charges, resulting in repulsion of the particles
as they leave a tube, and attraction by the next tube. It is this alternating high frequency
that accelerates the particles
as they cross the gaps between tubes.
Linac (linear accelerator) as CERN
Present day Linear accelerators may be several miles long, capable of producing extremely high
energy X-rays
X-rays - A form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than those of ultraviolet
light.
.
The previously mentioned particle accelerators are only a small sample of the high energy
radiation
capabilities utilized today. Many of these systems were developed to benefit the medical field,
research in the science field, and the industrial examination of very thick or heavy wall materials. If
you are interested in learning more about high energy radiation sources
Radiation Sources - An object that emitted radiation.
, there are numerous sources available in both written form and on the Internet.
Review:
1. Radioisotopes
, x-ray generation, and particle accelerators are different methods that generate radiation
Radiation - Energy traveling in the form of electromagnetic waves, photons, alpha particle
.
Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques > Radiography Testing > Detection and Measurement of
Radioactivity
Detection and Measurement of Radioactivity

following:
Describe how we detect radioactivity/radiation and name the instrument that is used.
List some safety precautions and explain their importance.
Although some forms of electromagnetic energy, such as light and heat, can be detected by the
human senses. One of the greatest draw backs to high energy radiation
is the inability to detect it. We cannot see, feel, taste, smell, or hear the various forms of ionizing
radiation
Ionizing Radiation - Radiation of sufficiently high energy to knock electrons out of the orbits of
atoms and molecules. Ionizing radiation is potentially hazardous to living tissues. Biologically
significant radiation is an ionizing dose of radiation above 155 eV which may have carcinogenic,
mutagenic, or other health effects in humans.
. Fortunately, ionizing radiation
interacts with matter
Matter - Anything that has mass and occupies space.
which makes detection and measurement possible by utilizing specialized equipment. In this
section we want to introduce you to the various ways and means of detecting and measuring
ionizing radiation
.
As mentioned previously, Becquerel discovered radioactivity

Radioactivity - spontaneous decay of the nucleus of an atom by the emission of particles, usually
accompanied by electromagnetic radiation. It is also defined as the mean number of nuclear
transformations occurring in a given quantity of radioactive material per unit time, expressed in
either becquerels (Bq) or curies (Ci). Most radionuclides have multiple forms of radioactive
emissions, and are classified according to their principal decay modes. The most common types of
radiation are Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation.
because it left marks on photographic film as a means of detecting radiation
. However, there are more definitive means commonly used by scientists and technicians who
study and work with radiation
. The equipment utilized for the detection and measurement of radiation
commonly employs some type of a substance or material that responds to radiation
. Many common methods use either an ionization
Ionization - The process, usually by radiation absorption, where electrons are separated from
atoms, ionizing both.
process or molecular excitation process as a basis. Remember that we stated earlier that radiation
n - Energy traveling in the form of electromagnetic waves, photons, alpha particles
nuclei), or beta particles (electrons)
interacts with matter
Matter - Anything that has mass and occupies space.
. For detection and measurement purposes the process of ionization
is the most commonly employed technique, based on the principle of charged particles
producing ion pairs
Ion Pairs - A positive ion and a negative ion or electron having charges of the same magnitu
and formed from a neutral atom or molecule by the action of radiation or by any other agen
that supplies energy.
by direct interaction. These charged particles
may collide with electrons, which removes them from their parent atoms, or transfer energy to an
electron
Electron - A negatively charged particle that is in constant motion and generally orbits the
nucleus of an atom. The electron is the lightest known particle that possesses a charge.
by interaction of electric fields.
How do you choose a detection device?

