WARNING: This material is protected by copyrights laws.

Unauthorized use
shall be prosecuted in the full extent of the Philippine Laws. For exclusive use of
CBRC reviewees only

SPECIALIZATION
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Modified and Prepared by: Jeffrey A. Farillas, LPT

Subject: Biological Science 1- Plant and Animal Biology

COMPETENCIES:
1. Explain the basic principles of classification in biology
2. Analyze the relationships among levels of classification
3. Cite the contributions of major taxonomist
4. Classify the major taxonomic groups (monerans, protist, fungi, plants and animals)
5. Identify the basic needs of plants and animals for growth and development
6. Determine beneficial/harmful plants and animals

CONTENT:
The Need for classifying organism

There are diverse organism living on earth, animals alone are so varied that they need to be
understandably classified so as to guide biologist in organizing and naming them, so to study the diversity of
organism, an organized classification system must be used.

 Taxon-a taxonomic category or group, such as a phylum, order, family, genus, or species
 Taxonomy-the scientific classification of organisms into specially named groups based either on shared
characteristics or on evolutionary relationships.

The Scientific Name

Common names among organisms are varied among languages; hence scientist created a single name
to identified each particular species of organism. A Latin or Greek is the language used for scientific name.

Aristotle (father of zoology and taxonomy), who first classified living things as either plants or animals.
After his time the Greeks and Romans expanded his simple method of classification into more specific ones like
genera and species using Latin language, but in the mid-1700’s, a more organized naming system was
introduced by a Swedish botanist/naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (Father of Modern Taxonomy) who took a major
step in naming organism, he developed a two-word naming system called binomial nomenclature.

The binomial nomenclature

Each species has a two part scientific name.
-the first part is the genus the second part is the species
-the first part of the scientific name is capitalized, while the second part is not.
Scientific name is always italicized.

An example is Felis domestica. It is the scientific name of the cat that we have at home. The first part of this
scientific name is the genus where the organism belongs.

A genus is a group of closely related species. The genus Felis is also the same genus for the lion
Felis leo. That means the cat and the lion are closely related.
The second part of the scientific name is unique to each species within the genus. The name domestica
means that a cat is domesticated for you to take care at home. The species is often a Latin description of
an organism’s trait or where it lives.

1
 LEVELS of CLASSIFICATION The Domains of life and Kingdom System
(Taxonomic category)

During the time of Linnaeus, there were only two kingdoms:

Domain Animalia and Plantae. With the discovery of more organism
especially the microbes, the concept of kingdoms have
Kingdom
change. To date the most popular is the five-kingdom
Phylum system. Under the five-kingdom system, there is only one
prokaryotic kingdom, the Monerans, and a unicellular
Class eukaeryotic kingdom, the Protist and three multi cellular
Order eukaryotic kingdoms, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

Family
Genus
Species

Less inclusive More inclusive

Increase similarity Increasing diversity

The Linnaen System of Classification

The two smallest categories, which are the genus and species, make up the scientific name of an
organism. Genera that share many similar characteristics are grouped into a larger category, the family. Similar
families make up a bigger category called order. The class is the next larger category, which comprises similar
orders. While a phylum is formed by several different classes that have similar characteristics followed by
kingdom and finally the Domain is the broadest of the taxonomic categories.

The Tree Domains

Domain Archaea Domain Bacteria

Kingdom Archaebacteria Kingdom Eubacteria

Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia

These three domains are possibly monophyletic which means that they all came from a common
ancestor, thus forming a monophyletic clade. Based on studies, you might be surprised to know that Domains
Archea and Eucarya are more related than domain Bacteria.

