Sb025 1. Biodiversity

Biology Student’s Companion Resources SB 025
CHAPTER 1.0: BIODIVERSITY
SUBTOPIC: 1.1 Biodiversity and classification

LEARNING OUTCOMES: a) State the types of biodiversity (genetic, species and ecosystem).
b) State hierarchical classification
c) Explain briefly the three-domain system (Carl Woese, 1977) - Bacteria, Archaea and
Eukaryabased on rRNA base sequence classification systems: -
MAIN IDEAS
/KEY POINT EXPLANATION NOTES
Definition of • Short for biological diversity

Biodiversity • Greek “bios” means life, “logos” means study so the general Malaysia is one of the
meaning of biology is the study of living things. world’s megadiverse
• Diversity means the state of being diverse or a range of countries and ranked 12th
different things. in the world, according to
• Biodiversity refers to the variation of life forms within a the National Biodiversity
given area. Index, which is based on
• Malaysia have not less than: estimates of country
richness and endemism in
15,000 species of vascular plants 567 species of reptiles four terrestrial vertebrate
classes and vascular
242 species of amphibians 306 species of plants.
mammal
150,000 species of invertebrates 742 species of bird
449 species of freshwater fish and 500 species of marine

fish
a) Types of • Biodiversity also refers to the interrelatedness of genes,

biodiversity species, and ecosystems and their interactions with the
(genetic, species environment.
and ecosystem) • Three types of biodiversity:
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b) The • In order to naming species of an organism, Linnaeus * In the Linnaean system,

hierarchical grouped them into a hierarchy of increasing inclusive taxa broader than the genus
classification category. are not italicized, though they
• The named taxonomic unit at any level of the hierarchy is are Capitalized*
called a taxon (plural, taxa).
• In the panther example, Panthera is a taxon at the genus
level, and Mammalia is a taxon at the class level that
includes all the many orders of mammals.
Classification according to Carolus Linnaeus
c) The Domain is the highest taxonomic rank in the hierarchical

classification biological classification system, above the kingdom level.
systems There are three domains of life, the Archaea, the Bacteria,
and the Eukarya.
Three-domain
system (Carl • The Three-domain system, developed by Carl Woese, is
Woese, 1977) - a system for classifying biological organisms.
Bacteria, • This classification system model was based on principles
Archaea and developed by Carolus Linnaeus, whose hierarchical
Eukarya) based
system groups organisms based on common physical
on rRNA base
sequence. characteristics.
• The Three-domain system, groups organisms primarily
based on differences in rRNA structure.
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SUBTOPIC: 1.2 Domain Bacteria and Archaea
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) State the two domain of prokaryotes, Bacteria (E.coli) and Archaea (Sulfolobus sp.)
b) Differentiate between the two domain of prokaryotes, Bacteria (E.coli) andArchaea (Sulfolobus sp.)
based on :-
i. cell wall structure
ii. association of histon to DNA
iii. structure of membrane lipids.
c) Describe the diversity of bacteria
i. cell shapes (coccus, bacillus, spirillum and vibrio)
ii. Gram-stain (Gram-positive, Gram-negative)
d) Explain the roles of bacteria:
i. recycling of chemicals elements in ecosystem (nitrogen fixation e.g. Rhizobium sp.)
ii. symbiotic (enterobacteria e.g E coli in human intestine)
iii. pathogenic e.g.Salmonella sp.)
iv. in research and technology (e.g bacterial plasmid).
MAIN IDEAS
a) The two The prokaryotes contain two domains, Domain Archaea and
domain of DomainBacteria.
prokaryotes
Domain Archaea
Examples of archaea is Sulfolobus sp.
• It’s a prokaryotic cell of various shapes.
• Adaptations to extreme environments. They can live in aquatic
environments that lack of oxygen or are too salty, too hot or too
acidic for most other organisms.
• Absorb or chemosynthesize food
• Unique cell wall and membranes chemical characteristics.
Domain Bacteria
• An example of bacteria is E.coli
• Diverse prokaryotes widely distributed in various environments.
• Has various shape
• Adaptations to all environments
• Absorb, photosynthesize, or chemosynthesize food
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b) The Characteristic Bacteria Archaea

differences
between Peptidoglycan present in Peptidoglycan absent in
Cell wall
Bacteria and cell wall cell wall
Archaea Structure of Histone protein not Histone protein associated
DNA associated with DNA with DNA
Membrane lipid
Structure of Membrane lipid involves
involves glycerol-ester
membrane lipids glycerol-ether linkage
linkage
c) Diversity of 1. Cell shape
Bacteria based • Individual bacteria can assume one of three basic shapes: spherical
on cell shapes (coccus), rod-like (bacillus), or spiral (vibrio, spirillum, or
and gram spirochete).
staining • Bacteria that do not separate from one another after cell division, form
characteristic clusters that are helpful in their identification.
a.
• Coccus bacteria or cocci, are sphere or oval-shaped bacteria that grow in

chains or clusters.
• Cocci appear as single cells (coccus), pairs diplococci, chain of
streptococci, clusters of four cells (tetrads), irregular clusters
(staphylococci)
b.
• Bacillus, the rod-like shape of this type of bacteria.

• They can be identified by arrangement: single cells (bacillus), pairs
(diplobacilli) and chains (streptobacilli), oval-shaped bacilli (coccobacilli)
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c.
• Spiral-shaped bacteria are primarily found in standing water

• They typically appear in two main forms: long, rigid spirals (spirilla)
and thin, flexible spirals (spirochetes)
2. Gram staining
• Techniques proposed by Christian Gram to distinguish the two types of
bacteria (Gram-positive and Gram-negative).
• The gram stain help to determine the types of bacteria based on the
difference in the cell wall structure
Gram-negative Gram-positive
Cell wall consists of thin layers Cell wall consists of thick/multiple
peptidoglycan layers of peptidoglycan
• do not retain the purple • retain crystal violet dye/stained
colour/ stained red purple
• lipoprotein membrane with • thick layer peptidoglycan trap
polysaccharides trap the red violet dye
stain
Not virulent/ Less threatening
More virulent/ pathogenic
pathogens
Streptococcus sp.
Escherichia coli, Salmonella sp.
Staphylococcus sp.
Roles of bacteria
1. Recycling of chemical elements in ecosystem (nitrogen fixation as

decomposer)
 When plants and animals die, they become food for decomposers like
bacteria.
 Decomposers recycle dead plants and animals into chemical nutrients
like nitrogen that are released back into the soil, air and water.
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria such as cyanobacteria, incorporate nitrogen
from the environment into amino acids and other cellular material.
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 Some nitrogen fixers form symbiotic relationships with plants,
providing them with nitrogen.
2. Symbiotic relationships with other organisms
 Act as enterobacteria in human intestines.