Important considerations for choosing a particular type of detection device include the
application, the type of radiation
, the energy of the radiation
, and the level of sensitivity
Sensitivity - A measure of the ability to detect small signals. Limited by the signal-to-noise ratio.
needed. Remember from previous discussion that radiation
adiation - Energy traveling in the form of electromagnetic waves, photons, alpha particles
elium nuclei), or beta particles (electrons)
exists as waveforms with varying energies and may be either particulate or electromagnetic in
nature.
The Electroscope
Marie Curie
ie - The basic unit of measure for describing the activity (radioactivity) of a quantity of
oactive material. The amount of radioactive material giving off 37 billion disintegrations per
ond. In the United States, the picocurie (1 pCi = 0.037 d.p.s.) is the unit used for many
asurements of radioactive contamination.
used an electroscope
Electroscope - A fairly simple device comprised of a metal rod with two thin leaves attached to
one end. If the electroscope is given a negative charge, the metal leaves will separate from each
other. The rate of discharge of the electroscope is a measure of ions in the air and can be used as
a basis of measurement and detection.
to study the radioactivity
or Uranium ores. The electroscope
is a fairly simple device comprised of a metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and
electricity and, when polished, a good reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and
ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
rod with two thin leaves attached to one end. If the electroscope
is given a negative charge, the metal
An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and
y and, when polished, a good reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and
nd are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
leaves will separate from each other. It is this characteristic that makes the electroscope
Electroscope - A fairly simple device comprised of a metal rod with two thin leaves attached
one end. If the electroscope is given a negative charge, the metal leaves will separate from ea
other. The rate of discharge of the electroscope is a measure of ions in the air and can be use
useful as a detection device. A negatively charged electroscope
will discharge when ions in the air remove electrons from it, and consequently, a positively
charged electroscope
will discharge when it takes electrons from the air around it. The rate of discharge of the
electroscope
is a measure of ions in the air and can be used as a basis of measurement and detection.
The Cloud Chamber

A unique device for detection and measurement is the Cloud Chamber, invented by the British
physicist Charles Wilson in 1911. The Cloud chamber makes it possible to visually see the path of
ionizing radiation
thus making it possible to photograph it. The cloud chamber consists of a plastic or glass
container, which sits on dry ice. A dark cloth is saturated with alcohol and placed around the
inside of the container near the top. A small radioactive material
Radioactive Material - A material that spontaneously decays (fissions), producing radiation.
may be suspended from the lid of the container. In the chamber, the alcohol evaporates from the
cloth and condenses as it reaches the cold region created by the dry ice at the floor of the
container. Just above the floor of the chamber there is a region where the alcohol vapor does not
condense unless there are seeds around, so that drops of alcohol can form. This condition is
similar to that of seeding clouds with a chemical to form rain. The idea is that only seeds available
in the chamber are those of ions produced by the interaction with radiation
. The resulting trail of alcohol droplets can be seen against the black background
Background - The visual, radiographic or electronic response against which an indication from a
discontinuity must be viewed.
in the bottom of the chamber.
These are only a few of the devices commonly utilized for purposes of detection and
measurement of radioactivity
Radioactivity - spontaneous decay of the nucleus of an atom by the emission of particles, usual
emissions, and are classified according to their principal decay modes. The most common types
and radiation
. It is important to understand that when working with radioactivity/radiation, due to our inability
to sense radiation
, we need them to assist us in detecting the presence of radiation
and we also need them to help monitor the radiation
.
Other Detection Devices

