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IJOTB
22,1
96
Received 23 May 2018
Revised 7 September 2018
Accepted 20 September 2018
International Journal of
Organization Theory & Behavior
Vol. 22 No. 1, 2019
pp. 96-110
© Emerald Publishing Limited
1093-4537
DOI 10.1108/IJOTB-05-2018-0057
Holistic spiritual capital:
definition and its measurement
Marta Mas-Machuca and Frederic Marimon
International University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to define a new and broader concept of spirituality called holistic
spiritual capital (HSpC), which encompasses and identifies the dimensions proposed by various authors and
to propose a metric scale for HSpC and its validation.
Design/methodology/approach – The analysis is based on a survey of 201 residents of Spain administered
in May, 2015. Exploratory factor analysis and a subsequent confirmatory analysis were conducted using
structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques with EQS software.
Findings – Four dimensions reflect the latent construct of HSpC in different ways: health, creativity,
morality and religiosity.
Practical implications – The measurement of HSpC should be considered relevant to organizations, but
not merely because it may be a tool to increase productivity. Ethical climate influenced organizational
commitment and hence it enhances performance indicators.
Originality/value – The proposed scale encompasses in a unique instrument some dimensions considered
previously in the literature independently.
Keywords Creativity, Behaviour, Business ethics
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
Since the end of the 1980s, studies have been developed that link economic growth with
spirituality and also in the public sector (Bruce and Plocha, 1999). The initial hypothesis
contends that religion has an effect on individuals that yields beneficial results for business
(White, 2000). This relationship between the intangible and the tangible makes these causes
of economic growth difficult to determine. Iannaccone (1990) and Finke and Rodney (1992)
have pioneered the use of the term “spiritual capital” (SPiC). In the “Spiritual Capital
Research Program 2003” by the Metanexus Institute, the term is used to demonstrate a
company’s potential, given the spiritual proclivities of its employees. While a certain
vagueness of terminology exists, subsequent studies have attempted to delimit and describe
the impact the term might have on other concepts. Indeed, Berger and Hefner (2004) consider
SPiC in terms of power, influence and knowledge. Furthermore, Zohar and Marshall (2004)
analyze the impact of SPiC up the organizational capacity of an entity and how the study of
SPiC should be approached through various social sciences (McCormick, 1994). More
recently, Wortham and Wortham (2007) affirm that social capital (SC) is a particularly
interesting concept when the causes of satisfaction and motivation in the workplace are
taken into consideration.
Generally, the concept of SPiC is a flexible concept; it can be understood and interpreted
in different ways: it includes factors and abilities of a diverse nature (George, 2006).
According to Iannaccone and Klick (2003), the term is sufficiently elastic and popular
enough to be applied to all traditional religions, all new religions, and a wide range of
non-religious activities deemed virtuous or therapeutic. In every case, it has a noticeable
influence on professional performance and therefore on corporate profit as well.
However, not all studies associate SPiC with religion. Some authors explicitly confirm a
difference, and they point to non-religious elements that are also a part of SPiC. Nawaz and
Hamdani (2009) have collected and synthesized various studies along these lines: Zohar and