 The human gut is a comfortable setting for bacteria, with plenty of
nutrients available for their sustenance.
 For example: E. coli and Streptococcus sp. aid in digestion, prevent
colonization by harmful pathogens, and help to develop the immune
system.
 Other examples, to supplies vitamin K and vitamin B complex and
breaking cellulose in herbivores such as in ruminants
3. Pathogenic
 Although vast majority of bacteria are harmless or beneficial to one's

body, a few pathogenic bacteria can cause infectious diseases.
 The most common bacterial disease is tuberculosis, caused by the
bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
 Pathogenic bacteria contribute to other globally important diseases,
such as pneumonia, which can be caused by bacteria such as
Streptococcus sp. and Pseudomonas sp., and foodborne illnesses,
which can be caused by bacteria such as E. coli and Salmonella sp.
4. In research and technology (bacteria plasmid)
 In the genetic engineering, the genes of an organism is

manipulated.
 This manipulation is also called recombinant DNA technology.
 The genes are inserted into a plasmid of a bacteria.
 This recombinant plasmid or DNA is replicated in a host cell and
passed on to daughter cells along with the rest of its DNA.
 The bacterial cells are used in production of commercially
important products.
 Examples include production of human insulin (used to treat
diabetes).
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SUBTOPIC: 1.4 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Protista
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) state the unique characteristics of Protista
b) state the classification of Protista based on the unique feature:
i. two major phyla of algae (photosynthetic pigment):
• Chlorophyta (Chlamydomonas sp.)
• Phaeophyta (Fucus sp.)
ii. Four major phyla of Protozoa (locomotion):
• Euglenophyta (Euglena sp.)
• Rhizopoda (Amoeba sp.)
• Ciliophora (Paramecium sp.)
• Apicomplexa (Plasmodium sp.)
c) Explain the roles of Protista in ecological community:
i. roles in CO2 fixation (e.g. phytoplankton)
ii. food source (e.g. Chlorella sp.)
iii. eutrophication/ algal bloom (e.g. green algae)
iv. red tide (e.g. dinoflagellates)
v. human health (e.g. Plasmodium sp. causes malaria)
vi. sewage treatment (e.g Protozoa)
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION

/KEY POINT NOTES
Domain Eukarya ; The Eukarya are subdivided into the following four kingdoms:
Kingdom Protista
1. Kingdom Protista
Protista are simple, predominately unicellular eukaryotic
organisms. Examples includes slime molds, euglenoids, algae,
and protozoans.
2. Kingdom Fungi
Fungi are unicellular or multicellular organisms with
eukaryotic cell types. The cells have cell walls but are not
organized into tissues. They do not carry out photosynthesis
and obtain nutrients through absorption. Examples include sac
fungi, club fungi, yeasts, and molds.
3. Kingdom Plantae
Plants are multicellular organisms composed of eukaryotic
cells. The cells are organized into tissues and have cell walls.
They obtain nutrients by photosynthesis and absorption.
Examples include mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering
plants.
4. Kingdom Animalia
Animals are multicellular organisms composed of eukaryotic
cells. The cells are organized into tissues and lack cell walls.
They do not carry out photosynthesis and obtain nutrients
primarily by ingestion. Examples include sponges, worms,
insects, and vertebrates.
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Kingdom Protista
a) State the
unique Eukaryotic organism. Most are unicellular and some multicellular.
characteristic of Most are microscopic, but some are large. Modes of nutrition:
Protiata Heterotrophic or autotrophic. Reproduced asexual or sexually.
Phylum Chlorophyta
b) State the
classification of
Protista based on
the unique feature:
Phylum Phaeophyta
Unique characteristics of Algae
1. Photosynthetic
• Chlorophyll a + other photosynthetic pigments
2. Not differentiated into stem, leaves or root
• Thallus: an undifferentiated vegetative tissue
3. Habitat
• Water or on damp surfaces
4. Great diversity in structure
• Unicellular
• Simple filamentous
• Colonials
• Huge seaweeds
5. Types of reproduction –
asexual and sexual
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Types of asexual reproduction

a) Zoospores:
• The zoospores are formed from
certain older cells of thefilaments.
• The cytoplasm divides to form
zoospores which are escaped from
the mother cell and developed into
new plant.
• They are always formed in
favourable conditions.
• The zoospores are always motile.
• Motile flagellate spores produced by many algae.
• Eg: Chlamydomonas
b) Binary fission
• The mother cell divides into two
equal halves and thedaughter
cells are produced, which
become new plants.
Types of sexual reproduction

c) Isogamy: Fusion of two identical
in shapeand size gametes
• Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas
d) Anisogamy: The motile gametes

taking part in fusion may either
differ in size (morphological
anisogamy) or physiological
behavior. One gamete is less
motile and larger than the other
e) Oogamy: The male antherozoid
fuses with the female egg. One
gamete is large and stationary.
One gamete is smalland motile.
Known as male and female
gametes respectively
Vegetative reproduction
Fragmentation: The plant body
breaks into several parts or
fragments and each such fragment
develops into an individual. This
type of vegetative reproduction is
commonly metwithin filamentous
forms. Eg: Spirogyra
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(ii) 4 major phyla Phylum Euglenophyta (Euglena sp.)