Table 1: The Features of the three Domains of Life

DOMAINS
FEATURES
Archae Bacteria Eukarya
Membrane bounded
Absent Absent Present
organelles
Peptidoglycan in the
Absent Present Absent
Cell wall
First amino acid formed in
Methionine Formymethionine Methionine
protein synthesis
Number of different RNA
Several One Several
polymerases

2
 The Six kingdom

Table 2: The Major Characteristics of the Six Kingdom

Archae
KINGDOM Eubacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
bacteria
Cell Type Prokaryotes Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Eukaryotes Eukaryotes Eukaryotes
Have nucleus, Have nucleus,
Have nucleus, mitochondria, mitochondria, Have nucleus,
Have cell Have cell walls
Cell mitochondria; but no Chloroplast, mitochondria,
walls that lack that made up of
Structure some have chloroplast, cell cell wall is no chloroplast,
peptidoglycan peptidoglycan
chloroplast wall is made up made up of no cell wall
of chitin cellulose
Mostly Mostly
unicellular, multicellular,
Body Form Unicellular Unicellular Multicellular Multicellular
some Some
multicellular unicellular,
Autotrophic Autotrophic Autotrophic
Heterotrophic
Nutrition or or or Autotrophic Heterotrophic
(absorption)
Heterotrophic Heterotrophic Heterotrophic

Kingdom Archaebacteria

Members of this kingdom are popularly called as “extremophiles” they are found in the most extreme
environments you could imagine. They are found in volcanic vents, brine pools, and black organic mud that lack
oxygen. Many can survive in the absence of oxygen. They said to be “ancient” bacteria because they resemble
the conditions of the earth when life first appeared and began to evolve. Based on the environments in which
they live, they are classified into:

1. Halophilic – Those that live in extreme salty environment such as the Salt Lake.
2. Thermoacidophilic- Heat loving organism and can live in places with boiling water temperature, and
in an acid condition of even less than pH.
3. Methanogens – they live in oxygen-free environments (anaerobic) and produce methane gas. They
are common in swamps, bogs and landfills.
4. Sulfulobus – They are sulfur loving bacteria, they live in places of high sulfur content like in mud
spring and hot spring
5. Cold loving bacteria – Those that can live in freezing temperatures.

Kingdom Eubacteria

Eubacteria are considered the “true” bacteria. Most bacteria belongs to this kingdom. They are found
almost everywhere and are that one people are most familiar with. Some species live in soil, while others infect
other organisms and cause disease. Still others are photosynthetic, meaning they make their own food using light
energy.

Eubacteria comes in different shapes and although they are unicellular, some of them are found in clumps or in
chains as show in the figure below

Fig 1: Bacteria Shapes

Vibrio Bacillus Spirullum Coccus

(Coma Shape) (Rod Shape) (Spiral Shape) (Spherical Shape)

Staphylococcus Streptococcus
(Cluster) (Chains)

3
Sexual Reproduction of Bacteria

Most bacteria reproduce by binary fission, the division of a cell into two daughter cells with duplication of
their single chromosomes. Others undergo conjugation, a form of sexual reproduction where part of the genetic
information from one cell is transferred to another cell. Certain bacteria reproduce only by binary fission but pick
up bits and pieces of DNA from other bacteria, this process is called transformation.

Beneficial Importance of Bacteria

Most bacteria are harmless to humans, and many bacteria are essential or useful to the existence of
plant and animal life, only a small fraction of bacteria cause disease. Most bacteria attack organic matter only
after it is dead. If there’s no bacteria no organism will breakdown material from animals and plants after its death.
Some bacteria also are used in industry like in the production of cheese, yogurt and butter; it is also used to treat
soils contaminated with toxins.

Kingdom Protista

Organism under this kingdom include unicellular and a few multicellular eukaryotes. Protists live in places
with water or places with at least some moisture. These organisms are so diverse that taxonomist differs in their
way of classifying them into categories.

Some protists are like plants in form but they have no chlorophyll that can capture light. These protists
look like fungi, hence are called fungus like protist.

Some protist look like animals, very small and motile, some with green chlorophyll pigments. These
protists are called protozoans.

Some protist look like plants with leaf-like structures of various color, structure and shape. These plant
like protists are called algae.