Marshall (2004), Rima (2013) and Liu (2007, 2008, 2010) claim that SPiC is different from
religious capital (RC). Zohar and Marshal (2004) deem SPiC as the bedrock of an
organization and insist on understanding SPiC in a broader context that involves other Holistic
social sciences. Rima (2013) defines SPiC as “a means to bring vitality, life, and motivation to spiritual
wealth, profit, advantage, and power.” capital
There is no doubt that Liu and Robertson (2010) is an important resource by means of
which the Research Methods Institute (RMI, Liu, 2007, 2008, 2010) has worked to fashion a
definition of, and a measurement scale for, SPiC. Liu defines the concept of SPiC as that
which refers to the power, influence and disposition created by an organization or a 97
country’s collective spiritual belief, knowledge and practice. Therefore, SPiC would be an
asset that both people and organizations possess and that can be gauged according to
certain observable indicators in people. Some have defined an indicator of SPiC as that
which goes beyond what is covered by RC to measure the dimension of spiritual belief and
knowledge, based on the degree of religious liberty of the particular country. The third
dimension, which addresses the more practical aspects of behavior in business, is based on
ethical indicators in business and corporate responsibility.
To supplement the lack of cohesion, we propose the Aristotelian theory of human nature,
employed by Nussbaum (1992, 1995, 1999), to develop our definition. Thus, in grounding our
work in these different functions, we can identify the human functions that are typically
spiritual. In effect, the holistic perspective of SPiC was already latent in Aristotle, who notes
that the soul, as a source of motivation and action in human beings, is composed of three
parts: the vegetative part, which is related to the most corporeal part of the individual and
his/her most basic impulses; the sensitive part, which comprehends a large variety of
emotions; and the spiritual part, which is the highest guiding principle of human behavior.
This concept has been subsequently developed through the entire tradition of virtue ethics,
beginning with the contributions by MacIntyre (1984) (who adds concepts such as
flourishing). The concept is re-configured by Nussbaum (1995) and then strengthened
further by the concepts of transitive motivation (Melé 2003) and transcendental motivation
(Guillén Parra et al., 2015), which itself includes a motivation of Aristotelian origin, a
reference to the capacity to transcend simple material and immediate motivations.
Therefore, we consider justified our proposed effort to define SPiC within a broader
framework to gather the recent attempts found within the literature of the last decade, while,
simultaneously, our effort is sustained by a respect for human beings in accordance with the
philosophical tradition initiated by Aristotle and subsequently reinterpreted by Nussbaum
(1992, 1995, 1999), who has developed an analysis of human functions according to the
Aristotelian idea, all the while adapted to a plausible analysis of human behavior (Bosch, 2015).
The primary objective of this study is as follows: first, to analyze the dimensions that
comprise HSpC and, second, to propose a metric scale for HSpC and its validation.
Following this first section, in the second section, we reflect on many cutting-edge
concepts that are all related to the highest personal capabilities. In the third section, we
address the dimensions that we propose as components of HSpC. Then, we proceed to
the empirical section of this study. The fourth section defines the methodology employed
and offers the results. The last section establishes a discussion with other authors and offers
the main conclusions of the study.