of Protozoa
(locomotion):
Phylum Rhizopoda (Amoeba)
Phylum Ciliophora (Paramecium sp.)
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Phylum Apicomplexa (Plasmodium sp.)
Unique • Animal-like: Protozoa represent the most primitive group of

characteristics animal organisms.
of Protozoa • Locomotion by pseudopodia, flagella, cilia, and direct cell
movements; some sessile
• Unicellular:
 Some colonial
 Some with multicellular stages in the life cycle
• Modes of nutrition (heterotrophic, autotrophic, parasites).
 They are symbiotic or commensal organisms, living in
association with other organisms.
 Protozoa form an important link in the food chain of aquatic
environments, both fresh water and marine.
 Many of them feed on other microorganisms, and they
themselves are devoured by larger organisms.
• Some are parasitic and pathogenic.
 Cause serious human diseases
 Examples: Plasmodium – malaria, Trypanosoma – sleeping
sickness
• Live in many different environments: Aquatic or terrestrial
habitat
• Free-living or symbiotic mode of life
• Reproduction
a. Asexual:
• Binary fission
• Budding
• cysts
b. Sexual
• Conjugation
• syngamy
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Types of asexual reproduction Multiple Fission

• In multiple fission,
a) Binary fission: the parent body
• The nucleus divides mitotically to produce a large divides into many
number of nuclei before the cell divides. similar daughter
• Each nucleus, with the surrounding cytoplasm, individuals.
forms a daughter cell. • It produces several
• The daughter cells then separate. daughter cells from
• Multiple fission is best known in the malarial parasite, a single parent cell
Plasmodium and amoeba. at the same time.
Amoeba-sporulation
Malarial parasite such

as Plasmodium
(schizogony)
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b) Budding: Budding:
• Daughter nuclei produced by mitotic division Ciliate protozoan
migrate into a cytoplasmic protrusion(bud) which (phylum Cilophora-
is ultimately separated from the mother cell by Vorticella)
fission.
c) Cysts
• stages with a protective membrane or thickened wall.
• Protozoan cysts that must survive outside the host
usually have more resistant walls than cysts that form in
tissues.
• Some protozoa form cysts that contain one or more
infective forms.
• Multiplication occurs in the cysts of some species so
that excystation releases more than one organism.
• For example, when the trophozoite of Entamoeba
histolytica first forms a cyst, it has a single nucleus.
• As the cyst matures nuclear division produces four
nuclei and during excystation four uninucleate
metacystic amebas appear.
Types of sexual reproduction

a) Conjugation of ciliates:
• An elaborate process in which two individuals unite with
each other by fusion of their pellicles and nuclei are
exchanged.
• Apparently, the nuclei act as gametes.
• The ciliates possess two different types of nuclei, — the
micronucleus and the macronucleus.
• Only micronuclei take part in conjugation.
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b) Syngamy:
• The complete and permanent union or fusion of two
specialised protozoan individuals or gametes resulting in
the formation of a fertilized cell or zygote or oospore.
• The nuclei of the gametes fuse to form the zygote nucleus.
• The zygotes develop into adult
c) The roles of i. Roles in CO2 fixation

Protista in • Photosynthetic protista (most of algae and some of protozoa)
ecological a. Protozoa: Euglena sp.
community b. Algae: Fucus sp., Chlamydomonas sp.
ii. Food source (Chlorella sp.)

• Chlorella served as a potential source of food and energy because
its photosynthetic efficiency
iii. Eutrophication (algal bloom)

• Ecosystem response to the addition of artificial or natural
substances, such as nitrates and phosphates, through fertilizers or
sewage, to an aquatic system
• growth of algae
• Caused the depletion of oxygen in the water which induces
reductions in specific fish and other animalpopulations
iv. Red tide (dinoflagellates)

• Common name for a phenomenon known as an algal bloom(large
concentrations of aquatic microorganisms).
• Caused by a few species of dinoflagellates and the bloom takes on a
red or brown color
• Some red tides are associated with the production of naturaltoxins,
depletion of dissolved oxygen or other harmful effects
v. Human health (Plasmodium sp. – malaria)

• Infected female Anopheles transmits Plasmodium sporozoites into
human blood
vi. Sewage treatment

• Protozoan play important role in waste water treatmentprocess
• Protozoa feeds on bacteria, and improve sewage treatment resulting
in a lower organic load in the output water of the treated wastes.
• As biosensors they could provide valuable information regarding
adverse effects of environmental chemicals for the effective
operation of biological waste-water treatment processes.
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SUBTOPIC: 1.5 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi

LEARNING OUTCOMES: a) State the unique characteristics of Fungi
b) State the classification of Fungi phyla based on the spore-bearing structure:
• Zygomycota (Rhizopus sp.),
• Ascomycota (Penicillium sp.),
• Basidiomycota (Agaricus sp.)
c) State the importance of Fungi:
i. Decomposer
ii. Symbionts
iii. Pathogens
iv. Commercial importance in food production (fermented food)
v. Pharmaceutical (penicillin)
MAIN IDEAS
a) The unique • Eukaryotic
characteristics • Do not contain chlorophyll
of Fungi • Non-photosynthetic
• Absorptive heterotrophs (extracellular digestion)
 Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material of
their host
 Digest food first & then absorb it into their bodies
• Store food energy as glycogen
• Most are saprophytic – live on other dead organisms
• Heterotrophic
- Parasitic
- Saprophytic
- Mutualist
• Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment
• Most are multicellular, but some unicellular like yeast
• The major constituents of the fungal cell wall are chitin, glucans,
and glycoproteins.
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Structural organization
• Basic building units called hyphae
• Form interwoven mat called mycelium
• Not divided into true cells
Mycelium Hyphae
Vegetative part of the fungus, Fine, white branching filaments
consisting hyphae which make up the mycelium
Collection of hyphae Building blocks of the fungus
Look like a patch of threads Look like filaments threads or
or strands strand
• Cross-walls or septa (singular septum): divide into

compartments - Septate
• Hyphae without septa – Non septate / aseptate/ coenocyti
Septate Hyphae Non-septate Hyphae