Another common device used for detection and measurement is the
ionization chamber
Ionization Chamber - An instrument that detects and measures ionizing
radiation by observing the electrical current created when radiation ionizes
gas in the chamber, making it a conductor of electricity.
. The Geiger counter
eiger Counter - A radiation detection and measuring instrument. It contains
gas filled tube which discharges electrically when ionizing radiation passes
rough it. Discharges are counted to measure the radiation's intensity.
, survey
Survey (Radiography) - An evaluation of the radiation hazards incident to the production, use,
release, disposal, or presence of radioactive materials or other sources of radiation under a
specific set of conditions. When appropriate, such evaluation includes a physical survey of the
location of materials and equipment, and measurements of levels of radiation.
meter, and personal dosimeters work on the basis of the ionization chamber
Ionization Chamber - An instrument that detects and measures ionizing radiation by observing
the electrical current created when radiation ionizes gas in the chamber, making it a conductor o
electricity.
. The principle operation of an ionization chamber
Ionization Chamber - An instrument that detects and measures ionizing radiation by observing
the electrical current created when radiation ionizes gas in the chamber, making it a conductor of
electricity.
is that it will produce an electric current
(I) - The flow of electrons. Measured in amperes.
in the presence of a radioactive source
Radioactive Source - A radioactive material being used to generate radiation.
. Ionization
chambers consist of tubes filled with gas, such as argon. When radiation
enters the tube and interacts with the gas, it removes electrons from the gas. The gas atoms
become positively charged ions, and the free electrons move through the gas to a wire in the
tube, setting up a current
Current (I) - The flow of electrons. Measured in amperes.
. The current
urrent (I) - The flow of electrons. Measured in amperes.
is commonly amplified and sent to a recording or counting device. This in response may produce
a flash of light, ticking sounds, or an analog readout. Ionization
chambers are capable of measuring the amount of radiation
by means of measuring the amount of current
Current (I) - The flow of electrons. Measured in amperes.
produced.
Safety Precautions
Some of the principle safety precautions commonly used in working with radioactivity/radiation
are time, distance, and shielding
Shielding - A barrier surrounding a region to exclude it from the influence of an energy field.
. Recall our earlier discussion of the dentist wanting to photograph your teeth. Have you ever
wondered why the dentist lays a heavy apron across your chest? The dentist is practicing a means
of protection from exposure
Exposure - The time which radiation is being exposed to something
. In that, they are using distance and shielding
from the source
of radiation
. The concepts of these three principles are fairly simple. The first principle is time. The less time
you spend around a radioactive material
Radioactive Material - A material that spontaneously decays (fissions), producing radiation.
the less exposure
you will receive. The second principle states that the greater the distance away from a radioactive
source
Radioactive Source - A radioactive material being used to generate radiation.
the lesser your exposure

to the radiation
. Lastly, if you can protect yourself with some type of material to act as a shielding
device you will also reduce your overall exposure
.
Review:
1. Devices that measure ionization
are the most commonly used instruments for detecting radiation
Radiation - Energy traveling in the form of electromagnetic waves, photons, alpha p
.
2. Three important words to help you minimize your exposure
to radiation
are time, distance, and shielding
Shielding - A barrier surrounding a region to exclude it from the influence of an energy field
.
Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques > Radiography Testing > Uses of Radioactivity/Radiation
Uses of Radioactivity/Radiation
following:
List and describe uses of radioactivity/radiation.
There are many practical applications to the use of radioactivity/radiation. Radioactive

Radioactive - Atoms which are energetically unstable and decay to a stable condition by emitting
radiation are said to be radioactive.
sources are used to study living organisms, to diagnose and treat diseases, to sterilize medical
instruments and food, to produce energy for heat and electric power, and to monitor various
steps in all types of industrial processes.
Tracers
Tracers
Tracers - A radioactive element whose pathway through which a chemical reaction can be
followed.
are a common application of radioisotopes
. A tracer is a radioactive
element whose pathway through which a chemical reaction can be followed. Tracers
followed.
are commonly used in the medical field and in the study of plants and animals. Radioactive
Iodine-131 can be used to study the function of the thyroid gland assisting in detecting disease.
Nuclear reactors
Nuclear reactors
Nuclear Reactors - Devices that control fission reactions producing new substances from
the fission product and energy.
are devices that control fission
Fission - A term defined as the splitting of an atomic nucleus into two smaller nuclei of roughly
equal mass. During fission, a fissionable nucleus (such as plutonium) absorbs a neutron, becomes
unstable and splits into two nuclei, releasing energy.
reactions producing new substances from the fission
Fission - A term defined as the splitting of an atomic nucleus into two smaller nuclei of ro
equal mass. During fission, a fissionable nucleus (such as plutonium) absorbs a neutron, b
product and energy. Recall our discussion earlier about the fission
process in the making of a radioisotope. Nuclear power stations use uranium in fission
reactions as a fuel to produce energy. Steam is generated by the heat released during the fission
A term defined as the splitting of an atomic nucleus into two smaller nuclei of roughly
ass. During fission, a fissionable nucleus (such as plutonium) absorbs a neutron, becomes
and splits into two nuclei, releasing energy.
process. It is this steam that turns a turbine to produce electric energy.
This is an image of a nuclear reactor.
Other uses of radioactivity