2. Holistic spiritual capital (HSpC): an exploration of its principal dimension

In the literature on classical economics, the term “capital” is used in a very tangible sense.
Authors such as Adam Smith (1950) and David Ricardo (1891) and their followers focus on
physical resources in defining factors of production: land, labor and capital. Classical
economists employ the word “capital” in reference to money or human-made goods that are
used in the production of other goods.
The origin of “Intellectual Capital” (IC) is related to the inadequacies of financial
statements to determine a company’s value. Lev (1997) identifies a gap due to intangible
IJOTB assets between market value and book value. In the 1990s, the concept of IC emerged and,
22,1 with it, the efforts to measure it. In the new century, there is a second stage that is
characterized by academic analysis and models (such as Subramaniam and Youndt, 2005;
Isaac et al., 2010). The term “IC” refers to intangible or knowledge assets, and it represents a
valuable resource and a capability for action based on knowledge and knowing (Nahapiet
and Ghoshal, 1998). Specifically, the denomination of “capital” makes reference to the
98 economic dimension, but this consideration is a controversial point (Dean and Kretschmer,
2007). The previous research provides numerous frameworks to classify the components of
IC. Traditionally, the three main components are: human capital (HC) (employees’ tacit or
explicit knowledge); structural capital (technological and organizational capital); and
relational capital (relationships with stakeholders and other organizations).
HC can be considered to be the heart of IC (Moon and Kym, 2006) and the main driver of a
firm’s sustainable competitive advantage (Cabrita and Bontis, 2008). HC includes employee
attributes such as education, skills, innovativeness and experience. According to Martín-de-
Castro et al. (2011), the three dimensions of HC are: knowledge (explicit and tacit, e.g. formal
education, specific training, experience, and personal development); ability (individual learning,
collaboration-team work, communication, and leadership); and behaviors ( feelings of belonging
and commitment, self-motivation, job satisfaction, friendship, flexibility and creativity).
SC, one of the forms of capital in the World Bank classification, is gaining in importance
(Bueno et al., 2004); it has numerous implications in many social science disciplines, such as
sociology, economics, political science, psychology, education, etc. SC has a multidimensional
nature (Koka and Prescott, 2002), and many authors use this “surprisingly elastic” term (Lappe
and Du Bois, 1997). Bueno et al. (2004) identify four SC approaches: economic development
theories, social responsibility and ethics, corporate governance and intellectual capital.
Therefore, for Bueno et al. (2004), IC is one of the components of SC, proving what we
previously stated above: all of these concepts have diffuse and porous interconnections, and to
a certain degree, these concepts overlap. We have also yet to reach a consensus in the
literature to define each concept precisely. Thus, for example, Woolcock and Narayan (2000)
consider SC to be the features that enable people to act collectively. According to Adler and
Kwon (2002, p. 23), SC can be defined as “the goodwill available to individuals or groups. Its
source lies in the structure and content of the actor’s social relations.” Additionally, they
assess the validity of using this type of resource as a form of capital. Issues such as networks,
relationships, norms, trust and responsible leadership are all included in this popular concept
(Maak, 2007). However, as Dolfsma et al. (2009) state, the creation and maintenance of SC must
also consider gift exchange, given that relationships between individuals are formed and
sustained through the cycle of giving and receiving (Ruth et al., 1999).
Luthans has worked extensively on the concept and on the measurement of the
Psychological capital (PsyC) of each employee (Luthans, 2002). PsyC refers to individual
motivational propensities that accumulate through positive psychological variables, such as
self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resilience (Luthans, Avolio, Avey and Norman, 2007;
Luthans, Youssef and Avolio, 2007). The combinations of this construct have a positive
impact on work-related performance and satisfaction (Luthans, 2002). PsyC involves a new
concept that is emerging specifically to analyze its impact on workplace outcomes, such as
engagement and stress among others (Görgens-Ekermans and Herbert, 2013). The unit of
analysis of this type of capital is the individual, although we do not disregard how this type of
capital can be contemplated at the group or at the organizational level. In the current global
economy, previous studies show that investment in PsyC may yield huge returns and can
influence employee work performance (Wang et al., 2014).
Surprisingly, there is a lack of consensus on the definitions of RC (Iannaccone, 1990,
1991) and SPiC. There is a debate when it comes time to specify the terms religiosity
and spirituality. Thus, Hicks (2002, 2003, 2005) takes the stance that religiosity is an integral
aspect of spirituality, but Mitroff and Denton (1999a, b) claim that religion and spirituality Holistic
are two different concepts. These classifications offer no explanation based on the nature of spiritual
spirituality. Dahlgaard-Park (2012) discusses how existing and current theories for capital
managing people have ignored the spiritual and ethical dimension of satisfying human
needs. Wasiluk (2013) states that “we need a spiritual approach to managing people, to
support a sustainable economy. A spiritual approach will develop the human being and not
just their technical expertise. Similarly, this investigation focuses its attention on the novel 99
concept of HSPC and on the metric. In this sense, this research contributes in the
consolidation of the concept of SPiC as a relevant topic in the management field. There is a
large and clear evolution of this topic along time.
In conducting the literature review, we have recompiled the dimensions that configure
SPiC, adding the “holistic” component. In effect, there is a consensus among the majority of
authors with regard to the inclusion of religion as a principal axis of SPiC (Iannaccone and
Klick, 2003; Finke, 2003; Wortham and Wortham, 2007; Malloch, 2010). However, it would be
too restrictive not to include other factors: we can identify up to six factors in total:
religiosity, morality, the capacity for transcendence, the sanctity of life, altruism at diverse
levels ( familial, societal, professional) and creativity.