Consist of septa between Hyphae lack septa or cross
cellular compartments walls
Absent of perforated ceoss
Present of perforated cross walls walls
Septa mostly separate nuclei One long cell is present and it
into individual compartments is multinucleated
• Both have cell walls made up of chitin.
• Both are branched long structures.
• Both are nucleated structures.
• Both contain with organelles and cytoplasms.
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Reproduction in Fungi
• Reproduce both asexually and sexually
• Most fungi are haploid throughout their life cycle
• Sexual reproduction occurs when hyphae of different mating types
(+ and -) meet and fuse together.
b) The
classification of
Fungi phyla
• Each of the phylum is classified based on the spore-bearing

structure
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Phylum Zygomycota
• Spore-bearing structure - zygosporangium
• Zygosporangium contain zygospores (formed by sexual
reproduction)
Rhizopus sp.
Phylum Ascomycota
• Fruiting body – ascocarps. The ascocarps contain the spore
forming asci.
• Spore-bearing structure – asci (singular, ascus).
• Ascus contain ascospores.
• is an important genus of phylum ascomycota, found inthe
natural environment
For Penicillium sp., they reproduce

asexually by producing enormous
numbers of asexual spores called
conidia. Conidia are produced
externally at the tips of specialized
hyphae called conidiophores.
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Phylum Basidiomycota
• A large and diverse phylum of fungi and most advance fungi.
Example: Agaricus sp.(mushrooms)
• filamentous fungi composed of hyphae.
• Most species reproduce sexually with a club-shaped spore-bearing
organ (basidium) that usually produces four sexual spores
(basidiospores).
• Basidia are borne on fruiting bodies (basidiocarps), which are large
and conspicuous.
c) The importance i. Decomposers

of Fungi • Saprophytic fungi
• Feed on dead and decaying
organisms (Penicillium sp.)
• Help to recycle nutrients
(phosphates,ammonia,
sulphates)
ii. Symbionts (example: Lichens

(Fungi + algae) Algae
photosynthesize and provides
organic food
• Fungus receives food in
exchange for housing,
water,and minerals
• commonly encrusted on
rocks and tree trunks
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iii. Pathogen
• Some of fungal species are
parasites mostly of plants
• Cause huge economic effects
iv. Commercial importance in food

production (fermented food)
• Example: Yeasts (Produce
alcoholic beverages & Rise
up bread dough)
v. Pharmaceutical (Penicillin)
• Used as antibiotics
(Penicillin).
• Processed from Penicillium
sp. that kills or stops the
growth of certain kinds of
bacteria inside the body.
Group Common name Hypha Reproduction Example

organization
Zygomycota Bread molds Coenocytic asexual Motile zoospores Rhizopus
sexual Sporangiospores
Ascomycota Sac fungi Septate asexual Conidiospores Penicillium
sexual Ascospores
Basidiomycota Club fungi Septate asexual Often absent mushroom
sexual Basidiospores
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SUBTOPIC: 1.6 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae

LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) Describe alternation of generation as the unique characteristics of Plantae.
(b) State the classification of Plantae into four groups:
i. Bryophytes iii. Gymnosperms
ii. Pteridophytes iv. Angiosperms
MAIN
IDEAS /KEY EXPLANATION NOTES
POINT
a) The Alternation of generations
alternation of • Alternation of generations is a type of life cycle found in terrestrial
generation as plants and some algae in which subsequent generations of individuals
the unique alternate between haploid and diploid organisms.
characteristics • In general, the generations alternate between the
of Plantae  sporophytes capable of creating spores
 gametophytes, capable of creating gametes.
Sporophyte:
• To form a sporophyte, two haploid gametes come together to form a
diploid zygote (2n).
• When the sporophyte reaches maturity, a key point in thealternation
of generations takes place.
• The sporophyte develops organs, known as sporangia to produce
haploid spores. These spores will be released intothe air or water and
carried away.
• When they reach a suitable environment, they will begin theprocess
of developing into the gametophyte.
Gametophyte
• This represents the next generation in the alternation ofgenerations,
as the haploid spore is created.
• This spore will undergo successive rounds of mitosis to forma new
multicellular individual, the gametophyte.
• Where the sporophyte generation creates spores, the gametophyte
generation creates gametes that produced by gametangia.
• These gametes are then broadcast into the environment, ortransferred
between plants.
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• When they find an opposite gamete, they begin the processof fusing
to form another zygote. This zygote will and eventually become a
sporophyte and the alternation of generations will keep turning.
reproductive cycles to definethe species.
b) The Kingdom Plantae can be divided into 2 groups:

classification Non-vascular Vascular
of Plantae • Lack vascular tissue • Have vascular tissue that
into four • Leafy or thalloid transports water and nutrients
groups appearance - xylem transports water
• No true roots, stems and - phloem transport dissolved
leaves substances
FOUR major groups of plants
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SUBTOPIC: 1.6.1 Bryophytes

LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) Describe the unique characteristics of bryophytes.
(b) State the classification of Bryophytes into 3 divisions/ phyla
i. Phylum Hepatophyta (Marchantia sp.)
ii. Phylum Bryophyta (Polytrichum sp.)
iii. Phylum Anthocerophyta (Anthoceros sp.)
(c) State the terrestrial adaptation for bryophytes
MAIN
POINT
a) The unique • Simplest group of land plants
characteristics • Live in damp, shady places
of bryophytes • Restricted in size
 Very small (1-2 cm in height)  To make sure all cells could
obtain enough nutrients
• Non-vascular plants
 Lack specialized vascular tissues
• Rely on diffusion and osmosis
• Whole surface of the plant can absorb needed nutrients
• Seedless plants: Produce haploid spores
• No true roots, stems and leaves
• Anchored by rhizoids:
Tiny, root hair-like
structures
• Not composed of tissues
• Lack specialized
conducting cells
• Do not play a primary role
in water and mineral
absorption
• Have flat, broad tissues
that function like leaves
• contain chloroplast for
photosynthesis
• Alternation of generations
 Gametophyte: Dominant
• Male gametophyte: antheridia (singular antheridium)
• Female gametophyte: archegonia (singular archegonium)
 Sporophyte
• Attached and dependent upon the gametophyte fornutrition
• Smaller and shorter-lived
• The smallest and simplest sporophytes
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b) The The bryophytes are grouped into three divisions/ phyla:
classification
of Bryophytes i. Phylum Hepatophyta (Marchantia sp.)
• Common name – Liverworts, refer to the liver-shaped
gametophytes.
• The gametophyte is flattened shape (thalloid).
• Gametangia elevated on gametophore.
• Sporophytes have a short seta (stalk) with an oval capsule.
Structure of a mature
sporophyte in Marchantia sp.
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ii. Phylum Bryophyta (Polytrichum sp.)