Sterilization of medical instruments and food is another common application of radiation
. By subjecting the instruments and food to concentrated beams of radiation
, we can kill microorganisms that cause contamination and disease. Because this is done with high
energy radiation sources
using electromagnetic energy, there is no fear of residual radiation
. Also, the instruments and food may be handled without fear of radiation
poisoning.
Radiation sources
are extremely important to the manufacturing industries throughout the world. They are
commonly employed by nondestructive testing
Nondestructive Testing (NDT) - Testing to detect defects in materials using techniques that do
not damage or destroy the items being tested.
personnel to monitor materials and processes in the making of the products we see and use every
day. Trained technicians use radiography
Radiography - The process of making a radiograph
to image materials and products much like a dentist uses radiation

to x-ray your teeth for cavities. There are many industrial applications that rely on radioactivity
ransformations occurring in a given quantity of radioactive material per unit time, expressed in
adiation are Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation.
to assist in determining if the material or product is internally sound
Sound - Mechanical vibrations transmitted in an elastic gas, liquid, or solid.
and fit for its application.
Review:
1. Radioactivity
Radioactivity - spontaneous decay of the nucleus of an atom by the emission of particles,
usually accompanied by electromagnetic radiation. It is also defined as the mean number of
nuclear transformations occurring in a given quantity of radioactive material per unit time,
expressed in either becquerels (Bq) or curies (Ci). Most radionuclides have multiple forms of
radioactive emissions, and are classified according to their principal decay modes. The most
common types of radiation are Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation.
tracers
followed.
are commonly used in the medical field and also in the study of plants and animals.
2. Radiation
is used and produced in nuclear reactors
Nuclear Reactors - Devices that control fission reactions producing new substances from the
fission product and energy.
, which controls fission
Fission - A term defined as the splitting of an atomic nucleus into two smaller nuclei of
roughly equal mass. During fission, a fissionable nucleus (such as plutonium) absorbs a
neutron, becomes unstable and splits into two nuclei, releasing energy.
reactions to produce energy and new substances from the fission products
Fission Products - Nuclei formed by the fission of heavy elements. They are of medium
atomic weight, and almost all are radioactive. Examples: strontium 90, cesium 137.
.
3. Radiation
is also used to sterilize medical instruments and food.

4. Radiation
is used by test personnel who monitor materials and processes by nondestructive methods
such as x-rays
X-rays - A form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than those of
ultraviolet light.
.
Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques > Radiography Testing > Producing a Radiograph
Producing a Radiograph
following:
Describe how an image is produced on a radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a
subject onto a film.
.
The making of a radiograph

Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject
onto a film.
requires some type of recording mechanism. The most common device used to be film, but digital
detector
Detector - A device that determines the presence of or measures the amount of energy, such as
radiation.
arrays have largely replaced film in most industries. A radiograph
onto a film.
is actually a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation
through a subject onto a detector
radiation.
, producing what is called a latent image
mage - The invisible image on exposed film which has not been developed.
of the subject.
A latent image
Latent Image - The invisible image on exposed film which has not been developed.
A latent image
is an image that has been created on the detector
radiation.
due to the interaction of radiation
with the material making up the detector
radiation.
. This latent image
is not visible to the naked eye until further processing has taken place. To make the latent image
visible, x-ray film is processed by exposure
to chemicals similar to that of photographic film. In digital detectors, x-ray photons are tallied in
the array of pixels to form the image.
Review:
1. A radiograph
is an image that is produced by the passage of radiation
through a subject onto a detector
Detector - A device that determines the presence of or measures the amount of energy, suc
as radiation.
. The detector
etector - A device that determines the presence of or measures the amount of energy, such
s radiation.
could be x-ray film or an array of photon
Photon - The elementary particle of electromagnetic energy; light.
counting devices. This produces a latent image
of the subject on film.
Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques > Radiography Testing > Developing Film
Developing Film