The fungus like Protist

Fungus like protist lack chlorophyll and absorb food through their cell walls. They possess
characteristics similar to fungi. All of them are heterotrophs that absorb nutrients from dead or decaying
organic matter. However, unlike most fungi, fungus like protists contains centrioles and lack of chitin in
their cell walls not like true fungi. Fungus like protist includes slime molds, cellular slime molds and water
mold.

The Animal –like Protists (Protozoans)

Protozoans used to include under the animal kingdom because they have characteristics similar to
multicellular animals. Protozoan are unicellular, being heterotrophic, they ingest food from the
environment. They live in oceans, ponds and stagnant water few of them live as parasites in the digestive
tract of animals.
Protozoans are classified into groups according to their structures for locomotion.

Phylum Zoomastiginia - Under this group are the zooflagellates That live in
aquatic environment. The locomotory structures of these organism are
flagella.
Some zooflagellates are free living and derive nourishment from
decaying organic materials. Other species are parasitic to human beings like
Trichonomas vaginalis and Trichonomas brucie “ that causes vaginal
itchiness and African sleeping sickness

Phylum Sarcodina – Under this group are the Amoeba and Foraminiferans.
Pseudopodia are the structures for locomotion of organism belong in this
group it is also use for engulfing food.
Pseudopodia are flexible extensions of the cell and can assume any
shape. These pseudopodia are in constant motion – extending, radiating,
branching, and fusing with others.

4
 Phylum Ciliophora – Organism under this group are commonly called
ciliates because they have cilia a short like hair projection similar to flagella.
Cilia are used for feeding and movement. A paramecium is an example of
ciliates that are commonly found in fresh water ponds.
Some ciliates like Didinium are predators, like the parasite in the
intestine of swine and human being, it usually transmitted by fecal
contamination of water and food.

Phylum Sporozoa (Apicoplexans) – Sporozooan are all internal parasite,

they are not free living, they do not move on their own. They reproduce by
forming small unicellular structures called spores, this spores can be pass
form one host to another. A common example is Plasmodium a sporozoa
that causes malaria.

The Plant –like Protists (Algae)

Algae are unicellular to multicellular organism formerly classified as plants, they contains chlorophyll and
are therefore capable of photosynthesis. Chlorophyll and accessory pigments give algae a wide variety
of colors like red, brown, and green etc..

Phylum Euglenophyta (euglenoids) – Euglenoids is a unicellular protist

having a two flagella for locomotion but don’t have a cell wall, and found in
fresh water. The photosynthetic pigments, chlorophyll a,b and carotenoids
enable most euglenoids to produce their own foods.
When Euglenoids grown in the dark they lose their ability to synthesize
food and feeds like animals, they can also live as heterotrophs when there is
an absence of light by absorbing nutrients in decaying animals.

Phylum Chrysophyta (Yellow green and Golden brown algae) – organism in

this phylum are diverse and found in both marine and fresh waters. The cell
walls of these algae are similar to those in plants but instead of cellulose, the
carbohydrate in their cell walls contains pectin. These organism generally
stores foods in the form of fats instead starch

Phylum Bacillariophyta (Diatoms) – Diatoms produce a thin delicate cell wall

rich in silicon. Silicon is the main ingredients in glass. These cell walls are
shape like the sides of Petri dish. Their shells remain intact and accumulate in
an ocean bottoms forming deposits of powdery material that can be made into
a perfect polishing agent.
Diatoms are also important in the manufacture of car polish and other
cleanser.

5
 Phylum Pyrrophyta (fire or dinoflagellates) – Dinoflagellates are abundant in
marine waters; only a few species are found in fresh waters. They have two
flagella often wrapped around the organism’s circumference. Most of this
organism is photosynthetic and the rest is heterotrophs.
Dinoflagellates include a genus called Gonyaulax. During rainy season,
overgrowth of Gonyaulax causes red tide. These dinoflagellates produce a
poison toxins. Filter-feeder shellfish like clams and mussels can trap Gonyaulax
for food and thus harboring the toxins.

Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)

Green algae are very much plantlike because of the chlorophlly pigment and cell wall they
have, they also store foods in the form of starch similar to plants. Though these organisms have
no true roots, stems and leaves, they grow extensively, like sea lettuce or ulva. Some green
algae are unicellular like Chlamydomonas.
Majority of green algae thrive in freshwaters, but some live in marine waters, most often
in coral reefs or rocky shores.

Phylum Phaeophyta (brown algae)

Brown algae are multicellular inhabitants of cool, offshore waters. Most members of this group
are small, however the kelps are brown algae that can grow up to 100 meters in length and
float vertically like tall trees.
Brown algae contain chlorophyll pigments a and c and flucoxanthin. Flucoxanthin gives
the brown color of these algae.

Phylum Rodophyta (red algae)

Red algae derive their color from red pigment, phycobilins. They have chlorophyll a and
phycobilins. Read algae can absorb light in the blue-green range enabling them to grow in
deeper waters of the sea.
Red algae have several commercial uses. It produces a gel-like protein that forms the
rubbery base of the laboratory growth medium called agar.

Beneficial Importance of Protists

Unicellular algae are the phytoplankton in bodies of water that become food for other organism, playing a
vital role in the food web. Algae are the major source of oxygen on earth. They absorb carbon dioxide from
photosynthesis. Red algae that form calcium carbonate deposits are important in the building of coral reefs.

Kingdom Fungi

Most fungi are multicellular eukaryotic organism except for yeast which is a unicellular. They possess
long, threadlike structures called hyphae which they stick into their food materials. The cell walls of fungi are
made of tough, flexible carbohydrates called chitin unlike plant cell walls that are made up of cellulose.
Fungi are heterotrophs, they secrete enzyme that break down food into simpler molecules that absorbed
by them rather than ingesting. Some fungi are parasitic they absorb nutrients from other plant and animals that
serves as their host.

Fungi are classified into division using a well define life cycles as shown below.

Phylum Zygomycota “Zygomycetes”: (Zygote forming fungi)-

Zygomycetes are the typical bread molds and mildews in fruits and in
towels. They are usually found in moist carbohydrate rich food, dead
plants and animals.

6
 Phylum Ascomycota “Ascomycetes”: (Sac fungi) - Penicillium the
source of the antibiotic penicillin, is a well-known ascomycete discovered
by Alexander Fleming in 1928. Ascomycetes include numerous sac
fungi, yeast, mildews, truffles, morels that live independently. Most of
these species live on moist decaying materials, other are parasitic.

Phylum Basidiomycota: (Club fungi) – This is the kind of fungi you are
most familiar with. Mush rooms are the most common type of club fungi.
This phylum also includes the puffballs and bracket fungi that grows on
the trunk of trees.

Phylum Deuteromycota: “Deuteromycete” (Imperfect fungi) – It is

very varied phyla compose of fungi that are not placed in previous three
phyla because mycologist have not been able to observe a sexual
phase in their life cycle. Many imperfect fungi resemble ascomyetes.
Common examples of imperfect fungi are those causing athlete’s foot
and ringworm

Diseases Caused by Protist and Fungi

Several protist infect the human digestive system due to dirty and contaminated water. Entamoeba
histolistica and Giardia lambia are protist that attack the intestinal wall and can cause amoebiasis and giardiasis.
Diarrhea, abdominal pain, and even liver abcess can result from these infections.

Malaria is a fatal disease that is caused by a sporozoan of genus Plasmodium. It is transmitted through a bite of
Female Anopheles mosquito. Plasmodium enters the blood through the saliva of the mosquito. It infects liver cells
and red blood cells and produces fever and chills.

Kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Plantae consist of autotrophic, unicellular, and multicellular organism. They are made up of
different types of cells that perform different functions. Plants, being autotrophs, manufacture their own food.

