LESSON 3

TISSUES, GLANDS, AND MEMBRANES

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

1. Describe the four major types of tissues
2. Discuss the types and functions of epithelial tissues
TOPICS: 3. Identify endocrine and exocrine glands
4. Explain the characteristics of mast cells, macrophages, and
1. Types of
adipocytes
Tissues
5. Describe three types of connective tissue fibers
2. Membranes
6. Explain fluid connective tissues
3. Tissue Repair
7. Describe various types of cartilages
8. Describe how bone tissue establishes the framework of the body
9. Describe the three types of muscle tissue and their characteristics
10. Discuss the basic structure and role of neural tissue
11. Describe the major body cavities
12. Discuss the membranes near the heart, lungs and abdominal
cavity

TOPIC 1: TYPES OF TISSUES

A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and function. The tissue contributes to
the functioning of the organs in which it is found
TYPES OF TISSUES AND THEIR ORIGINS
1. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts.
It also forms glands.
2. Connective tissue protects and supports the body and its organs. Various types of
connective tissue bind organs together, store energy reserves as fat, and help provide
immunity to disease-causing organisms.
3. Muscular tissue generates the physical force needed to make body structures move
and generates body heat.
4. Nervous tissue detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body
and responds by generating action potentials (nerve impulses) that activate muscular
contractions and glandular secretions.
Epithelial tissue
An epithelial tissue or epithelium (plural is
epithelia) consists of cells arranged in
continuous sheets, in either single or
multiple layers. Epithelial tissues have
three major functions: (1) selective
barriers that limit or aid the transfer of
substances into and out of the body; (2)
secretory surfaces that release products
produced by the cells onto their free
surfaces; and (3) protective surfaces that
resist the abrasive influences of the
environment.

Fig 22. Layers of the Epithelial tissue

Fig 17. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
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Epithelial tissue may be divided into two types. (1) Covering and lining epithelium forms
the outer covering of the skin and some internal organs. It also forms the inner lining of
blood vessels, ducts, and body cavities, and the interior of the respiratory, digestive,
urinary, and reproductive systems.(2) Glandular epithelium makes up the secreting
portion of glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and sweat glands.

Fig 23. Types of Covering and Lining Epithelium

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Figures 24-32. Types of Covering and Lining Epithelium

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Glandular Epithelium
The function of glandular epithelium is secretion, which is accomplished by glandular cells
that often lie in clusters deep tithe covering and lining epithelium. A gland may consist of
single cell or a group of cells that secrete substances into ducts (tubes), onto a surface, or
into the blood. All glands of the body are classified as either endocrine or exocrine. The
secretions of endocrine glands enter the interstitial fluid and then diffuse directly into the
bloodstream without flowing through adduct. These secretions, called hormones,
regulate many metabolic and physiological activities to maintain homeostasis.
Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands
Exocrine glands are classified as unicellular or multicellular. As the name implies,
unicellular glands are single-celled. Goblet cells are important unicellular exocrine glands
that secrete mucus directly onto the apical surface of a lining epithelium. Most glands are
multicellular glands, composed of many cells that form a distinctive microscopic structure
or macroscopic organ. Examples include sudoriferous, sebaceous (oil), and salivary
glands.
Multicellular glands are categorized according to two criteria :(1) whether their ducts are
branched or unbranched and (2) the shape of the secretory portions of the gland If the
duct of the gland does not branch, it is a simple gland. If the duct branches, it is a
compound gland. Glands with tubular secretory parts are tubular glands; those with
rounded secretory portions are chinar glands also called alveolar glands. Tubuloacinar
glands have both tubular and rounded secretory parts. Combinations of these features
are the criteria for the following structural classification scheme for multicellular exocrine
glands:
I. Simple glands
A. Simple tubular. Tubular secretory part is straight and attaches to a single
unbranched duct. Example: glands in the large intestine.
B. Simple branched tubular. Tubular secretory part is branched and attaches to a
single unbranched duct. Example: gastric glands.
C. Simple coiled tubular. Tubular secretory part is coiled and attaches to a single
unbranched duct. Example: Sweat glands.
D. Simple acinar. Secretory portion is rounded and attaches to a single
unbranched duct. Example: glands of the penile urethra.
E. Simple branched acinar. Rounded secretory part is branched and attaches to a
single unbranched duct. Example: sebaceous glands
II. Compound glands
A. Compound tubular. Secretory portion is tubular and attaches to a branched
duct. Example: bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands.
B. Compound acinar. Secretory portion is rounded and attaches to a branched
duct. Example: mammary glands.
C. Compound tubuloacinar. Secretory portion is both tubular and rounded and
attaches to a branched duct.
Example: acinar glands of the pancreas.

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 Fig 33. Types of Glandular Epithelium

Fig 34. Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands

CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Connective tissue is one of the most abundant and widely distributed tissues in the body.
In its various forms, connective tissue has a variety of functions. It binds together,
supports, and strengthens other body tissues; protects and insulates internal organs;

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compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles; serves as the major transport
system within the body (blood, a fluid connective tissue); is the primary location of stored
energy reserves (adipose, or fat, tissue); and is the main source of immune responses.
General Features of Connective Tissue
Connective tissue consists of two basic elements: extracellular matrix and cells. A
connective tissue’s extracellular matrix is the material located between its widely spaced
cells. The extracellular matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance, the
material between the cells and the fibers. The extracellular matrix is usually secreted by
the connective tissue cells and determines the tissue’s qualities. For instance, in cartilage,
the extracellular matrix is firm but pliable. The extracellular matrix of bone, by contrast,
is hard and inflexible.
In contrast to epithelia, connective tissues do not usually occur on body surfaces. Also
unlike epithelia, connective tissues usually are highly vascular; that is, they have a rich
blood supply. Exceptions include cartilage, which is avascular, and tendons, with a scanty
blood supply. Except for cartilage, connective tissues, like epithelia, are supplied with
nerves.
Connective Tissue Cells
The types of connective tissue cells vary according to the type of tissue and include the
following

1. Fibroblasts are large, flat cells with branching processes. They are present in several connective tissues, and
usually are the most numerous. Fibroblasts migrate through the connective tissue, secreting the fibers and certain
components of the ground substance of the extracellular matrix.

