BIOLOGY2/DB024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.1-1.

3)

SUB TOPIC/ LEARNING

OUTCOME TERMINOLOGY DIAGRAM & DESCRIPTION
Sub topic: BIODIVERSITY :
The variety of living organisms based on genetic diversity, species diversity & ecosystem diversity.
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO Types of biodiversity:
BIODIVERSITY AND Genetic diversity, species diversity & ecosystem diversity
TAXONOMY: THE Hierarchical classification :
CLASSIFICATION OF
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY. • Hierarchical classification is a method of scientific taxonomy used to group & categorized organisms hierarchically.

Learning Outcome: • Taxonomic hierarchy is biological classification based on the taxon (a group of organism at a particular level in a
classification system).
a) Define biodiversity.
b) Explain the biological • Each organism fits into a series of categories or taxonomic groups, based on shared characteristics.
classification and 8 taxon: ( Saya Guna Formular ‘Oh Cinta’ Pikat Kakak Dia)
nomenclature based on Species < Genus < Family < Order < Class < Phylum < Kingdom < Domain
Linnaean System.
c) State Three-domain Classification
system Domain Eukarya
(Carl-Woese,1977) Kingdom Plantae
i. Bacteria Phylum Magnoliophyte
ii. Archaea Class Magnoliopsida Example of hierarchical
iii. Eukarya Order Ericales classification based on 8 taxon
Family Actinidiaceae for kiwifruit.
Genus Actinidia
Species Actinidia deliciosa

Scientific naming based on Linnaean System.

• Taxonomy is the science of naming & classifying organisms.
• Scientific name & classification system based on - Binomial nomenclature.
• This system is developed by Carolus Linnaeus.

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• The two-part scientific name of a species is called a binomial.

✔ The first part of the name is the genus
✔ The second part is species
✔ The first letter of the genus is capitalized.
✔ The entire species name is italicized/ underlined (hand writing).
E.g. : Scientific name of a species based on binomial

Escherichia coli 2 words underline

separately

Genus Species
1st letter – Start with small letter
capital letter
or can be typed as E.coli @ Escherichia coli

THREE - DOMAIN SYSTEM ( Carl Woese,1977)

Based on molecular data/ genetic data (rRNA base sequence)
The following shows a simplified classification based on the three domain:
Domain Bacteria
Domain Archaea prokaryote
Domain Eukarya eukaryotes
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia
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Domain Eukarya

Kingdom

Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

SUB TOPIC/ LEARNING

OUTCOME TERMINOLOGY DIAGRAM & DESCRIPTION
Subtopic:

1.2 DOMAIN BACTERIA

Two domains of prokaryotes
AND DOMAIN ARCHAEA i. Bacteria (E.coli)
ii.Archaea (Sulfolobus sp.)
Learning outcome: DOMAIN BACTERIA DOMAIN ARCHAEA
a) State the two domains Eubacteria - (e.g. : E. coli & Archaebacteria - (e.g. : Sulfolobus sp.)
of prokaryotes, Bacteria Cyanobacteria)
(E. coli) and Archaea
( Sulfolobus sp.).

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b) Describe the diversity Consist unique layer of peptidoglycan Cell wall Consist polysaccharides & protein (do not have
of bacteria (based on peptidoglycan)
cell shapes).
c) State the importance of
bacteria: The lipids in the plasma membrane are Structure of The lipids in the plasma membrane are composed of
i. Recycling of chemical composed of unbranched hydrocarbon membrane branched hydrocarbon chains connected to glycerol
elements in ecosystem chains connected to glycerol by ester lipids by ether linkages
(nitrogen fixation, as linkages
decomposer).
ii. Symbiotic DNA is single, circular molecule – no Association DNA associated with histones
(enterobacteria e.g. E. histone protein associated with DNA of histone to
coli in human intestine). the DNA
iii. Pathogenic (e.g.
Salmonella sp.).
iv. In research and
technology (bacterial
plasmid).
DOMAIN BACTERIA
Unique characteristic of bacteria:
• Cell wall - consist unique layer of peptidoglycan.
• DNA is single, circular molecule & not associated with histone protein.
• Structure of membrane lipids - the lipids in the plasma membrane are composed of unbranched hydrocarbon chains
connected to glycerol by ester linkages.
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***CELL SHAPES
Spherical shape (coccus)
Rod shape (bacillus)
Spiral shape (spirillum)
Comma shape (vibrio)

Diversity of bacteria GRAM STAIN

based on : Gram positive – cell wall stain
purple or blue
Gram negative – cell wall stain
red.
POSITION OF FLAGELLA
e.g. monotrichous

Based on cell shapes :

1. Spherical shape (coccus) - e.g.: Streptococcus sp. // Staphylococcus sp.
2. Rod shape (bacillus) - e.g. : E.coli
3. Spiral shape (spirillum) - e.g. : Spirillum minus

Single cell : coccus & bacillus

• Diplo_ (cells existing in pairs) - Diplococcus sp.
• Strepto_ (cells existing in filaments) - Streptococcus sp.
• Staphylo_ (cells existing in clusters) - Staphylococcus sp.