2.1 The dimensions that configure HSpC

We define these six environments, or factors, below. For each of these dimensions, we begin by
pointing to their concrete references in the literature, we offer an initial assessment of what each
dimension should entail, and we close with a definition to pin down the content. The validity of
the content must provide information on the degree to which the items of the scale are an
adequate indicator of the content of the domain to be measured (Sireci and Faulkner-Bond, 2014).
Religiosity. It seems necessary to acknowledge religiosity as the primary aspect of SPiC,
both in terms of belief and in terms of related activity. The majority of authors identify SPiC
with religion (Iannaccone and Klick, 2003; Finke, 2003; Berger and Hefner, 2004; Liu, 2007).
However, without said identification, we continue to prioritize both this factor and the
connection between the other factors and God. We conclude that religiosity is the capacity of
the individual to establish and recognize a personal link with God.
Morality. According to Wortham and Wortham (2007), religion greatly strengthens morality.
Because religion promises a reward in the afterlife, religion gives morality a foundation that is
incomparable to any other factor. “Neither magic nor science […] offers such a reward” (Stark,
2004, p. 17) because only the will of God may appropriate arbitration from social norms:
“Lacking the legitimacy provided by divine will, how is it possible to justify moral rules, to
prevent them from being seen as arbitrary, provisional, and subject to individual choice?.”
We define morality as the capacity to evince moral judgement and to adjust conduct
accordingly. Therefore, it includes proper knowledge, good judgement and consistent behavior.
Capacity for transcendence. Another important factor underscored by various authors in
their SPiC definitions is the capacity for transcendence. Malloch (2010) alludes to
transcendence in happiness and in values.
This capacity allows individuals to have direction in their lives and in their activities, to be
happier, to be able to forge objectives in the intermediate and in the long term, to overcome the
pressure of the immediate. The capacity for transcendence consists of recognizing meaning
(in life or in action) beyond the immediate and the material.
Sanctity of life. A fourth area of SPiC is the respect for life, recognizing in life a sacred
value. The sanctity of life is an imperative and increasingly strong value that can overcome
hardships and setbacks. Wortham and Wortham (2007) specifies: “Where the spiritual
climate is strong, happiness is more noticeable, families are valued, infidelity is discouraged,
the sanctity of life is respected, suicide is less frequent, and drug-use dissuaded.”
IJOTB Therefore, the sanctity of life represents the absolute respect for human life as such, and
22,1 it avoids any aggression toward one’s own life or toward the lives of others.
Altruism. We observe a benefit of religious activity both in terms of sociability and in
terms of altruism. Wortham and Wortham (2007, p. 444) also considers altruism to be a
reinforcement of social norms and a promotion of social unity, which are also described as
art, prayer and volunteerism. Additionally, Wortham and Wortham (2007) incorporates the
100 positive attitudes analyzed in the 2004 UCLA study that are not directly linked with religion:
“compassion, kindness, assistance, generosity, forgiveness, and empathy, as spiritual
qualities. Moreover, spirituality was significantly correlated with a growing optimism, a
greater civic responsibility, with greater sympathy, with a demonstrated and greater
tolerance for racial and ethnic groups and with stronger academic performance.”
We define altruism as the capacity to concern oneself with the welfare of another in a
dedicated fashion, which involves the capacity to want the well-being of another above one’s
own well-being or self-interest.
Creativity. Creativity is another aspect to consider and an aspect to which various studies
make reference. The UCLA (2004a) study also focuses its attention on experiences of
creativity: “That creativity is intimately connected with the mystical, and the spiritual is
evident when we focus on that which people consider as their experience during the creative
process. There are people who confirm how, in their most inspired states of excitement, they
feel as ‘if I am touching the source of infinite and eternal energy which you and I, and all
things religious, call God’ ” (UCLA, 2004b, p. 9).
Creativity demonstrates human spirituality as a matter of principle: we need the capacity
for abstract thought; we need it to establish new interconnections between ideas and
realities that appear unconnected, etc. These capacities manifest themselves both in
scientific investigation and in artistic achievement. Creativity is the ability to conceive new
ideas, be they scientific or artistic, in both theory and practice.

2.2 Exploring the definition of HSpC

The noted impact in all of these areas reveals a type of complex phenomenon, capable of
penetrating human behavior at a very deep level. We determined that SPiC exerts influence
in multiple spheres of life and that, in all of these spheres, SPiC instills strength and
revitalizes healthy dynamics, both personally and socially. It is important to consider the
nature of human spirituality because it is such an abundant field. Indeed, the four
dimensions or aspects of human life noted here are related to a classical idea of spirituality
that could easily find its philosophical roots and foundation in the western tradition.
All of these elements allow us to elaborate a more complete definition. Taking into
account the definitions that exist to date, including some of the aforementioned definitions
by Zohar and Marshall (2004), Liu (2007) and Malloch (2010), and analyzing all of the
characteristics that can be taken into account or that can be included within the term SPiC,
we propose a new definition. We define SPiC as a combination of dimensions that points
toward spirituality in people and that consists of religiosity, morality, the capacity for
transcendence, the sanctity of life, altruism and creativity. Human spirituality is the
combination of functions that exist above the functions of a sensitive and vegetative nature.