Plants are classified according to the presence or absence of conducting vessels or vascular tissues
known as phloem and xylem. Conducting vessels are structures that transport water and nutrients throughout the
plant body. Those that possess conducting vessels are classified as vascular plants (tracheophytes) while those
do not are classified as nonvascular (bryophytes). Vascular plants are the most diverse and widely distributed
group of plants.

Classification of nonvascular plants (Bryophytes)

Phylum Bryophyta – This phylum is represented by mosses. Mosses are found in many places in the
world, on moist places like swamps, river banks, and on forest floor. Some species form a carpet
over slippery rocks along water falls, some grow on trunks, rocks and soil.
Mosses have a root like structures called rhizoids that hold the plant in place, absorb
water and nutrients. These low-growing plants have no vascular tissue to conduct water and
nutrients hence these substances diffuse from cell to cell.

Phylum Hepaticophyta – Liverworts are members of this phylum. The plant have a leaflike structures
that are almost flat attached on moist soil or rock surface, they are capable of living in areas
where there is less available nutrients and minerals. They also have rhizoids which also serve to
anchor the plant to the soil.

Phylum Anthocerophyta – Hornworts are represented by this phylum. Hornworts are found in moist
places most often together with mosses and liverworts. Hornworts can be identify in the soil
surface when they produce the sporophytes “tiny green horn-like structures above the mass of
leaf life structure”.

7
 Mosses Liverworts Hornworts

Classification of nonvascular plants (Bryophytes)

A. Seedless Vascular plants: Ferns and Allies

Phylum Psilophyta – these are the simplest vascular plants.they have no true roots and leaves. The
stem has small, scale like green tissue called enations and it is photosynthetic. Ex. Psilotum and
Tmesipteris

Phylum Arthrophyta – Commonly called horsetail because the stem looks like tail of a horse. Horsetail
is known as “living fossils” They do not change much since they evolve.

Phylum Lycophyta – This includes the club mosses, spike mosses and quillworts. Fossils records that
these organisms dominated the earth’s first forest, which now constitute the huge deposits of
coal.

Phylum Pterophyta – This is represented by Ferns. Ferns thrivebest in moist places, or seasonal wet,
little light in forest. Many species have been domesticated as ornamentals that can survive dry
places. Plant height varies from few millimeters to as high as 25 meters. Some like herbs, others
are vines and a few ones are as woody trees.

B. Vascular plants with seeds

The most familiar plants of today are the vascular plants with seeds. These plants have cuticle on
surface of leaves that enable them to adapt to varying amount of moisture.

They have well-developed conducting tissue that enable them to grow high above the ground. Some
are found in deserts, grasslands, forest and even in bodies of water. The dominant phase is sporophyte. This is
the part of the plant that we always see among vascular plants. The gametophyte produces sex cells, does not
live independently of the sporophyte, and does not need water to fertilize the egg. The sperm found in the pollen
grain is transported by wind or other agents.

They are two major groups of vascular plants with seeds, the gymnosperm and the angiosperms.

Gymnosperm

Phylum Ginkgophyta – Gingko biloba is the only one living species of this phylum. The deciduous
tree can grow to about 30 meters, produce pollen in one plant and female cones protected by
fleshy covering in another plant.

Phylum Cycadophyta – These are cycads, palm like stout and erect trunk, leaves arrange like a
rosette at the upper part of the trunk, leaflets are small, stiff and dark green. They are usually
found in tropical rain forest and in beaches where they are purposely planted.

Phylum Coniferophyta – The conifers are the most commonly known among the gymnosperms. They
are tall trees, with spreading branches, evergreen needle-like leaves may be groups or clusters
called fascicles. The conifers have adaptations on their trunks, leaves and seeds to survive harsh
conditions in cold places where they thrive.

Gingko Cycads Conifers

8
Agiosperm

The angiosperms are the most abundant and widely distributed modern day plants. One distinguishing
characteristic of angiosperms is the production of seeds that enclosed in fruit. The seeds offer survival advantage
to flowering plants because these are protected from desiccation by the seed coat and the fruit.