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Coccus
Spiral
Bacillus

Importance of bacteria:
i. Recycling of chemical elements in ecosystem (nitrogen fixation, as decomposer).
ii. Symbiotic (enterobacteria e.g. E. coli in human intestine).
iii. Pathogenic (e.g. Salmonella sp.).
iv. In research and technology (bacterial plasmid).

SUB TOPIC/ LEARNING

OUTCOME TERMINOLOGY DIAGRAM & DESCRIPTION
Subtopic : STIGMA/ EYESPOT KINGDOM PROTISTA
Eyespot which is a Unique Characteristics of Protista:
1.3 DOMAIN EUKARYA : light-sensitive • Eukaryotic cell.
KINGDOM PROTISTA. organelle, which helps • Mostly unicellular, some colonial or simple multicellular forms.
the Chlamydomonas • Found widespread in aquatic & damp habitats.
Learning outcome : sp. to swim toward the • Feeding mode:
light ✔ Heterotrophic microorganisms (Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp.)
a) State the unique ✔ Autotrophic microorganisms (Euglena sp.)
characteristic of ✔ Parasitic (Plasmodium sp.)
Protista.
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b) State the classification PYRENOID

of Protista based on : Protein complex in the
i. Algae (plant-like): e.g. chloroplast of
Chlamydomonas sp. Chlamydomonas sp. ,
ii. Protozoa (animal like) function in carbon
e.g. Amoeba sp. dioxide fixation.
c) State the importance of
Protista:
i. Food source
(Chlorella sp.)
ii. Pathogenic
(Plasmodium sp.-
malaria
iii. Sewage treatment
Unique Characteristics of Algae:
• Eukaryotic cell.
• Plant-like protista.
• Autotroph or Photosynthetic organisms.
• Structure :
✔ Most unicellular - e.g. Chlamydomonas sp.
• Found in aquatic environments (ocean, freshwater) or very damp surfaces.

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Chlamydomonas sp.
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SUB TOPIC/ LEARNING

OUTCOME TERMINOLOGY DIAGRAM & DESCRIPTION
Unique characteristics of Protozoa:
Animal-like organism
Eukaryotic cell
Unicellular microorganisms.
Heterotrophic & ingest food (like animal do)
Lack cell wall
Live in many different environments (free-living
or parasites);
~ In the ocean, freshwater rivers and ponds, in
deep soil & in other organisms.

Amoeba sp.

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SUB TOPIC/ LEARNING

OUTCOME TERMINOLOGY DIAGRAM & DESCRIPTION
Importance of Protista:
1. Food source
- E.g. Chlorella sp.- high in vitamin (grown commercially)
2. Human health - Plasmodium sp. (malaria)
3. Sewage Treatment
- Protozoa involve in wastewater purification process to reduce water pollution.
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SUB TOPIC/
LEARNING TERMINOLOGY DIAGRAM & DESCRIPTION
OUTCOME
Unique characteristics of Fungi
1.4 - Domain Chlorophyll - green
Eukarya: Kingdom photosynthetic
Fungi pigment found in ● Mostly multicellular eukaryotes (yeast = unicellular).
plants, algae, and ● Do not have chlorophyll
cyanobacteria. ● Cell wall contains chitin.
● Store carbohydrate as glycogen.
● Non motile
a. State the Chitin - fibrous
● Reproduction via formation of spores (asexually or sexually).
unique substance consisting
characteristics of polysaccharides, ✔ asexual reproduction is most common method (produces genetically identical organisms) while
of Fungi which is the major ✔ sexually occur when conditions are poor & nutrients scarce.
constituent in the ● Body structure consist of mycelium/ hyphae.
exoskeleton of ● Types of hyphae:
arthropods and the
cell walls of fungi. ✔ Aseptate (coenocytic): hyphae are not divided into individual cells, but are combined into an elongated,
multinucleated giant cell.
✔ Septate: hyphae are divided, by cross walls called septa, into individual cells containing one or more cell’s nucleus
Glycogen - ● Feeding mode heterotrophic - mostly are saprotrophic, some are parasitic and several fungi have mutualistic
multibranched relationships.
polysaccharide of
● E.g.: Lichens
glucose that serves
as a form of energy ⮚ Association between fungi & blue green algae or cyanobacteria.
storage in animals, ⮚ Specialized fungal hyphae penetrate photosynthetic cells, absorbing nutrients from the algae / cyanobacteria.
fungi, and bacteria. ⮚ Fungi provide suitable environment for growth of the algae / cyanobacteria.

Spores - microscopic
biological particles
that allow fungi to be
reproduced.

Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

b. State the Hyphae - long,

classification branched &
of Fungi phyla threadlike filaments,
based on the may absorb nutrients.
spore bearing
structure:
i. Zygomycota Mycelium – exhibit
(Rhizopus sp.) apical growth &
ii. Ascomycota branch form a
(Penicillium sp.) network of hyphae.
iii. Basidiomycota
(Agaricus sp.)
Haustoria - modified
parasitic hyphae
which penetrate the
host tissue but
remain outside cell
membrane.

