Architectural Layout

Mathematical
modeling

Structural Model

Structural
analysis

Responses of Structural Model to Service Loads

Structural
design
No
Structural Members

Construction Yes

Actual Structure

Function of a Structural Engineer

1. Definition of Structure
A structural (mathematical) model can be defined as an assembly of structural members
(elements) interconnected at certain portions of boundary (surfaces, lines, joints).
Structural members can be one-dimensional (1D) members (beams, bars, cables etc.), 2D
members (planes, membranes, plates, shells etc.) or in most general case can be 3D solids
(a subset of continuum, which also includes fluids).

Some Typical Structures:

Planar (2D) structures subjected to in-plane loads:

ID Joint
member or
Node

Planar (2D) structures subjected to loads normal to the plane:

ID
member

2D
member

General 3D structures:
2D
member

1D
member
3D
member
2. Structural Members
(a). 1D Structural Members:

A 1D structural member has a relatively small cross section compared to the other (3rd)
dimension. The model geometry of a 1D member is therefore represented by a line, straight
or curved, along the center line referred to as the longitudinal axis of the member.
Variables of a 1D member are normally associated with this axis.

Bar/Truss Element

Cable Element

Curved Beam Beam Element

Element

(b). 2D Structural Members:

A 2D structural member is a thin-walled structure of which the transverse dimension is

relatively small compared with the other two dimensions. The model geometry of 2D
member is represented by a surface, commonly the mid-surface of the member. All
variables are associated with this reference surface.

Plane Plate

Membrane Shell
 Plate Elements:

Plate elements are two-dimensional elements that are primarily used to model thin, flat
structural components like slabs, floors, and walls.

They have in-plane stiffness but do not account for bending or membrane effects through the
thickness of the element.

Plate elements typically have three degrees of freedom per node: translations in the x and y
directions, and rotation about the z-axis.

They are well-suited for modeling relatively uniform and thin structures where out-of-plane
effects can be neglected.

Shell Elements:

Shell elements are also two-dimensional elements but are more versatile compared to plate
elements.

They can model both in-plane and out-of-plane bending and membrane effects, making them
suitable for a wider range of structural components including shells, curved surfaces, and
folded plates.

Shell elements typically have six degrees of freedom per node: translations in the x, y, and z
directions, and rotations about these three axes.

They provide a more accurate representation of the structural behavior for components with
significant curvature or where out-of-plane effects are significant.
(c). 3D Structural Members:

A 3D member of which none of the dimension is relatively smaller than the other
dimensions. The geometry of 3D member is represented by straight or curved solid block,
which can be defined in a 3-dimensional orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system and all
variables associated with this member will vary with this coordinate system.

Embankment

3. Linearity of a System and Basic Assumptions of Analysis

The following assumptions must be observed for a linear structural system.

(a). Equilibrium equations (balance of momentum and equation of motion) that are
required to satisfy at the deformed configuration are satisfied at the original
undeformed configuration of the structural system. This assumption is justified for
small strain problems.

(b). Strain displacement relation is linear. This is also justified in the case of small
strain problems.

(c). Material properties of each structural member, is linear elastic, isotropic and
homogeneous, hence the constitutive equation (stress-strain relationship) follows
the Hook’s law.

As a result of (a), (b) and (c), the overall structural system becomes a linear problem,
consequently the principle of superposition holds.

Linear System:

Input Output
Model

R K r

For a linear system, K is a constant and independent on R and hence r.