• Consists of mainly gametophytes
• The sporophytes are elongated and visible. The cells of the
sporophytes contain plastids that are usually green and
photosynthetic when the they are young (green) and turn tan when
ready to release spores.
• A sporophyte consists of a foot, a seta and a sporangium.
• The foot (embedded in the archegonuim) absorbs nutrientfrom the
gametophyte.
• The capsule produces spores by meiosis.
iii. Phylum Anthocerophyta (Anthoceros sp.)

• Refer to the long, tapered shape of sporophyte. The sporophyte is
lack of seta and consists only a sporangium. The sporangium
releases mature spores by splitting open, starting at the tip of the
horn.
• Usually, the first species to colonize open areas with moist soils;
a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria.
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c) The ● Drying out: A sterile jacket developed around antheridia and
terrestrial archegonia which prevent them from drying out.
adaptations of
bryophytes
● Reproduction: Delicate sex cells must be protected by gametangium.
● Gaseous exchange: Presence of stomata facilitate the movement of

gasses such as CO2 and O2 in and out through the cuticle
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SUBTOPIC: 1.6.2 Pteridophytes

LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) Describe the unique characteristics of pteridophytes
(b) State the classification of pteridophytes into two divisions/phyla
i. Phylum Lycopodiophyta/ Lycophyta (Lycopodium sp., Selaginella sp.)
ii. Phylum Pteridophyta (Dryopteris sp.)
MAIN
POINT
a) The unique • Vascular plants
characteristics  Has true roots, stems and leaves
of  Has lignified vascular tissues, and the xylem has tracheids and
pteridophytes sieve tube only for transport and support system
• Seedless
 Produce spores
• Non-flowering plants
• Photosynthetic – can maketheir
own food
• The sporophyte is dominant
and easily visible
• Gametophyte is reduced to a
small and simple structure.
• The alternation ofgeneration:
(a) Mature sporophyte (2n)

undergoes meiosis and
produces spores (n).
(b) Spore grows into gametophyte. Each gametophyte develops
sperm-producing organs called antheridia and egg-producing
organs called archegonia.
(c) The sperm use flagella to swim to eggs in the archegonia and
fertilize.
(d) A zygote develops into a new sporophyte, and the young plant
grows out from an archegonium of its parents, the gametophyte.
Reproductive organs in a gametophyte of Dryopteris sp
28 | KMPk
• Type of spores.
1. Homosporous
• Plants producing one type of spores
• The spores are equal in size
• The spores are produced from the same sporangia.
• The spores developed one kind of gametophyte.
• Spores germinates in soil and produce independentgametophyte.
• Example: Lycopodium sp
2. Heterosporous
• Plants producing 2 types of spores
• Megaspores (large spores) -------------------- female gametophyte
• Microspores (small spores) ------------------ male gametophyte
• The microspores are produces from the microsporangiaand
megaspores are produced from the megasporangia.
• The microspores develop into male gametophytewhereas
the megaspore develops into female gametophyte.
• Spores germinate within sporangia and producedependent
gametophyte.
• Example: Selaginella sp.
29 | KMPk
b) The i. Lycopodiophyta/ Lycohyta

classificationof
pteridophytes
into two
divisions/ phyla
Lycopodium sp.
ii. Pteridophyta
Dryopteris sp.
30 | KMPk
SUBTOPIC :1.6.4: Gymnosperm

LEARNING OUTCOME: (a) Describe the unique characteristics of gymnosperms.
(b) State the classification of gymnosperms into four divisions:
i. Cycadophyta (Cycas sp.)
ii. Pinophyta/ Coniferophyta (Pinus sp.)
iii. Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo sp.)
iv. Gnetophyta (Gnetum sp.)
MAIN IDEAS
a) The unique • Non-flowering plants
characteristics • Have true roots, leaves and stems. Therefore, have vascular tissues
of - Xylem with tracheid only
gymnosperms - Phloem with no companion cells
- Vascular cambium leads to secondary growth (wood)
• Naked seed
- Seeds are exposed on the surface of spore producing structures
called sporophylls
• Heterosporous
- Microspores (smaller structure that produce male gametes)
- Megaspores (bigger structure that produce female gametes)
• Reproductive organs are usually bear in cones.
- sporophylls are spirally arranged
- no double fertilization
• Ovules (modified megasporangium)
- Contain the female gametophyte
Alternation of generations
- Sporophyte dominant
- Gametophyte very much reduced
 Depends entirely on the sporophyte
 No free-living gametophyte
b) The i. Cycadophyta (Cycas sp.)

classification
of
gymnosperms
.
Female Cycas sp.
Male Cycas sp.
31 | KMPk
ii. Coniferophyta (Pinus sp.)
Male and female cones of Pinus sp.
Male and Female Pinus sp.
iii. Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo sp.)
32 | KMPk
Male Ginkgo sp. Female Ginkgo sp.
iv. Gnetophyta (Gnetum sp.)
Male Gnetum sp.
Female Gnetum sp.
33 | KMPk
SUBTOPIC 1.6.5: Angiosperms

LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) Describe the unique characteristics of Angiosperms (Division/ Phylum Anthophyta)
MAIN
POINT
a) The unique
characteristics
of
Angiosperms
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
• Flowering plants
 Produce flowers and fruits
• True roots, stems, leaves and flowers. Therefore, has a complete
vascular tissue with:
 xylem
 consists of tracheid and vessel element
 Fiber cells: support
 Efficient water transport
 phloem
 consists of sieve tubes and companion cells
34 | KMPk
• Seed plants
 seed enclosed in fruit
• The most diverse and geographically widespread
 Herbaceous and woody plant
• Alternation of generations
 Sporophyte
 Dominant
 The plant body
 Gametophyte
 Very much reduced
 Male gametophyte: Pollen grains
 Female gametophyte: Embryo sac
• Reproduce
 Asexually Vegetative propagation or producing heterosporous
 Sexually Reproduction involves double fertilization:
 1(n) sperm with 2 polar nuclei (2n) and becomes
endosperm(3n),
 another 1 sperm (n) with 1 egg (n) and becomes zygote (2n)
 Endosperm develops into a seed
 Zygote develops into an embryo
35 | KMPk
SUBTOPIC : 1.6.6 Evolutionary relationship in plant kingdom

LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) Explain the evolutionary relationships among groups in the plant
kingdom (bryophytes to angiosperms) based on
i. size
ii. dominance to gametophytes and sporophytes
iii. dependence to gametophytes and sporophytes
iv. water dependence in fertilization
v. presence and complexity of vascular tissues
vi. embryo protection
Groups BRYOPHYTES PTERIDOPHYTES GYMNOSPERMS ANGIOSPERMS
Size
Very small Medium Large Large
Dominance of
gametophytes
and Gametophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte
sporophytes
Dependence of
Sporophyte Sporophyte depends
gametophytes
depends on the on the gametophyte Sporophyte is Sporophyte is totally
and
gametophyte for only at the early totally independent independent
sporophytes
the rest of its life development
Water
dependence in Needed - sperm Needed- sperm Not needed- sperm Not needed- sperm
fertilization motile motile non-motile non-motile
Complex vascular
tissue Complex vascular
- lignified vascular tissue
Simple vascular Xylem - tracheids - lignified vascular
Presence of Absent- lack
vascular tissues - lignified only Xylem - tracheids
lignified vascular
tissues vascular Phloem - Sieve and vessels
tubes with no Phloem - Sieve tubes
companion cells and companion cells
Embryo
Protected by the
protection Not protected Not protected Protected by the seed
seed
36 | KMPk
SUBTOPIC: 1.7 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Animalia

LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) Describe the unique characteristics of Kingdom Animalia
(b) State the classification of Animalia into nine phyla: Porifera,
Coelentrata/Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida,
Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata and Chordata.
(c) Discover the unique characteristics of the following phyla:
i. Porifera (e.g: Leucosolenia sp.)
ii. Cindaria (e.g: Obelia sp.)
iii. Platyhelminthes (e.g: Taenia sp.)
iv. Nematoda (e.g: Ascaris sp.)
v. Annelida (e.g : Pheretima sp.)
vi. Arthropoda (e.g: Valanga sp.)
vii. Mollusca (e.g: Achatina sp.)
viii.Echinodermata (e.g: Asterias sp.)
ix. Chordata (e.g: Amphioxus sp.)
(d) Explain evolutionary relationships of animals based on their:
i. Level of organization
ii. Germ layers
iii. Body symmetry
iv. Body coelom
v. Segmentation
MAIN IDEAS
a) The unique • Eukaryote: Organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within
characteristics of membranes.
Kingdom • Multicellular: Organisms that consist of more than one cell
Animalia • Heterotrophic: Organism that cannot manufacture its own food by
carbon fixation and therefore derives its intake of nutrition from other
sources of organic carbon, mainly plant or animal matter (types of
nutrition is holozoic).
• Store excess carbohydrate as glycogen: Animals store their excess
glucose or energy into glycogen and fats. The glycogen will be kept in
the liver and muscle, meanwhile fats in adipose tissues.
• Complex body system and have differentiated tissues for response to
stimuli and locomotion (e.g: nerve tissues, muscle tissues).
• Reproduce sexually (most): Fusion of male and female gametes.
• Dominant stage in the life cycle is diploid
37 | KMPk
b) State the Kingdom animalia consists of various multicellular eukaryotic animals.

classification of Basically, animals are divided into two group, invertebrates (without
Animalia into backbone) and vertebrates (with back bone). Below are the phyla of kingdom
nine phyla animalia according to the groups.
-Porifera
Coelentrata/ KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Cnidaria,
Platyhelminthes, PHYLUM EXAMPLE
Nematoda,
Annelida, Invertebrates
Arthropoda,
Mollusca,Echino i. Porifera Leucosolenia sp.
dermata,
Chordata ii Cindaria Obelia sp.
iii Platyhelminthes Taenia sp.
iv Nematoda Ascaris sp.
v Annelida Pheretima sp.
vi Arthropoda Valanga sp.
vii Mollusca Achatina sp.
viii Echinodermata Asterias sp.
Vertebrates
ix Chordata Amphioxus sp.
c) The discovery i. Phylum Porifera (e.g: Leucosolena sp.)

of the unique
characteristics of • Consists of all species of
the following Sponges
phyla • No true tissues The cells that
make up a sponge are not
organized into tissues.
Therefore, sponges lack true
tissues and organs.
• Asymmetrical No body
symmetry
• No body cavity
• Most are sessile
 Sponge larvae are able to
swim; however, adults are
non- motile and spend their
life attached to a substratum
through aholdfast.
38 | KMPk
• Aquatic mainly marine
 The majority of sponges are marine, living in seas and oceans.
• Body has an endoskeleton made up of spicules or spongin
 The presence and composition of spicules (made up of calcium
carbonate) and spongin are the differentiating characteristics
between the classes of sponges. Some contain either or and some
contain both compositions.
• Reproduction
 They are hermaphrodites, meaning that each individual functions as
both male and female in sexual reproduction by producing sperm and
eggs.
• Sponges are filter feeders:

 They filter out food particles suspended in the surrounding water
as they draw it through their body, which in some species
resembles a sac perforated with pores.
 Water is drawn through the pores into a central cavity, the
spongocoel, and then flows out of the sponge through a larger
opening called the osculum.
39 | KMPk
• Feeding mode:
 Water flows through the sponge allow for feeding, waste removal
and the intake of oxygen.
 A combination of pressure, flagella and contractile movement
pump water
• Types of cells:
i. Flagellated choanocytes, or collar cells
 lining the interior of the spongocoel are (named for thefinger-like
projections that form a “collar” around the flagellum). These
cells engulf bacteria and other food particles by phagocytosis.
ii. Mesohyl cell

 Because both cell layers are in contact with water, processes such
as gas exchange and waste removal canoccur by diffusion across
the membranes of these cells.
iii. Amoebocytes cell

 These cells move through the mesohyl and have many functions.
For example, they take up food from the surrounding water and
from choanocytes, digest it, andcarry nutrients to other cells.
iv. Porocytes
• specialized cells for the passage of incoming water current and
are located in the body wall of sponges
40 | KMPk
Phylum Cnidaria (Obelia sp.)
• Obelia is a genus of
hydrozoans,
• Simple structure
• Mainly live in marine and
some freshwater
• Dimorphism (two distinct
forms) in their life cycle.
i. Medusa form
- Male and female, produce
sperm and egg
- Motile
- mouth and tentacles
directed downwards
ii. Polyp form
- Feeding polyp (has
tentacles)
- Reproductive polyp
(reproduce by budding)
- Non-motile
- mouth and tentacles
directed upwards
41 | KMPk
Life cycle of Obelia sp.