Saprophyte - feeds
on dead/ decaying
organisms. Cells
release digestive
enzymes & then
absorb resultant
nutrient molecules
from non-living
organic substances
decomposers.

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Parasitism - a
relationship between Phylum Zygomycota Phylum Ascomycota Phylum Basidiomycota
two organisms where Sexual spores Zygospores Ascospores Basidiospores
one harmed, and the
other benefits. Sexual
Asci (ascus ~singular), Basidia (basidium~sing.),
Absorbs nutrient from reproductive Zygosporangium
found within ascocarps found in basidiocarps
living hosts. structure

Hyphae Coenocytic (Aseptate) Septate Septate

Mutualism - type of
symbiosis; a Involves asexual spores
relationship between Asexual Involves sporangiaspores called conidia dispersed
two organisms (a reproduction produced in sporangia. off from end of Conidia (uncommon)
host & a symbionts) Disseminate by * Through air conidiophores
where both benefit in * Wind
some way. E.g.: Rhizopus sp.
Lichens Common types Penicillium sp. Agaricus sp.
(black bread mold).

Conidia - Asexual
spores

b. State the
importance of Importance of Fungi
Fungi:
i. Decomposer i. Decomposers - absorb nutrients from organic wastes & dead organism.
ii. Symbionts ii. Symbiotic relationships - mutualistic relationships with other organisms.
iii. Pathogens E.g.; Mycorrhizae (between fungi & plant roots) and Lichens (between fungi & algae/cyanobacteria).
iv. Commercial iii. Pathogens, cause many important diseases. Some fungi are parasites, live in other organism & harmful to their host.
importance in Fungal infection such as ringworm and athlete’s foot.
food production iv. Fungi provide commercial importance in food production. Example: yeasts are used to make fermented food such as
(fermented
wine and beer and mold Penicillium sp. are used to make blue cheese.
food).
v. Pharmaceutical v. Fungi produce useful pharmaceutical drugs & chemicals. Example: Penicillium notatum is used to produce penicillin
(penicillin) (first antibiotic).

Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

1.5 – Domain Alternation of Unique characteristics of Plantae

Eukarya: Kingdom generations - the
Plantae plant life cycle where
there are two ● The reproductive cycle (life cycle) in plant, called alternation of generation.
different forms of ● During the life cycles of all the land plants, 2 multicellular body forms alternate, each form producing the other.
a. State the living beings that ✔ Sporophyte generation - diploid (2n)
unique alternate each other, It produces spores by meiosis.
characteristics one haploid and the Spore is haploid (n) reproductive cell.
of Plantae. other diploid Spores develop into haploid (n) gametophytes by mitosis.
✔ Gametophyte generation – haploid (n)
It produces haploid (n) gametes by mitosis egg & sperm.
Fertilization of two haploid (n) gametes will produce diploid zygote (2n) sporophyte generation.

b. State the
classification
of Plantae into
4 groups:
i. Bryophytes
(Polytrichum
sp.) Rhizoids - Simple
ii. Pteridophytes rootlike structure
(Dryopteris sp.)
iii. Gymnosperms
(Pinus sp.) Thallus - a plant
iv. Angiosperms body that is not
(Hibiscus differentiated into
rosa-sinensis) stem and leaves and
lacks true roots and a
vascular system.

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c. State the Classification of Plantae into 4 groups:
unique 1. Bryophytes (Polytrichum sp.)
characteristics 2. Pteridophytes (Dryopteris sp.)
for each 3. Gymnosperms (Pinus sp.)
group.
4. Angiosperms (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)

Unique characteristic of Bryophytes

● Small in size & grow close to ground surface.

● Seedless plants.
● Limited habitats; found in moist & shady environments where water is available because no true root & no vascular
tissue.
● Consist rhizoids to anchor the plants to the ground & absorb moisture directly from the soil.
● Body’s structure called thallus because-do not form true roots, stems & leaves.

Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

c. State the Rhizome - horizontal ● Shows clear alternation of generations.
unique underground stem ✔ Gametophytes generation is dominant phase.
characteristics
for each ✔ Sporophytes generation are depending on the gametophytes for the water & nutrients.
group. Frond - a large, ● Reproduction:
divided leaf. ✔ Mature gametophyte produces gametes that develop within reproductive structure- gametangia.
✔ The male gametangium (antheridium) produces & releases flagellated sperm (antherozoid).
✔ Female gametangium (archegonium) produce egg (oosphere) & the site of fertilization.
Siphonogamous
fertilization - ✔ Antherozoid are motile and swim through a film of water toward egg- need water as fertilization medium.
condition in plants in ✔ Asexual reproduction by fragmentation to form new gametophytes.
which pollen tubes ● Example of Bryophyte is Polytrichum sp.
are developed for the
transfer of the male
cells to the eggs.
Unique characteristics of the Pteridophytes