following:
Identify and explain the three important parts to a radiographic film
Radiographic Film - A type of film that is sensitive to a certain type of radiation allow an
image to form when exposed.
.
Summarize the basic process of developing film.
To understand how the image on a radiograph

onto a film.
is formed, we need to first look at the characteristics of the film itself. There are three important
parts to a radiographic film
Radiographic Film - A type of film that is sensitive to a certain type of radiation allow an image
to form when exposed.
. These include the base, the emulsion, and the protective coating.
The base
All radiographic film
o form when exposed.
consists of a base for which the other materials are applied. The film base is usually made from a
clear, flexible plastic such as cellulose acetate. This plastic is similar to what you might find in a
wallet for holding pictures. The principle function of the base is to provide support for the
emulsion. It is not sensitive to radiation
, nor can it record an image.
The clarity or transparency of the film base is an important feature. Radiographic film
to form when exposed.
must be capable of transmitting light. Once a film has been processed chemically, it is subject to
interpretation
Interpretation - The determination of the source and relevancy of an ultrasonic indication.
. This is commonly done by using a film illuminating device, which is usually a high intensity
Intensity- The amount of energy a sound has over an area. The same sound is more intense if you
hear it in a smaller area. In general, sounds with a higher intensity are louder.
light source
.
The emulsion
The film emulsion and protective coating comprise the other two components and are essentially
made from the same material. They are applied to the film during manufacturing and usually take
on a pale yellow color with a glassy appearance. Although they are made from the same material,
they offer two distinct features to the film. These features are separated into the image layer of
the emulsion, and the protective layer.
The protective layer

The protective layer has the important function of protecting the softer emulsion layers below. It
is simply a very thin skin of gelatin protecting the film from scratches during handling. It offers
very important properties to film manufacturers, which include shrinkage (during drying that
forms glassy protective layers) and dissolving in warm water. It will absorb the water and swell if it
is dissolved in cold water.
The softer layers of the gelatin coating are technically known as the emulsion. An emulsion holds
something in suspension
Suspension - Liquid bath in which a solid is suspended in liquid.
. It is this material in suspension
that is sensitive to radiation
and forms the latent image
on the film. During manufacturing of the film, silver bromide is added to the solution of dissolved
gelatin. When the gelatin hardens the silver bromide crystals are held in suspension
throughout the emulsion. Upon exposure
of the film to radiation
, the silver bromide crystals become ionized in varying degrees forming the latent image
. Each grain
Grain - The more common term for crystal, a three-dimensional array of atoms having a certain
regularity in its internal arrangement. The grain is composed of many cells, or lattices, in which t
atoms are arranged on the metal involved.
or crystal
Crystal - A three-dimensional array or atoms having a certain regularity in its arrangement. A
crystal is composed of many cells or lattices, in which the atoms are arranged. In the field of
metallurgy, a crystal is often called a grain.
of silver bromide that has become ionized can be reduced or developed to form a grain
Grain - The more common term for crystal, a three-dimensional array of atoms having a certain
regularity in its internal arrangement. The grain is composed of many cells, or lattices, in which the
atoms are arranged on the metal involved.
of black metallic silver. This is what forms the visible image on the radiograph
onto a film.
. This visible image is made up of an extremely large number of silver crystals each is individually
exposed to radiation
but working together as a unit to form the image.
Once a film has been exposed to radiation