The Two big groups of angiosperm

1. Dicotyledon (dicots) – they are characterized by having two cotyledon in their seed.
2. Monocotyledon (monocots) – They have only one cotyledon in their seed.
They are several other features where the two groups differ. See Table 3 for comparison

Table 3: Comparison between Monocot and Dicot

Kingdom Animalia

Of all the kingdom of life, the animal kingdom is the most diverse. Animals vary in size, color, and shape.
They live in various habitats and they move in different means. They are multicellular organism and are
heterotrophs, have specialized tissues, and most have organ and organ system.

The animal kingdom is grouped into two major divisions the Vertebrates (with vertebral column) and
Invertebrates.

The word of Invertebrates

Sponges: The Simplest Group of Invertebrates

Sponges belong to phylum Porifera, meaning pore bearers. The body of sponge is
covered with many tiny openings or pores.

Cnidarians: The Stingers

Phylum Cnidarians consist of many invertebrate animals with various colors and shapes.
Corals, Jellyfishes, hydras and sea anemone belong to this phylum.

Two basic body forms of Cnidarians

1. Vase shape (polyp) it is usually stays in one place
2. Bowl shape (medusa) it move from place to place

All Cnidarians have nematocysts or special stinging structures that are used to kill its
prey.

Worms

Flatworms: Phylum Platyhelminthes

Planarians are example of flat worms. Most of planarians live in ponds and streams.
They feed on dead plant and animal matter. If there is little food available in the environment
Planarians digest their own body part. If Planarian cut into pieces, each pieces eventually
grows into a new planarians. This ability of an organism to regrow lost part in called
regeneration.

Some flat worms grow on or in living things as parasites just like in the case of Tapeworm that
lives in the body of many animals and compete for the nutrients from their host.

9
 Roundworms: Phylum Nematoda
Roundworms look like strands of spaghetti with pointed ends. Many roundworms are
animal parasites. Trichinella is a type of roundworms that lives in the muscle tissue of pigs. If a
person eats a piece of raw or undercooked pork, the Trichinella enters that person’s body.
Another type of roundworm is the hookworm; it enters the body by burrowing through the skin on the
soles of feet. It eventually ends up in the intestine of its host

Segmented worms: Phylum Annelida

The obvious feature of these worms is their segmented body. The common example of annelids
is the earthworm.

Mollusks: Phylum Mollusca

This includes clams, oysters, mussles, octupuses and squids. Mollusk are soft bodied animals
that have inner or outer shell, they have a thick muscular foot to open and close its shell.

Mollusk are divided into three main groups based on certain characteristics, the presence of a
shell, the type of a shell, and the type of foot,

The Three main groups of Mollusks

Snail, Slugs and Their Relatives

The largest group of mollusk. These mollusk are known as gastropods, meaning “stomach foot”.
Most of gastropods move by means of a foot found on the same side of the body as their
stomach. The most common single shell gastropods are the garden snail. “Slugs are gastropods
that do not have a shell”

Two-Shelled Mollusks (bivalves)

Clams, oyster and mussels are the example of this group. Bivalves have two shells that are held
together by powerful muscles. They are also filter feeders. As water pass over a body of a
bivalve, it filters out small organisms.

Tentacled Mollusks
Considered as the highly developed mollusks, they are also called as cephalopods. Examples of
these are the octopuses that have eight tentacles and squids (have ten tentacles). Most
cephalopods do not have an outer shell, and all of them have tentacles. Most cephalopods move
by using a form of jet propulsion.

Arthropods: Phylum Arthropoda

The phylum of invertebrates containing the most number of species. Arthropods ”jointed legs” are
almost found everywhere. There are three characteristics shared by all arthropods, these are the
exoskeleton, a segmented body and jointed body.

An Exoskeleton is a waterproof rigid outer covering; it limits water loos form arthropods, making it
possible for them to live in remarkably dry environments.