● Seedless
● Simple vascular plants plants can grow tall compared to bryophytes.
Microphylls - leaves ● Found on moist and shady place.
with a single vein
● The presence of xylem (all have tracheid) & phloem (all have sieve element).
● Pteridophytes have a dominant sporophyte generation (2n)- sporophyte is largest and most apparent.
Megaphylls - leaves ● Sporophyte consists of leaves, roots & stem (rhizome).
with a highly ● Most pteridophytes have true roots with lignified vascular tissue.
branched vascular ● Gametophytes are tiny plants that grow on or below the soil surface.
system ● Gametes produces in gametangia (antheridia and archegonia).
● Motile flagellated sperm swim through the water to fertilize the egg- need watery medium for fertilization.
Homosporous - one
type of spore only
that are not
differentiated by sex

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Heterosporous - two ● Leaves are categorized by two types:
c. State the types of spores ✔ Microphylls
unique differing in size and ✔ Megaphylls
characteristics sex, the male (Frond in fern species)
for each microspore and the ● Produce spores
group. female megaspore,
which develop into ✔ homosporous
separate male and ✔ heterosporous
female gametophytes ● Example of Pteridophytes is Dryopteris sp.

Double fertilization Unique characteristics of Gymnosperms

- involves two sperm
cells; one fertilizes ● Vascular plants (all have tracheid & sieve tube).
the egg cell to form ● Have true roots, leaves & stem.
the zygote, while the
● Produce seeds but seed is not protected by fruit (naked seed).
other fuses with the
two polar nuclei that ● Do not produce flowers & not produce fruits.
form the endosperm. ● Seeds are found in cones.
After fertilization, ● Cones as reproductive organ.
the fertilized ovule ● Sporophyte is the dominant generation & gametophytes are reduced in size.
forms the seed while ● Watery medium is not required for fertilization- siphonogamous fertilization.
the tissues of the
● No double fertilization & there is no endosperm produced.
ovary become the
fruit. ● Vascular cambium leads to secondary growth (wood).
● Pollinating agent: wind.
● Produces 2 types of spores (heterosporous):
✔ Microspores that will develop into male gametophytes.
✔ Megaspores that develop into female gametophytes which is nutritionally dependent on living sporophyte.
● Example of Gymnosperms is Pinus sp.

Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

c. State the Unique characteristics of Angiosperms
unique
characteristics
for each ● Vascular plants (has vessel elements & tracheid and sieve tubes & companion cells).
group. ● Flowering plants are the most successful modern plants.
● Seed enclosed by fruits.
● Each plant is made up of four separate organs, the true roots, stems, leaves and flower.
● Flowers as reproductive organ.
● These plants can be subdivided morphologically into trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants.
● Flowering plants have the ability to reproduce both asexually & sexually.
● Fertilization is accomplished by a variety of pollinator agents, including wind, animals, and water.
● The dominant generation is the sporophyte, with the gametophyte being much reduced in size and dependent on the
sporophyte for nutrition.
● Heterosporous.
● Siphonogamous fertilization.
● Double fertilization.
● Example for angiosperm is Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Bryophytes Pteridophytes
Gymnosperms Angiosperms
(mosses) (ferns)
The simplest type of land plant √
The most advanced type of land plant √
Usually found in moist environments √
Have xylem and phloem √ √ √
Reproduce by spores √
Are eukaryotic √ √ √ √
Tend to be very short to stay near the water √
Can do photosynthesis √ √ √ √
Non-vascular (no xylem nor phloem) √

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Have a waxy cuticle to prevent water loss √
Have cell walls made of cellulose √ √ √ √
Have protected seeds √
Produce flowers √
Have “naked” (unprotected) seeds √

d. Describe Evolutionary relationship in Kingdom Plantae

evolutionary
relationship in ● From gametophyte generation that is dominant in Bryophytes to sporophyte generation that is dominant in Pteridophytes,
Kingdom
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
Plantae
(Bryophytes- ● From absence of vascular tissues in Bryophytes to presence simple vascular tissue in Pteridophytes and complex vascular
Angiosperm) tissues in Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
● From thallus (no true roots, leaves and stems) to true roots, leaves and stems in Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms.
● From motile sperms that need water for fertilization in Bryophytes and Pteridophytes to non-motile male gametes that
does not need water for fertilization in Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
● From one type of spore (homosporous) in Bryophytes and most Pteridophytes to two types of spores (heterosporous) in
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
● From free-living gametophyte in Bryophytes and Pteridophytes to protected gametophyte within the sporophyte in
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
● From absence of seeds in Bryophytes and Pteridophytes and to presence of naked seeds in Gymnosperms and protected
seeds in Angiosperms.
● From absence of fruits in Bryophytes, Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms and presence of fruits in Angiosperms.
● From non-photosynthetic sporophyte in Bryophytes to photosynthetic sporophyte in Pteridophyte, Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms// From photosynthetic gametophyte in Bryophytes and Pteridophytes to non-photosynthetic gametophyte in
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
● From smaller size of sporophyte in Bryophytes to bigger size of sporophyte in Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms.
● From embryo protected in gametangia in Bryophytes and Pteridophytes to embryo protected in seed by seed coat in
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
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Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