1. Sexual reproduction involves the production of medusa, which
bud from the second type of polyp, called reproductive polyps.
2. They produce tiny free-swimming sexual medusae (male &
female) complete with tentacles and gonads, which release egg
cells and sperms into the water.
3. Fertilization results in a zygote which develops to form planula
larva consisting of a ball of cells with a ciliated outer layer.
4. Planula larva develop to produce new mature polyps.
42 | KMPk
Phylum Platyhelminthes (Taenia sp.)
• Bilaterally symmetrical body plan

• A basic body plan in which the left and right sides of the
organism canbe divided into approximate mirror images of each
other along the midline.
• Triploblastic  Has three germ layers

 ectoderm (outer most layer)
 mesoderm (middle layer)
 endoderm (inner most layer)
• Acoelomate
 No body cavity
43 | KMPk
• Unsegmented
Taenia mature proglottids
• Shows cephalization (development of head region).
• Excretory system
 Protonephridia = 2 lateral canals with branches bearing flamecells
44 | KMPk
• No specialized circulatory or respiratory system Gas exchange

occur by diffusion
• Incomplete digestive system  Has mouth but no anus
Nervous system in Taenia sp.
• Parasitic (except for Class Turbellaria (e.g Planaria sp.))
45 | KMPk
Phylum Nematoda (e.g: Ascaris sp.)
• Bilaterally_symmetry
• Triploblastic
• Unsegmented
• Pseudocoelomate
• Most are free living found in fresh water, marine, moist soil,
tissues
• Some are parasitic
• Endoparasite
 found in guts of humans, pig and tissues of plant
 Complete alimentary canal with separate mouth & anus.
46 | KMPk
• Nervous system
 simple with several ganglia in the head region (but no brain)
 nerves extend from ganglia control movement
 a series of excretory tubes that end in an excretory pore
• No circulatory & respiratory systems
• Have hydrostatic skeleton
 move to maintain shape and allows for locomotion
 move by contracting muscles on alternating sides of the body,
no circular muscle
• Reproduction
 Dioecious - separate sexes in most species

 female is much bigger & longer than male
 Internal fertilization
 Parasitic nematodes often have complex life cycle (involve 2
or 3 different hosts or several organs in a host)
• Body is covered with smooth cuticle (thick flexible cuticle)

 provides protection
 reduces H2O loss
 withstand hydrostatic pressure of pseudocoelom
- -Brugia malayi sp. as Elephantiasis causing agent.
47 | KMPk
Phylum Annelida (e.g: Pheretima sp.)
• Bilaterally symmetry
• Triploblastic
• Segmented
• Coelomate -fluid-filled cavity between the gut and other body
organ
• Metameric segmentation
 Division of body into a number of segments each containssame
organ (muscles, blood vessels, nerves)
 Septum (membrane) between segment
• Free-living, terrestrial or aquatic form

• Complete digestive system:
 mouth, long tube & anus
 digestive tract with anterior mouth & posterior anus
 one-way digestive tract
 consists of a pair of nephridium for each segment
48 | KMPk
• Closed blood circulation system

• Blood travels through vessel
• Respiratory system
 Through skin or gills
• Nervous & sensory system are present
• Chitinous setae
 Each segment has setae to assist movement
 Have longitudinal and circular muscle for burrowing and
swimming
• Reproduction system
 Most reproduce sexually
 Dioecious or monoecious
49 | KMPk
Phylum Arthropoda (e.g: Valanga sp.)
• Bilateral symmetry
• Triploblastic  Organ-system level of organization
• Jointed appendages
 Can move rapidly for feeding
 Locomotion: escape from predator
• Specialized Segmented bodies

 Segments are fused to form specialized body regions 
Tagmata
 Cephalization - Head, thorax & abdomen
• Hardened exoskeleton with chitin

• Waterproof, a barrier which prevent the animal from drying
out.
• Inner layer consists of chitin together with fibrous protein,
giving continuous flexible covering.
• Digestion
 Complete digestive system
Modified mouth parts & anus
50 | KMPk
• Excretory
 Depending as much on their environment as on the
subphylum to which they belong
• Specialised sensory structure

• Well-developed nervous system
• Most have large compound eyes, antennae
• Hemocoel (blood cavity) instead of a coelom

 filled with hemolymph (blood-like fluid)
 Open blood circulation system with true heart
Have artery but no vein
 Blood flow via hemocoel before return to heart
51 | KMPk
• Reproduction
 Generally, reproduces sexually
 Separate sexes
- Male (smaller size)
 Female (bigger size)
• Respiration structure
• Efficient gas exchange. They have variety of respiratory system
such as gill, tracheae, spiracles, book lung
Phylum Mollusca (e.g: Achatina sp.)

,
• Asymmetry
• Triploblastic
• Unsegmented body usually with head, foot and visceral hump
• Coelomate
• Mollusks inhabit marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats.
• The body plan is similar and distinct from all other phyla
The Mollusca body plan includes:
● Visceral mass
 Contain most of the internal organs. Example: digestivesystem,
52 | KMPk
excretory system, heart
● Muscular foot/ head-foot

 located at the ventral site of the body
 for locomotion and attachment
● Mantle
 formed from fold of tissue/soft skin that covers visceral organs
 have gland that secretes the shell
● Complete digestive system

 anus open into mantle cavity
 Mouth has radula
 tongue-like organ with rows of teeth
- drill, scrape & cut food
• Excretory organs
 Nephridia
- remove metabolic waste from the hemolymph (body fluid)
● Circulatory system
 open / close blood circulation
 consists of dorsal heart
● Respiratory system gills or lung in the mantle cavity

● Advanced nervous system
 Brain and well-developed sense organs (eyes in cephalopods)
● Reproduction
 monoecious and dioecious
 external development
 external & internal fertilization
53 | KMPk
Phylum Echinodermata (e.g: Asterias sp.)
• Body symmetry
 Larvae - Bilateral symmetry
 Adult- Radial symmetry
• Triploblastic
• No body segmentation
• Internal and external parts radiate from centre - five spokes.
• No head
• Mouth generally on lower (oral) surface of body
54 | KMPk
• Anus on upper (aboral) surface.