2. Adipocytes, also called fat cells or adipose cells, are connective tissue cells that store triglycerides (fats). They
are found deep to the skin and around organs such as the heart and kidneys.
Connective Tissue

3. Mast cells are abundant alongside the blood vessels that supply connective tissue. They produce histamine, a
chemical that dilates small blood vessels as part of the inflammatory response, the body’s reaction to injury or
infection. In addition, researchers have recently discovered that mast cells can bind to, ingest, and kill bacteria.
Cells

4. White blood cells are not found in significant numbers in normal connective tissue. However, in response to
certain conditions they migrate from blood into connective tissues. For example, neutrophils gather at sites of
infection, and eosinophils migrate to sites of parasitic invasions and allergic responses.

5. Macrophages develop from monocytes, a type of white blood cell. Macrophages have an irregular shape with
short branching projections and are capable of engulfing bacteria and cellular debris by phagocytosis. Fixed
macrophages reside in a particular tissue; examples include alveolar macrophages in the lungs or splenic
macrophages in the spleen. Wandering macrophages have the ability to move throughout the tissue and gather at
sites of infection or inflammation to carry on phagocytosis.

6. Plasma cells are small cells that develop from a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte. Plasma cells
secrete antibodies, proteins that attack or neutralize foreign substances in the body. Thus, plasma cells are an
important part of the body’s immune response. Although they are found in many places in the body, most plasma
cells reside in connective tissues, especially in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts.They are also abundant in
the salivary glands, lymph nodes, spleen, and red bone marrow.

Fig 35. Connective Tissue Cells

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Fibers

Collagen fibers Elastic fibers Reticular fibers

•are very strong and resist pulling
forces, but they are not stiff, which
allows tissue flexibility.
•Collagen fibers often occur in parallel
bundles
•are smaller in diameter than collagen
fibers, branch and join together to
form a network within a tissue.
•An elastic fiber consists of molecules
of the protein elastin surrounded by a
glycoprotein named fibril in, which
adds strength and stability.
•have the ability to return to their
original shape after being stretched, a
property called elasticity.
• are plentiful in skin, blood vessel
walls, and lung tissue.
•consisting of collagen arranged in fine
bundles with a coating of
glycoprotein, provide support in the
walls of blood vessels and form a
network around the cells in some
tissues, such as areolar connective
tissue, adipose tissue, and smooth
muscle tissue.
•Produced by fibroblasts, reticular
fibers are much thinner than collagen
fibers and form branching networks.
•provide support and strength
•Reticular fibers are plentiful in
reticular connective tissue, which
forms the stromal or supporting
framework of many soft organs, such
as the spleen and lymph nodes. These
fibers also help form the basement
membrane.

Fig 36. Connective Tissue Fibers

Three types of fibers are embedded in the extracellular matrix between the cells: collagen
fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers. They function to strengthen and support
connective tissues
Classification of Connective Tissues

Connective
Tissues

Embryonic Mature
Connective Connective
Tissue Tissue

Loose Dense Liquid

Mesenchyme Connective Connective Cartilage Bone Tissue Connective
Tissue Tissue Tissue

Mucous Areolar Dense Regular

Connective Connective Connective Hyaline cartilage Blood
Tissue Tissue Tissue

Dense Irregular
Adipose Tissue Connective Fibrocartilage Lymph
Tissue

Reticular
Connective Elastic cartilage
Tissue

Fig 37. Classification of Connective Tissues

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 Figures 38-50. Classification of Connective Tissues
Fibers
MUSCULAR TISSUE
Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers or myositis that can use
ATP to generate force. As a result, muscular tissue produces body movements, maintains
posture, and generates heat. It also provides protection. Based on its location and certain
structural and functional features, muscular tissue is classified into three types: skeletal,
cardiac, and smooth

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 Figure 51-53. Types of Muscular Tissues

NERVOUS TISSUES
Despite the complexity of the nervous system, it consists of only two principal types of
cells: neurons and neuroglia. Neurons, or nerve cells, are sensitive to various stimuli. They
convert stimuli into electrical signals called action potentials (nerve impulses) and
conduct these action potentials to other neurons, to muscle tissue, or to glands. Most
neurons consist of three basic parts: a cell body and two kinds of cell processes—
dendrites and axons. The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles. Dendrites
(dander- tree) are tapering, highly branched, and usually short cell processes
(extensions).They are the major receiving or input portion of a neuron. The axon (axon-
axis) of a neuron is a single, thin, cylindrical process that may be very long. It is the output
portion of neuron, conducting nerve impulses toward another neuron or twosome other
tissue.
Even though neuroglia do not generate or conduct nerve impulses, these cells do have
many important supportive functions.

Fig 54. Nervous Tissue

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