1.6 - Domain Heterotrophs - an Unique characteristics of Kingdom Animalia

Eukarya: Kingdom organism that cannot
Animalia manufacture its own
food by carbon ● Eukaryotic cell & cell consist no cell walls and no chloroplasts.
fixation and therefore ● Multicellular organism & heterotrophs (consumers).
derives its intake of ● Motile - locomotion relates to ability to obtain food.
nutrition from other ● Most animals reproduce sexually (undergo meiosis to produce gametes). Animal eggs, which are non motile, are much
sources of organic larger than flagellated sperm.
a. State the carbon, mainly plant
● Energy storage - glycogen
unique or animal matter.
characteristics ● Animals have TWO unique types of tissues:
of Kingdom ● Nervous tissue - for impulse conduction in a nervous system to respond to their environment.
Animalia Motile - capable of ● Muscle tissue - for movement.
moving Unique characteristics Explanation
spontaneously
Level of organism Multicellular

Holozoic - method of Feeding mode Heterotrophic, specifically holozoic

nutrition that involves
Presence of cell wall No cell wall
the ingestion of liquid
or solid organic Ability to move Active movement, due to nervous system and muscle system
material, digestion,
absorption and Type of reproduction Sexual reproduction
assimilation of it to
utilize it. It includes Embryonic development pattern e Embryonic development pattern; zygote ฀ blastocyst ฀morula ฀ gastrula
taking in the complex ฀ neurula
substances and
converting them into Energy storage Glycogen
simpler forms.
Example, proteins
can be broken into
amino acids.

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b. State the Classification of Kingdom Animalia
classification
of Animalia ● Animals are classified according to the evolution of animals from the simplest to the most complex ones.
into nine
● The nine phyla of animals are:
phyla.
● Porifera
● Coelenterata / Cnidaria
● Platyhelminthes
● Nematoda
● Annelida
● Mollusca
● Arthropoda
● Echinodermata
● Chordata

d) Describe The evolutionary relationships of animals based on :

evolutionary
relationship of
Kingdom Animalia ✔ Level of organization
✔ Body plan (symmetry)
✔ Germ layers
✔ Body cavity
✔ Segmentation / metamerism

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Terms Explanation

Parazoa Animals without true tissue

Eumetazoa Animals with true tissue

Radiata Animals with radial symmetry; body can be divided into mirror images

Bilateria Animals with bilateral symmetry; body can be divided into right and left

Diploblastic The presence of 2 germ layers; endoderm and ectoderm

Triploblastic The presence of 3 germ layers; endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm

Acoelomates Animals without body cavity; consist solid body

Pseudocoelomates Animals with body cavity that not completely lined by mesoderm

Coelomates Animals with body cavity that completely lined by mesoderm

Protostome The development of blastopore into animal’s mouth

Deuterostome The development of blastopore into animal’s anus

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Coelom - Function of coelom
A fluid filled cavity
separating the ● Its fluid cushions the suspended internal organs, helping to prevent internal injury.
digestive tract from ● In soft bodied coelomates such as earthworm, non-compressible fluid acts like hydrostatic skeleton so that muscles
the outer body wall can work.
● Enables the internal organs to grow & move independently of the outer body wall.
Hydrostatic
● Separates the action of body wall muscle from those of internal organs, such as digestive muscle.
skeleton - a
flexible skeleton
supported by fluid
pressure. Hydrostatic
skeletons are
common among
simple invertebrate
organisms.

• The coelomates are divided into TWO grades based on differences in their development of the protostomes and
deuterostomes.
• Early in embryonic growth, when the embryo is a hollow ball of cells, a portion invaginates to form an opening called
blastophore.
Protostomes – The blastophore becomes the animal’s mouth and the anus develops at the other end (mouth forms
from the opening (blastophore) of the gastrula.

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Deuterostomes - The blastophore becomes the animal’s anus and the mouth develops at the other end (anus
forms from the opening (blastophore) of the gastrula.

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c. State the Suspension feeders- Unique characteristics of Porifera
unique
characteristicey feed by drawing water
for each phyla. into the central ● No true tissue but contain several different types of cells.
cavity, spongocoel ● Asymmetry.
through a network of ● Adults are sessile whereas larvae are free-swimming.
pores & passing it out
● All are suspension feeders/ filter feeders.
through the large
opening, osculum at ● Have two layers of body cells:
one end of the body. o The outer body wall consists pinacoderm - made up of flattened cells (pinacocytes) with numerous pores
(ostium) throughout porocytes.
o Mesohyl – gelatinous region which are separated the outer layer & the inner layer.
Amoebocytes -
o The inner layer is made completely of cells called choanocytes /collar cells.
Participate in
reproduction and ● Choanocytes /collar cells - these cells have a ring surrounding the base of a flagella.
nutrient transport. ● Function choanocytes /collar cells :
Helps produce o To generate water current /propel water through the pores of the sponge into a central body cavity /spongocoel,
spicules. and then out of the sponge via a central opening /osculum.
o To trap food, mainly bacteria, on its collar, & digest it by phagocytosis.
o Microscopic food particles brought by the water current also passed to the amoebocytes for digestion.
Collar cell/
Choanocytes - Line ● Example – Leucosolenia sp.
the interior of
sponges’ body.
Use flagella to draw
water through pores

Spongocoel - is the
large, central cavity
of sponges.