Various animals make up arthropods. These include the following

Crustaceans
Crustaceans is an arthropods with hard exoskeleton, to pairs of antennae, and mouth
parts used for crushing and grinding food. Crabs, lobsters, and shrimps are examples of
crustaceans

Centipedes and Millipedes

Centipedes and millipedes have many legs. Centipedehave one pair of legs in each
segment, while millipides have two. Millipides eat plants, Centipede on the other hand are
carnivores. The exoskeleton of both of these two is not water proof. Thus in order to avoid
excessive water loss, they live in damp places such as under rocks or in soil

Arachnids
Spiders, scorpions, ticks and mites are called Arachnids. The body of arachnids i s
divided into two parts: a head and chest part and an abdominal part, they have also a four pair of
walking legs.

Insects
Insects are described as having a body part that is divided into three parts, a head, a
chest and an abdomen. An insect has three pairs of legs attached to the chest part.

10
 Echinoderm: Phylum Echinodermata
Echinoderm includes sea star, sea cucumbers, sea urchins and sand dollars. Animals belong to
this phylum are spiny-skinned animals. Echinoderms have an internal skeleton, five or more rays, a water
vascular system, and structures called tube feet.

The word of Vertebrate

A vertebrate is an animal that has a backbone or vertebral column. All vertebrates belong to Phylum
Chordata. Chordates may have a nerve cord, a notochord and a throat with gill slits.

There are eight groups of vertebrates. Six are cold blooded and two are warm blooded. Cold blooded
animals. Such as fishes, amphibians and reptiles, rely on environment for heat, on the other hand Warm blooded
animals, such as birds and mammals, maintain their body temperatures internally. They maintain a constant body
temperature despite temperature changes in their environment.

Fishes
Fishes are water dwelling vertebrates that have scales, fins, and throats with gill slits. Fishes
have a fairly well-developed nervous system. Almost all fishes have sense organs, and many fishes have
keen senses of smell and taste.

Amphibians
Amphibians are vertebrates that are fishlike and that breathe through gills when still immature.
Once matured, they live on land and breathe through lungs. ex: Frogs, Salamanders and Newts.

Reptiles
Reptiles are vertebrates that have lungs and scaly skin. They produce a special type of egg,. The
egg surrounded by a protective shell that prevents the contents of the egg from drying out. All living
reptiles are cold-blooded. They have skin that are completely covered by a tough, dry, thick layer of
scales.

Birds
Birds are warm blooded egg-lying vertebrates that have feathers. Birds eat many different kinds
of food, and because they are warm-blooded, they must expend energy in order to maintain their body
temperature.

Mammals
Mammals include human, whales, bats, elephants, lions, dogs, kangaroos and monkey. They are
warm blooded vertebrates that have hair of fur and that feed their young with milk. The way in which
mammals reproduce differs. The difference in reproduction provides a means of classifying mammals
into three groups: The laying mammals. Pouches mammals and Placental Mammals.

Basic needs of plants for growth and development

 Soil- Plant life is supported by soil in which it is anchored. Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic materials,
air, water and other microorganisms.

 Nutrients – Nutrient requirements of plants include oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water and various
minerals required in different amounts.
Plants require eight (8) micronutrients and nine (9) macronutrients that should be supplied in
minute amounts. They include the following:

Micronutrients
Manganese, Zinc, Iron, Boron, Copper, Nickel, Molybdenum and Chlorine
Macronutrients
Sulfur, Phosphorus, Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Potassium, Calcium and
Magnesium

Beneficial Plants
Generally, plants are beneficial to mankind and to other living organisms. They are so useful that not a
single day passes without the use of plants. Plants help regulate the global climate; they help provide a cooler
environment.
Another benefit that we can get from plants, aside from nutrition. Plants also use to help in the
breakdown or reduce the concentration of pollutants in the environment. These pollutants could either be
concentrated then broken down into simpler, non-toxic forms by the plants. The use of plant by this means is
called Phytoremediation.

11