2.3 Proposed scale for HSpC measurement

Table II shows the relationship among the six dimensions that we have found, a priori, in the
literature with the corresponding items that measure the intensity of each dimension. We
detail the primary bibliographic references when we have borrowed the item from another
previously published and vetted metric scale. In each case, we have fortified these items with
our own items, which we have incorporated after analyzing, with the help of multiple other
authors, what each dimension attempts to capture (Table I).
Dimension References Item
Holistic
spiritual
Religiosity Ashmos and 1 R1 I consider my relationship with God as relevant to my life capital
Duchon (2000) and 2 R2 My relationship with God influences my more practical
Liu and Robertson relationships
3 R3 I intend for my conduct to honor God
4 R4 I think about God at least once per day
Morality Ashmos and 5 M1 I make moral judgements on my conduct before I act 101
Duchon (2000) and 6 M2 I make moral judgements on the actions I have already taken
Wortham and 7 M3 I adjust my conduct according to my moral judgements
Wortham (2007) 8 M4 Judgement of prior actions has an impact on subsequent actions
9 M5 I intend for my conduct to always be morally correct
10 M6 My spiritual values influence my decision-making
Capacity for Ashmos and 11 T1 My life has meaning beyond the tangible
transcendence Duchon (2000) 12 T2 I have long-term objectives
and Sheep (2006) 13 T3 My motivation goes beyond the enjoyable and the monetary
14 T4 My happiness isn’t based on ephemeral or trivial aspects
15 T5 I recognize my happiness in lasting elements
16 T6 I am an optimist with regard to life
Sanctity of life Wortham and 17 S1 I value the spiritual dimension of life
Wortham (2007) 18 S2 I consider life to have a sacred value
19 S3 I avoid aggression against my own life
20 S4 I avoid aggression against all other life
21 S5 I follow medical prescriptions strictly
22 S6 I practice healthy habits
23 S7 I have a responsible attitude with respect to my health
Altruism Liu and 24 A1 It is important for me to give back to my community
Robertson 25 A2 I worry about those who come after me
26 A3 Life is better when lived in the service of an important cause
27 A4 Human beings are mutually responsible for one another
28 A5 I am easily and deeply moved when I see misery and human
suffering
Creativity Houghton and 29 C1 I feel I am adept at generating new ideas Table I.
DiLiello (2010) 30 C2 I am confident in my ability to solve problems creatively The proposed
31 C3 I have a special ability to further develop ideas from others measurement
32 C4 I have the talent and ability to do my job well instrument for HSpC

3. Methodology and results

To proceed with the proposal for a metric scale for HSpC, we generated a survey of 201
people, residents of Spain, administered May, 2015. Table III shows the demographic
characteristics of the sample. A specialized survey company took charge of the field
work and asked people about the 32 items from Table II according to a five-point
Likert scale.
The analysis consists of an initial exploratory section that concludes with a battery of
items grouped according to the dimensions that will configure the final metric proposed.
Once this proposal has been established, we proceed to a confirmation analysis using
structural equation modeling (SEM).

3.1 Exploratory analysis of the dimensions of HSpC

First, we proceeded with six analyses of the principal components regarding the items of
each dimension. In this manner, we proceeded to the first filter, discarding those items with
loads below 0.625. We proceeded to briefly comment on the results of each of these analyses:
• The four items of “Religiosity” met the condition.
IJOTB Number %
22,1
Gender
Male 103 51.2
Female 98 48.8
Total 201 100.0

102 Age (years)

Between 18 and 24 18 9.0
Between 25 and 34 34 16.9
Between 35 and 44 43 21.4
Between 45 and 54 35 17.4
Between 55 and 64 29 14.4
W 65 42 20.9
Total 201 100.0
Working status
Working full time 84 41.8
Part-time work 14 7.0
Unemployed 31 15.4
Retired/pensioner 44 21.9
Study and work 18 9.0
Homeworking 10 5.0
Total 201 100.0
Annual income (in euros)
o 10,000 92 23.0
Between 10,000 and 30,000 195 48.8
Between 30,000 and 50,000 46 11.5
Between 50,000 and 70,000 7 1.8
W70,000 60 15.0
Total 201 100.0
Education
Basic studies 27 13.4
High school diploma 47 23.4
Table II. Vocational qualification 35 17.4
Technical record University degree 92 45.8
of the sample Total 201 100.0

