University of Nottingham

Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering

Computer Modelling Techniques

FE-05

OTHER ELEMENTS
(BEAMS, PLATES AND SHELLS)

5.1 Introduction

In continuum elements, the nodal displacement components are the only degrees of freedom.
In other elements, such as beam, plate and shell elements (also called ‘Structural Elements’), an
additional degree of freedom, the rotation (slope of the displacement) is also used.

This additional degree of freedom enables structural elements to model structures which exhibit
mainly bending deformations in response to external loads. Incorporating an additional degree of
freedom (i.e. the displacement slope) makes the FE formulation slightly more complicated.
However, in bending problems involving thin structures, structural elements are much more
computationally efficient than continuum elements.

FE-05: Other Elements page 5.1

 5.2 Continuum vs. Structural Elements

Solid elements usually fall into two categories; ‘continuum’ and ‘structural’ elements, as shown
in Figure 5.1. Structural elements (such as beam, plate and shell elements) are used when a
structure exhibits bending deformation in response to the external loads.

Solid Finite Elements

Continuum elements Structural elements

(Displacements only) (Displacements and slopes)

Beam Line
Pin-jointed (truss) Line

2D plane stress Flat plane Plate Surface

2D plane strain Flat plane Shell Surface

Axisymmetric Flat projection
3D Volume

Figure 5.1: Continuum and structural elements

The main differences between “structural” and “continuum” elements can be summarised as
follows:

 Structural elements are used to model structures in which one dimension (the thickness)
is much smaller than the other dimensions. They are used in many applications to avoid
having to use 3D continuum elements which are computationally expensive.

 In structural elements the nodal degrees of freedom include both the displacements and
their derivatives (i.e. rotation or slope). In continuum elements, the nodal degrees of
freedom are only the displacements.

FE-05: Other Elements page 5.2

 In structural elements, the rotational degrees of freedom are essential to satisfy the
boundary conditions associated with bending behaviour.

 Continuum elements use a continuum elasticity approach, whereas structural elements

use mechanics of materials approximations that incorporate the assumption of a small
thickness.

 The FE formulation of structural elements is usually more complex than continuum

elements, since displacement derivatives (rotations) are used as additional nodal
variables.

5.3 Beam Elements

Definition of a beam

A typical beam is defined a slender structure in which the length is significantly larger than the
other two dimensions. A beam element is a one-dimensional line or curve that represents the
neutral axis of the beam.

The stress in the direction of the beam element (the bending stress) is considered to be
significantly greater than other stresses. The beam element is allowed to only deform in the
transverse direction, i.e. the stretching of the beam element along the neutral axis is ignored. The
loads applied on the beam are specified as shear forces and bending moments.

Typical examples of beam structures are electricity pylons, steel frames and curved arches, as
shown in Figure 5.2.

Electricity pylons Steel frames Curved beam

Figure 5.2: Examples of beam structures

Degrees of Freedom in a beam element

FE-05: Other Elements page 5.3

Beam elements have two degrees of freedom per node (see Figure 5.3):
(i) Transverse (normal) displacement, perpendicular to the neutral axis of the beam
(ii) Rotation (angle) about the neutral axis of the beam. The rotation is the derivative of the
transverse displacement, i.e. the gradient or slope of the beam at the node.

In a 3D beam element formulation, the above degrees of freedom (transverse displacement and
rotation) have components in the x, y and z directions.

Note that the displacement along the neutral axis (i.e. the stretching of the beam line) is assumed
to be zero and is therefore not a degree of freedom in the beam element. Only shell elements have
stretching displacement as a degree of freedom.
utransverse

utransverse
q

One-dimensional line
representing the neutral q
Neutral axis axis of the beam
of the beam

Figure 5.3: Degrees of freedom in a beam element

Differences between beam and pin-jointed elements

FE meshes of pin-jointed elements and beam elements look almost identical, since they both may
be modelled as one-dimensional lines. However, pin-jointed elements only have nodal
displacements as the degrees of freedom; they do not model nodal rotations as degrees of
freedom.

Beam elements are more complex than pin-jointed elements because they include the rotations at
the nodes as degrees of freedom. Therefore, beam elements are more computationally expensive
than pin-jointed elements since they have more degrees of freedom per node.

Pin-jointed elements are not allowed to bend; they only stretch or compress along the line of the
element. Therefore, they do not have a bending stress, whereas beam elements are effectively
‘welded’ to each other, and hence maintain the slope as continuous from one element to another.

Thick and Thin Beam Assumptions

The shear deformation in the beam cross-section can either be ignored or incorporated in the
FE analysis. Two assumptions for the beam thickness can be used:

FE-05: Other Elements page 5.4

(a) Thin beam elements (also called “Euler-Bernoulli formulations”)
Here shear deformations are ignored, and plane cross-sections originally perpendicular to
the mid-section of the beam remain perpendicular to the mid-surface after deformation.