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 Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)
Mesohyl - Found as
a jellylike substance
between the two
layers. Make up
sponges’ support
system.

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Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

● Has no nervous system, digestive system & circulatory system.

● Gas exchange & waste removal occur by diffusion.
● Reproduction system occur sexually or asexually.
● Asexual: budding & fragmentation.
● Most sponges are hermaphrodites.
● Gametes arise from choanocytes or amoebocytes.
● Eggs reside in mesohyl but sperms are carried out by water current.

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 Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)
c. State the Dimorphism - the Unique characteristics of Cnidaria
unique existence of two
characteristic distinctly different
for each phyla. types /life form/body ● Entirely aquatic, mainly marine.
form of individual ● Radially symmetrical.
within a species. The ● Two basic types of body plan: sessile polyps & motile medusae.
two different types ● Their life cycle can be in the form of :
are polyp and o polyps only
medusa. o medusa only or
o both polyp & meduse.
● Digestive system - the gastrovascular cavity has a single opening that serves as both mouth and anus.
Cnidocytes - an ● They have tentacles arranged in the ring around their mouth to capture the prey & push the food into the gastrovascular
explosive cell cavity for digestion.
containing one giant ● Special stinging cell organelles called nematocysts enclosed inside cnidocytes at tentacles.
secretory organelle, ● Function of cnidocytes are for defense & prey capture.
nematocysts. ● The body wall of cnidarian has two layers of cells (diploblastic) - ectoderm & endoderm.
● An outer layer of epidermis (from ectoderm) & an inner layer of gastrodermis (from endoderm).
● Digestion begins in the gastrovascular cavity.
Nematocysts ● Sandwiched between the epidermis and gastrodermis is a gelatinous layer, the mesoglea.
- specialized cell in ● Reproduction system by asexual budding (in polyps) or sexual reproduction (in all medusae & some polyps).
the tentacles of a ● No excretory systems
jellyfish or other ● No respiratory systems.
cnidarian, containing ● No coelomic cavity.
a barbed or ● Example – Obelia sp.
venomous coiled
thread that can be
projected in self-
defence or to capture
prey.

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Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

c. State the
unique
characteristic
for each phyla.

● Cnidarians exhibit 2 basic body plans (dimorphism) - the polyp and the medusae

Characteristics
Polyp Medusa
Polyp – is the
cylindrical forms that
adhere to the
substrate.
Polyp Medusa

Shape Cylindrical shape Umbrella shape

Medusa – the
floating, flattened, Sessile / motile Sessile Move freely in water/ solitary
mouth-down version
of the polyp. It move Position of mouth surround with tentacles Upward Downward
freely in the water.

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 Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)
c. State the Reproduction type and produce what? Reproduce asexually to form Reproduce sexually to produce egg and
unique polyp and medusa sperm cell
characteristic
for each phyla. Example of existence form Hydra, sea anemone Jellyfish

A: Reproductive polyp (blastostyle)

B : Feeding polyp (hydranth)
C : Ciliated planula larvae

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Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

c. State the Unique characteristics of Platyhelminthes
unique
characteristic
for each phyla. ● They are found in freshwater, marine, or moist soil environment.
● Thin bodies that are flattened dorsoventrally (between the dorsal & ventral surface) & vary in length from microscopic
sizes to 20 meters long.
● Triploblastic.
● Acoelomates.
● Bilateral symmetry.
● Lack circulatory system & gas exchange.
● Elimination of nitrogen waste occur by diffusion through the body surface.
● Simple excretory system consists of flame cell of protonephridia.
● Digestive system - digestive cavity consist only a single opening (a mouth & gut but no anus).
● The flatworm gut consists of a gastrovascular cavity.
● Can be either free-living (Dugesia sp. commonly called planarians) or parasitic such as flukes & tapeworm.
● The parasitic platyhelminthes has adaptations like :
o thick cuticle to prevent from digestive enzyme of host cells.
o hook for attachment to the intestinal wall of host & sucker to get the nutrients from host cells.
● Nervous system - exhibit medium cephalization & development of CNS.
● Reproduction system - usually hermaphrodites.
● The tapeworm, Taenia sp does not have mouth & gastrovascular cavity.
● Its scolex (head) has a circular row of hooks that it uses to attach to the intestinal wall of host and a number of suckers
to draw in nutrient released by the digestion in the host’s intestine.
● Body is protected by thick cuticle (protection from being digested).
● Posterior to the scolex is a series of proglottids that each contains both male & female sex organs, nervous and excretory
system.
● Each proglottids can absorb food & live independently.
● After fertilization, the organs disintegrates & the proglottids become a bag filled with maturing eggs.
● As proglottids become mature they are released & leave the host in the feces.
● These proglottids are filled with thousands of eggs that can infect intermediate hosts like cattle or pigs.
● The larvae live in the muscles of these hosts where they can be transmitted to humans in undercooked meat.
● Tapeworms have been found which reached over 20 meters in length.