• The items of “Morality” were divided into two factors. The second factor had
an eigenvalue just above the unit (1.01) and was comprised of items that also weighed
in the first factor. The items for this first factor of morality were M1, M2 and M4.
• The six items of “Capacity for transcendence” were grouped into one single factor,
and the loads above 0.625 corresponded to T1, T3 and T4.
• The seven items of the dimension “Sanctity of life” were divided into three factors.
The first factor accounted for 37.47 percent of the variation, while the other two
factors combined to account for 21.3 percent. Therefore, we decided to only retain the
first factor, comprised of S5, S6 and S7. We decided to retain S5, although the total for
this factor was less than 0.6 because it was a complementary item for the other two
factors. A comprehensive interpretation of the three items suggests that, from this
point forward, this dimension should be labeled as “health.” The remaining items that
weigh in the other two factors were related to other aspects, which justified the initial
label of “sanctity of life.”
• The five “Altruism” items were combined into one factor. The items selected were A1,
A3 and A5.
 • Finally, the four factors of “Creativity” registered loads above 0.625. Holistic
Table IV shows the 20 items that have made it past the first filter. The table also shows the spiritual
reliability (Cronbach’s α) of each dimension comprised solely of those items that have capital
passed this first phase (Table III).
These 20 items passed the second phase of analysis. Using exploratory factor analysis
(EFA) with principal components and a varimax rotation that implemented Kaiser’s criteria
( factors with an eigenvalue above the unit), we extracted five factors. Both the KMO index 103
(0.856) and Bartlett’s test of sphericity (χ2 of 1,922 and 190 degrees of flexibility with a
statistical significance of 0.000) predict a good factor analysis. Table V shows the weights of
these five factors. The five factors attain a percentage of variation of 63.94 percent (Table IV ).
The table shows weights of more than 0.3. We find that the items of “Capacity for
Transcendence” weigh simultaneously in multiple factors. The rest of the dimensions remain
static. All items with weights of more than 0.6 have been replaced. The five initial dimensions
were confirmed.
Table VI shows the reliability analysis and the internal consistency of the constructs.
We observed that Cronbach’s α, for the morality construct, fell below the limit of 0.7
(Fornell and Larcker, 1981); however, in exploratory studies such as ours, a threshold of 0.6

Dimension Items Cronbach’s α

Religiosity R1, R2, R3, R4 0.954

Morality M1, M2, M4 0.662
Transcendence T1, T3, T4 0.608 Table III.
Health S5, S6, S7 0.714 An analysis of the
Altruism A1, A3, A5 0.638 principal components
Creativity C1, C2, C3, C4 0.781 for the six dimensions

1 Religiosity 2 Creativity 3 Morality 4 Health 5 Altruism

R1 0.933
R3 0.914
R2 0.908
R4 0.905
T1 0.428 0.306
C1 0.831
C3 0.776
C2 0.678
C4 0.639
T3 0.357 0.320
M1 0.773
M2 0.759
M4 0.609
T4 0.593 0.345
S7 0.856
S6 0.302 0.749
S5 0.567 0.453
A5 0.784
Table IV.
A3 0.656 An exploratory
A1 0.485 factorial analysis
VE% 18.65 13.67 11.68 10.43 9.18 of the 20 items
Note: VE%: Percentage of variation from Table IV
IJOTB (Malhotra, 2004) is sufficient. The reliability comprised in each of the cases is greater than
22,1 0.7. Conversely, the individual reliability of the items remains guaranteed because we
observe that the loads exceed 0.5 (Table V ).
Note that “Altruism” is not included in Table VI. This omission is because the Cronbach’s
α for this construct (0.578) does not support its reliability and consequently the dimension
has been withdrawn. Only 13 items remain for our analysis arranged over four dimensions.
104 Table VII accounts for discriminant validity, which was analyzed by linear correlations
or standardized co-variances between latent factors by examining whether inter-factor
correlations were less than the square root of the average variance extracted (AVE).
Table VII shows that the square roots of each AVE were greater than the off-diagonal
elements and that discriminant validity was guaranteed (Table VI).
After this first step analysis, only 4 dimensions and a total of 13 items remained. The items of
the original “Capacity for transcendence” dimension were dropped in the previous process.
Furthermore, the “Altruism” dimension was removed due to the reliability problems noted
above.