(b) Thick (deep) beam elements (also called “Timoshenko formulations”)

Here shear deformations are allowed and the beam cross-section may not remain normal
to the beam axis.

5.4 Plate Elements

Definition of a plate

A plate is assumed to be a flat or a curved two-dimensional surface with a small thickness normal
to the middle surface compared to other dimensions.

Plate elements are similar to beam elements, but are modelled as two-dimensional surfaces,
whereas beams are modelled as one-dimensional lines or curves. A plate element represents the
mid-plane (called the neutral plane) of the plate.

As in beam elements, plate elements do not model the stretching displacement. The plate is
assumed to bend in the transverse direction. Only shell elements include both stretching and
transverse displacements. Therefore, in plates, the bending and stretching behaviours are not
coupled, whereas they are coupled in shell elements.

Typical examples of plate structures are diving boards in swimming pools, flat roofs and ladder
platforms, as shown in Figure 5.4.

Diving board Flat roof Ladder platform

Figure 5.4: Examples of plate structures

Degrees of Freedom in a plate element

Plate elements have two degrees of freedom per node (see Figure 5.5):
(i) Out-of-plane transverse (perpendicular) displacement
(ii) In-plane rotations (slopes) of a line originally perpendicular to the surface.

FE-05: Other Elements page 5.5

In a 3D plate element formulation, the above degrees of freedom (transverse displacement and
rotations) have components in the x, y and z directions. As in the beam elements, plate elements
can be modelled as either thin or thick plate elements.
utransverse
utransverse

utransverse
q
utransverse
q
Mid-plane of q
Two-dimensional
the plate
surface representing the q
mid-plane of the plate

Figure 5.5: Degrees of freedom in a plate element

5.5 Shell Elements

A shell is a curved surface with a small thickness perpendicular to the middle surface, compared
to other dimensions.

Since the middle surface is curved (in all directions) during deformation, bending and stretching
are coupled. Since the shell thickness is very small, stresses perpendicular to the shell thickness
are neglected.

Typical examples of shell structures are air balloons, car windscreen and body panels and tents,
as shown in Figure 5.6.

Air balloon
Air balloon Car windscreen and body panels Tent

Figure 5.6: Examples of shell structures

FE-05: Other Elements page 5.6

Degrees of Freedom in a shell element

Shell elements have three degrees of freedom per node (see Figure 5.7):
(i) In-plane (stretching) displacement
(ii) Out-of-plane Transverse (perpendicular) displacement
(iii) In-plane rotations (slopes) of a line originally perpendicular to the surface.

In a 3D shell element formulation, the above degrees of freedom (stretching displacement,

transverse displacement and rotations) have components in the x, y and z directions. As in the
beam and plate elements, shell elements can be modelled as either thin or thick shell elements.

utransverse
utransverse ustretching
utransverse
q utransverse
q
ustretching
q ustretching
Mid-plane of the shell Two-dimensional surface q
representing the mid- ustretching
plane of the shell

Figure 5.7: Degrees of freedom in a shell element

Differences between Plate and Shell Elements

Plate and shell elements may appear to be similar, but shell elements have an extra degree of
freedom; the in-plane (stretching) displacement.

In plate elements the bending and stretching mechanisms are not coupled, whereas they are
coupled in shells, i.e. in plate elements the stretching displacement is assumed to be zero.
Therefore, shell elements are more computationally expensive since they have more degrees of
freedom per node.

A shell element can always be used to model a plate, but a plate element is incapable of
modelling a shell element because plate elements do not have mechanisms for modelling
stretching behaviour.

FE-05: Other Elements page 5.7

 5.6 Summary of Key Points

 Structural elements such as beam, plate and shell elements, are used to model bending
behaviour in structures in which one dimension (the thickness) is much smaller than the
other dimensions.

 Structural elements use displacement as well as rotation (slope of displacement) as the
degrees of freedom. Continuum elements do not consider rotations.

 Beam elements have two degrees of freedom per node, the transverse displacement and
the slope (derivative) of the transverse displacement.

 In plate elements the bending and stretching actions are uncoupled, whereas in shell
elements, the bending and stretching actions are fully coupled.

FE-05: Other Elements page 5.8

 5.7 Examples of Continuum and Structural Elements

Which elements would you recommend for the examples shown below? Note that more than one
type of element may be suitable.

Example Element Type Reason

1. A thin square plate with a
central circular hole subjected to a
uniaxial stress.

2. A standard fracture test

specimen (called compact tension
specimen) used to determine the
fracture toughness of materials.
Loading is applied to open the
crack using pins inserted in
circular holes.

3. A thick-walled pressurised pipe

containing a pressurised fluid.

FE-05: Other Elements page 5.9

4. A paper clip loaded by two
forces as shown.

5. A thin-walled gas pipe subjected

to a concentrated point force.

6. Two steel cylindrical rollers

pressed on a flat block.

FE-05: Other Elements page 5.10