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 Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)
● Large tapeworms can block the intestines & rob enough nutrients from human host to cause nutritional deficiency.

● Example: Taenia sp.

c. State the
unique
Unique characteristics of Nematoda
characteristic
for each phyla. ● Eumetazoa
● Bilateral symmetry
● Pseudocoelomate
● Elongated cylindrical body with two tapered ends.
● Triploblastic germ layers of body.
● Unsegmented.

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Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

c. State the ● Complete digestive system with mouth & anus.
unique ● No circulatory system (transport of nutrients & wastes by diffusion).
characteristic ● Excretory system without nephridium- Nitrogenous wastes may be lost by diffusion through the entire body.
for each phyla.
● Reproductive system - mostly separate sexes / dioecious.
o The male is slightly smaller than the female worm.
● Inhabit marine, freshwater & terrestrial environments.
● Most are parasites of plants & animals, adaptation of parasite (has a sucker & flukes, body covered by tough cuticle -
resistant to digestive enzymes of the host).
● Longitudinal muscle arrangements.
● Some are free-living.
● Reproduction usually by sexual & involves internal fertilization.
● A female may deposit 100,000 or more fertilized eggs per day.
● Zygotes most species are resistant cells that can survive harsh conditions.
● Example: Ascaris sp.

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 Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)
c. State the Metameric Unique characteristics of Annelida
unique segmentation- the
characteristic division of animal’s
for each phyla. body (except at the ● Eumetazoa.
head region) into a ● Bilateral symmetry.
number of ● Triploblastic germ layers of body.
compartments each ● Long cylindrical body & annelida means “little rings”.
containing the same ● The annelids are generally referred to as the segmented worms; cylindrical soft bodies showing metameric segmentation
organs in which the /metamerism.
muscles, blood
vessels and nerves
are repeated in each
segment.

● Each segment is internally separated by septum/ septa.

● Coelomate - coelom acts as a hydrostatic skeleton aid in movement.
● Hydrostatic pressure is maintained across segments & helps maintain body rigidity, allowing muscle contraction to bend
the body without collapsing it.
● Closed circulatory system.
● The excretory system consists of excretory tubules called metanephridia.
● Free living (live in marine, freshwater and damp soil) & parasites.
● Protostome development.
● The nervous system consists of ventral nerve cord & simple brain consisting a pair of ganglia.
● Complete digestive system
● Most are hermaphrodites but they cross fertilize.
● Example: Pheretima sp.

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Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

c. State the Platyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida
unique
characteristic Example Taenia sp. Ascaris sp. Pheretima sp.
for each phyla.

Body cavity Acoelomate Pseudocoelomate Coelomate

Segmentation Unsegmented Unsegmented Metameric segmentation

Symmetry Bilateral Bilateral Bilateral

Germ layer Triploblastic Triploblastic Triploblastic

Digestion Gastrovascular cavity Complete digestive tube Complete digestive tube with
with one opening (mouth with mouth and anus mouth and anus
without anus)

Blood circulation Diffusion Diffusion Closed system

Excretory organ Flame cell of No Nephridia Metanephridia

protonephridia (excretory tubules)
(Occur through diffusion)

Sex types Mostly hermaphrodites Separate sexes Mostly hermaphrodites

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 Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)
c. State the Unique characteristics of Arthropoda
unique
characteristic
for each phyla. ● Eumetazoa
● Aquatic & land organisms
● Bilateral symmetry
● Triploblastic germ layers of body
● The coelom has greatly reduced, consisting of cavities surrounding the reproductive organs & some glands.
● The nervous system consists of anterior brain & ventral ganglia.
● Complete digestive system
o Having various kinds of mouthpart being modified according to their food & the way they get it.
● Excretory system – Malphigian tubules.
o The system consists of branching tubules extending from the alimentary canal.
● An open circulatory system
● Separate sexes
● Free living
● Protostome development.
● Example: Valanga sp.

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Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

c. State the Pair & jointed Characteristics Explanation
unique appendages - Hard chitinious exoskeleton ● Protects & provide points of muscle attachment for the movement.
characteristic (the body parts that ● Impermeability to water & prevent dehydration.
for each phyla. extend from a body ● Exoskeleton shed during ecdysis (growth).
segment).

Pair and jointed appendages ● Appendages are modified into various types of antennae, mouthparts, wings &
legs.
● Allow efficient locomotion/ flexible movement

Segmented tagmata body
● Body segments are fused into functional body regions such as head, thorax and
abdomen (e.g: insects) and sometimes head and thorax fused together form
cephalothorax (e.g: crustaceans).
● head: development sensory organs
● thorax: appendage attachment
● abdomen: carry reproductive system.