3.2 A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the scale proposed to measure HSpC
The next step consisted of analyzing these four dimensions of HSpC as dimensions of a
second-order CFA, taking into account that the four dimensions reflect the same latent
degree of SPiC. The model was estimated by using the robust maximum likelihood method
from the asymptotic variance-covariance matrix. The fit indices obtained in the
measurement model estimation showed that the variables converged toward the factors
established in the CFA (see Table VII). The χ2 Satorra–Bentler was 72.85, with 61 degrees of
freedom and a p-value of 0.142. Root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA) was
0.031 and the CFI was 0.990. The global fit was acceptable (Table VII).
The proposed scale is shown in the Appendix.

4. Discussion
Our definition proposal of HSpC is an approximation that is broad enough to include recent
studies and, simultaneously, to rely on a consideration of human beings that is in accordance
with the philosophical traditions beginning with Aristotle. Nussbaum has subsequently
reinterpreted this Aristotelian tradition (1992, 1995, and 1999) to develop an analysis of human
functions in a manner that corresponds with the original Aristotelian schema. Based on this

Religiosity Creativity Morality Health

Cronbach’s α 0.954 0.781 0.662 0.786

Table V. Composite reliability (CR) 0.967 0.858 0.818 0.904
Dimension reliability Average variance extracted (AVE) 0.881 0.604 0.600 0.824

Religiosity Creativity Morality Health

Table VI.
Religiosity 0.939
Discriminant analysis.
Factor correlations Creativity 0.037 0.777
(the square root of the Morality 0.284a 0.299a 0.775
a
AVE is along the Health 0.253 0.391a 0.204a 0.908
a
diagonal) Note: The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (bilateral)
Dimension Items Standardized load t-value R2
Holistic
spiritual
Religiosity R1 0.946 – 0.895 capital
R2 0.923 21.181 0.852
R3 0.904 27.353 0.818
R4 0.896 25.118 0.802
Creativity C1 0.829 – 0.688
C2 0.727 9.142 0.528 105
C3 0.650 8.061 0.422
C4 0.539 6.553 0.290
Morality M1 0.725 – 0.526
M2 0.662 5.281 0.438
M4 0.522 4.729 0.272
Health S6 0.789 – 0.623
S7 0.821 5.298 0.673
HSpC Religiosity 0.326 3.667 0.107
Creativity 0.648 5.147 0.420
Morality 0.541 4.545 0.292
Health 0.699 5.331 0.489
Goodness of fit summary
Satorra–Bentler scaled χ2 72.853
Degrees of freedom 61
p-value 0.142
χ2/df 1.194 Table VII.
Comparative fit index (CFI) 0.990 Second-order
RMSEA 0.031 confirmatory
90% confidence interval of RMSEA (0.000, 0.055) factor analysis

concept, we proposed six dimensions of HSpC: religiosity, morality, the capacity for
transcendence, the sanctity of life, altruism and creativity. Upon interpreting the statistical
analyses (EFA and CFA), the findings suggest that HSpC is basically comprised of four
dimensions: religiosity, creativity, morality, and health. According to the data obtained, these
four dimensions adequately represent HSpC.
However, the four dimensions reflect the latent construct of HSpC in different ways.
First, the concern with health and routines for keeping healthy is well represented in
this construct. Drawing on positive psychology, we have discussed whether an increase
in spirituality influences health. We have found results that are both favorable
and unfavorable.
Second, creativity is another important dimension that well supports our construct.
Creativity refers to the cognitive ability to construct an idea inspired by emotions. Zohar
and Marshall (2004) argue that people with increased SPiC have the capacity for extra
motivation, which enables their greater creativity. These authors criticize capitalism. In
effect, they consider western capitalism to be excessively focused on material well-being,
and they suggest that western capitalism must also seek more spiritual concerns.
The third dimension is morality. Rima (2013) also stipulates that morality must elevate
the existing forms of capital toward a “spiritual capital.” Thus, morality would operate as a
catalyst to reinvigorate people, institutions and even society in general. Religiosity is related
to the level of morality (Wortham and Wortham, 2007). In today’s business world, we hear
demands for a greater ethical commitment. This dimension of understanding good
judgement and understanding its coherence with human behavior is crucial and vital for
business prosperity. Therefore, this moral dimension within the HSpC construct reflects the
important relevance of “spiritual capital.”
IJOTB Finally but not least importantly, religiosity also reflects the construct that we have
22,1 defined as HSpC. Religiosity, therefore, is an important part of human spirituality.
According to Wang and Han (2016): “Explains that HR managers could develop a highly
committed and productive workplace through designing various forms of spiritual HRM
practice.” In this sense, this research will increase the understanding and the valuable role of
taking into account the spiritual dimension in the employee workplace. HR managers must
106 pay attention to this holistic approach.