and possesses the latent image
, it requires chemical development. The purpose of developing the film is to bring the latent
image
out so that it can be seen visibly. There are three processing solutions that must be used to
convert an exposed film to a useful radiograph
onto a film.
. These are the developer
Developer (Radiography) - A chemical solution which reduces exposed silver halide crystals to
metallic silver.
, stop bath
th - A mild acetic acid solution used to arrest film development.
, and the fixer
Fixer - A chemical solution which dissolves unexposed silver halide crystals from developed film
emulsions.
. Each of these solutions is important in processing the image so that it may be viewed and stored
over a period of time.
The process of developing film

1. To begin the process of converting the latent image
on the radiograph
to a useful image we first expose the film to the developer
Developer (Radiography) - A chemical solution which reduces exposed silver halide crystals
to metallic silver.
solution. The developer’s purpose is to develop, and to make the latent image
visible. A special chemical within the developer
to metallic silver.
solution acts on the film by reducing the exposed silver bromide crystals to black metallic
silver. This process of developing is actually a multi-step process. Recall the characteristics of
the film manufacturing mentioned earlier, they become important in the development
process. Before the developer
to metallic silver.
can change the silver crystals it must penetrate the protective coating of the film. Keep in
mind that the protective coating of the film is made of gelatin and is sensitive to temperature
and water. The developer
to metallic silver.
solution is comprised of a combination of chemicals, consisting of alkali and metol or
hydroquinone mixed with water. The purpose of the alkali is to penetrate the protective
coating allowing the metol to reduce the exposed silver bromide to black metallic oxide.
2. The second step in the development process is the stop bath
Stop Bath - A mild acetic acid solution used to arrest film development.
. This bath is comprised of a glacial acetic acid and water. It is important to recognize that
alkali’s and acid’s neutralize each other. The function of the stop bath
Stop Bath - A mild acetic acid solution used to arrest film development.
is to quickly neutralize any excessive development of the silver crystals. Over development of
the silver crystals results in a radiographic image that is virtually impossible to interpret.
3. The third step in development is the fixer
Fixer - A chemical solution which dissolves unexposed silver halide crystals from
developed film emulsions.
. Its function is to permanently fix the image on the film. This is also a multi-step process. The
fixer
Fixer - A chemical solution which dissolves unexposed silver halide crystals from developed
film emulsions.
must first remove any unexposed silver crystals and then harden the remaining crystals in the
emulsion. It is this process that is used to preserve the radiographic image over time.
4. Once the film has been properly developed, it is then rinsed in water and dried so that it may
be visually examined.
Review:
1. The three main part to radiographic film
Radiographic Film - A type of film that is sensitive to a certain type of radiation allow an
image to form when exposed.
are the base, the emulsion, and the protective coating.
2. Steps in developing film include developing, stopping the developer
to metallic silver.
, fixing, rinsing and drying.

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5/4/23, 4:27 PM Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques : Radiography

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High Energy Radiation Systems

As we mentioned before, there are many different ways that radiation

The Electrostatic Generator

move in a circular fashion. Each time the charged particles

. Continued development allowed the Betatron

chamber. The charged particles

Linac (linear accelerator) as CERN

Detection and Measurement of Radioactivity

As mentioned previously, Becquerel discovered radioactivity

How do you choose a detection device?

The Cloud Chamber

Other Detection Devices

the lesser your exposure

Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques > Radiography Testing > Uses of Radioactivity/Radiation

There are many practical applications to the use of radioactivity/radiation. Radioactive

This is an image of a nuclear reactor.

Other uses of radioactivity

to image materials and products much like a dentist uses radiation

is also used to sterilize medical instruments and food.

Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques > Radiography Testing > Producing a Radiograph

The making of a radiograph

Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques > Radiography Testing > Developing Film

After reading this section you will be able to do the

To understand how the image on a radiograph

The protective layer

Once a film has been exposed to radiation

The process of developing film

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