Highly efficient respiratory ● Have trachea or book lungs or gills.

system ● Directs the air right to the tissues.
● Makes high metabolic rate possible.

Highly developed sensory ● Alert to any change in the environment.

organs

Presence of metamorphosis (for ● larva and adult utilize different sources.

some classes) ● Reduces intraspesific competition.

Advance social system (for ● organized their community well

insects)

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 Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)
c. State the
unique
characteristic
for each phyla.

31

Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

c. State the Unique characteristics of Mollusca
unique
characteristic
for each phyla. ● Eumetazoa.
● Protostome.
● Triploblastic.
● Unsegmented body.
● Bilateral symmetry except snails do not have bilateral symmetry because their body are twisted.
● Body cavity- coelom cavity caused by the development of internal organs – larger and complex.
● Complete digestive system. A radula - a rasping, tongue-like organ is used for feeding.
● Using gill as a respiratory system except territorial snail (lung).
● Open circulatory system.
● Nitrogenous wastes are removed by one or two tubular structures called nephridia.
● Have calcareous shell - no exoskeleton/cuticle instead have shell at the dorsal of their body for protection.

● The body consisting of three parts:

o Muscular foot - for movement
o Visceral mass - containing most of the internal organs, that enclosed by mantle.
o Mantle - a tissue that secretes shell and forms water-filled cavity known as mantle cavity.
Torsion is the rotation ● No limbs.
of the visceral mass,
mantle, and shell 180˚ ● Most mollusks have separate sexes, with gonads located in the visceral mass.
with respect to the head ● The life cycle of many marine mollusks includes a ciliated larvae, the trochophore.
and foot of ● This larva is also found in marine annelids (segmented worms).
the gastropod. This ● The most distinctive characteristic is a developmental process known as torsion.
rotation brings the
mantle cavity and the ● During embryo development, its visceral mass rotates up to 180°, causing the animal’s anus & mantle cavity to wind up
anus to an anterior above its head to prevent dehydration.
position above the ● Example: Achatina sp.
head.

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 Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)
c. State the
unique
characteristic
for each phyla.

Torsion in Gastropoda

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Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

c. State the Unique characteristics of Echinodermata
unique
characteristic
for each phyla. ● Marine, deuterostome and coelomate animals.
● Bilateral symmetry as larvae but show 5-rayed symmetry (radial symmetry) as adults.
● Have a hard calcareous endoskeleton.
● Have water vascular system.
● Have tube feet for locomotion.
● No head.
● Mouth generally on lower surface (oral) of body and anus on upper surface (aboral).
● Sea stars and most other echinoderms are sessile, or slow-moving marine animals.
● Sexual reproduction in echinoderms usually involves the release of gametes by separate males and females into the
seawater.
● Water vascular system :
o a network of hydraulic canals branching into extensions called tube feet.
o These function in locomotion, feeding, and gaseous exchange.
o Water enters this system through madreporite.
o From there it passes to a ring canal, which surrounds the mouth, & then to a radial canal in each arm.
o From radial canals, many lateral canals extend into the tube feet, each of which has an ampulla.
o Contraction of an ampulla forces water into the tube feet, expanding it.
● Example: Asterias sp.

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 Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)
c. State the
unique
characteristic
for each phyla.

35

Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)

c. State the Unique characteristics of Chordata
unique
characteristic
for each phyla. ● All share the four anatomical structures at some point in their lifetime (embryonic development).
● These FIVE main characteristics are:

▪ Notochord.
▪ The presence of pharyngeal cleft (slits in the pharynx).
▪ Dorsal hollow nerve cord.
▪ Post anal tail.
▪ Myotomes.
● Example: Amphioxus sp.

Notochord.
● The notochord is a dorsal longitudinal rod that is firm, but flexible, and provide skeletal support to the body.
● Vertebrates have an embryonic notochord that is replaced by the vertebral column during development.

The presence of pharyngeal slits. (slits in the pharynx).

● Seen only during embryonic development in most vertebrates.
● Specialized & modified into gill slits for gaseous exchange (in aquatic chordate) or in the development of parts of the
ear, e.g.: Eustachian tubes & other structures in the head and neck.
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 Biology 2 /DB 024/TOPIC 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY (1.4-1.6)
c. State the Dorsal hollow nerve cord.
unique ● Develops in the vertebrate embryo from a plate of ectoderm that rolls into a tube dorsal to the notochord.
characteristic ● The nerve cord of the chordate embryo develops into the central nervous system: the brain and spinal cord.
for each phyla.
Post anal tail.
● Chordates have a post-anal tail that extends beyond the anus, at least during their embryonic development.
● Specialized to tail in some chordate – chordate tail contains skeletal elements and muscles, and it helps propel many
aquatic species in water.

Myotomes
● Myotomes (muscles cubes) are arranged in segments.
● This character is so prominent among chordates especially during embryonic development

37