5. Conclusion
In conclusion, as we face the abyss of a spirituality imposed upon the business world, as
both a concept and as an application, we propose a metric scale to measure SPiC from a
holistic perspective (HSpC). We contribute to the groundwork of natural philosophy, based
on virtue ethics, which flourishes when defined by the integral dimensions we propose.
SPiC, contemplated holistically, includes four dimensions: religiosity, creativity, morality
and health. In this manner, we follow the trajectory initiated by previous authors that is
tasked with understanding not only how a person’s spiritual dimension contributes to the
development of an organization of which they are a part but also how the four dimensions
contribute to more personal growth and, in this manner, better enable the individual to
contribute to the development of the organization.
Nonetheless, more research on this subject is necessary to validate the scale of HSpC in
other cultures; to relate this new construct to other relevant aspects in the business world; to
observe how the business applications of HSpC interact (with leadership, serve as motivation,
commitment to the organization, job involvement, etc.); and to observe its moderating and
mediating effects. Another possible research trajectory would be to relate HSpC to other
concepts discussed at a macro-level, including intergenerational solidarity and citizen behavior.

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IJOTB Appendix
22,1
Religiosity 1 I consider my relationship with God relevant to my life
2 My relationship with God influences my practical relationships
3 I intend for my conduct to honor God
4 I think about God at least once per day
110 Creativity 5 I feel I have a talent for generating new ideas
6 I am confident in my ability to solve problems creatively
7 I have a special ability to further develop the ideas of others
8 I have the talent and ability to do my job well
Table AI. Morality 9 I make value judgements on my conduct before I act
Proposed scale to 10 I make value judgements on the actions I have already taken
measure holistic 11 Judgement of my previous actions impacts my subsequent conduct
spiritual capital Health 12 I practice healthy habits
(HSpC) 13 I have a responsible attitude with regard to my health

About the authors

Marta Mas-Machuca has PhD in Business Administration from the Universitat Politècnica de
Catalunya (UPC) in Spain, and graduated with a bachelor’s degree in Business Administration from the
University of Navarra (UN) in Spain. She has been accredited as a tenure-track lecturer by the Quality
Catalan Agency of the University System (AQU). For six years, she was a manager of a business unit
for the Altran Group, a consulting company. Since 2013, she has worked as a lecturer in the
Department of Economy and Business Organization at the International University of Catalonia in
Spain, teaching in strategic management and human resources. She collaborates on research with the
Chair in Mission Leadership and Corporate Governance (http://catedradpm.es/) at the university, which
is dedicated to research on company missions, culture and climate. She has participated in
several research projects, and she is the author of several books, articles and working papers.
Marta Mas-Machuca is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: mmas@uic.es
Frederic Marimon has a PhD in Business Administration and is a tenured professor at the
International University of Catalonia in Spain. He has received Full Professor accreditation from the AQU.
He has a bachelor’s degree in Industrial Engineering from the Polytechnic University of Catalonia in
Barcelona and a master’s degree in Business and Administration from IESE in Barcelona. He is currently
vice-rector of research at the International University of Catalonia. He focuses his research on production,
mainly on quality, e-quality measurement and service companies. He has published in international
academic journals, most of them in the quality management area; he has also published some papers
analyzing the diffusion phenomenon of management standards (i.e. ISO 9000, ISO 14000, etc.). He is also
involved in some consultancy projects, most of them related to the implementation of quality systems,
although they have also been implemented in other fields, such as logistics.

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