• Tube feet
 locomotion
 feeding
 gas exchange
• Water vascular system

 A network of hydraulic canals branching into extensions
called tube feet
• Simple nervous system without brain
• No circulatory, respiratory or excretory systems
• Slow moving or sessile
• Endoskeleton Hard calcium carbonate plates and spines that
covered by thin epidermis
• Sexual reproduction
 Separate male and female individuals: Release gametes into water
• Asexual reproduction: Most capable of regenerating lost parts.
55 | KMPk
. Phylum Chordata (E.g: Amphioxus sp.)
• Not all of these characteristics are apparent in adult organisms

and mayappear only in the embryonic or larval stages.
• bilaterally symmetrical
• Triploblastic
 Coelom well developed
• Myotomes
 Muscular tissues arranged in blocks
 Present in embryonic stage
 Maintained in some adult chordates
• Closed circulatory system

 Hepatic portal system
- blood from alimentary canal taken to liver and taken back
to the heart
 Heart is ventral position
- found behind and below pharynx.
56 | KMPk
The animals in the phylum Chordata share four key features: a notochord,
a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail.
Notochord
 Longitudinal, flexible rod
- located between digestive tube and nerve cord
- later become vertebral column / backbone
 Provides skeletal support
- Place for muscle attachment.
Pharyngeal cleft (slits in the pharynx)

 Found in all chordate embryos
- A series of pouches separated by grooves found along the
sides of the pharynx
- The perforated pharynx evolved as a filter feeding
apparatus. modified into internal gills used for
respiration.
 Function: Invertebrate chordates
- Suspension feeding devices (invertebrate chordates)
- Modified for gaseous exchange (vertebrates)
- Gill slits at sides of pharynx
Dorsal hollow nerve cord

 Develops from a plate of ectoderm that rolls into a tube
located above the notochord
 Develops into central nervous system
- brain and spinal cord
Post anal tail

 Tail extending posterior to anus
 Lost during embryonic development
 Contains skeletal elements and muscles
 Provides propelling force in many aquatic species
57 | KMPk
d) The evolutionary i. Level of organization
relationships of Multicellular organisms are made of many parts that are needed for
animals. survival. These parts are divided into levels of organization. There are
five levels: cells, tissue, organs, organ systems, and organisms
ii. Germ layers

Any of three cellular layers, the ectoderm, endoderm, or mesoderm,
into which most animal embryos differentiate and from which the
organs and tissues of the body develop through further differentiation
58 | KMPk
iii. Body symmetry
A basic feature of animal bodies is their type of symmetryor absence of
symmetry.
Asymmetry Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry

• Lack of • Any vertical cut • A body with right
symmetry, through the axis in and left halves that
in irregular any pf two or more are mirror images to
shape planes produces two one another
• Most of the halves that are mirror • Most of the animals
primitive images of each other. are bilateral
animals are • Animal with radial symmetry
asymmetry. symmetry usually • They are well suited
• Eg: phylum sessile, free-floating for directional
Porifera or weakly moving movement
• Eg: Phylum
Echinodermata,
Phylum Cnidarian
iv. Body coelom

The main body cavity in most animals and is positioned inside the
body to surround and contain the digestive tract and other organs.
Acoelomate Pseudocoelomate Coelomate

• There is no body • There is body • There is body
cavity between cavity between cavity between
the gut and the gut and the gut and
epidermis epidermis. epidermis.
• Eg: • However, the • The body cavaity
Platyhelminthes body cavity is not is lined with a
completely lined mesoderm that is
with a mesoderm attached to
• Eg: Nematode organs.
• Eg: Annelid
59 | KMPk
iv. Segmentation
Segmentation is the serial repetition of similar organs, tissues, cell
typesor body cavities along the anterior-posterior of bilaterally
symmetric animals.
• The concept of segmentation in biology relies upon the ability
for organisms to duplicate organs structural elements, such as
arms and legs.
• Segmentation allows for a greater degree of variety among
species.
• Different segmentation in arthropods
60 | KMPk

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Sb025 1. Biodiversity

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Biology Student’s Companion Resources SB 025

CHAPTER 1.0: BIODIVERSITY

SUBTOPIC: 1.1 Biodiversity and classification

Definition of • Short for biological diversity

150,000 species of invertebrates 742 species of bird

449 species of freshwater fish and 500 species of marine

a) Types of • Biodiversity also refers to the interrelatedness of genes,

b) The • In order to naming species of an organism, Linnaeus * In the Linnaean system,

Classification according to Carolus Linnaeus

c) The Domain is the highest taxonomic rank in the hierarchical

b) The Characteristic Bacteria Archaea

• Coccus bacteria or cocci, are sphere or oval-shaped bacteria that grow in

• Bacillus, the rod-like shape of this type of bacteria.

• Spiral-shaped bacteria are primarily found in standing water

1. Recycling of chemical elements in ecosystem (nitrogen fixation as

2. Symbiotic relationships with other organisms

 Act as enterobacteria in human intestines.

 Although vast majority of bacteria are harmless or beneficial to one's

4. In research and technology (bacteria plasmid)

 In the genetic engineering, the genes of an organism is

SUBTOPIC: 1.4 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Protista

MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION

Unique characteristics of Algae

Types of asexual reproduction

Types of sexual reproduction

d) Anisogamy: The motile gametes

(ii) 4 major phyla Phylum Euglenophyta (Euglena sp.)

Phylum Rhizopoda (Amoeba)

Phylum Ciliophora (Paramecium sp.)

Unique • Animal-like: Protozoa represent the most primitive group of

Types of asexual reproduction Multiple Fission

Malarial parasite such

Types of sexual reproduction

c) The roles of i. Roles in CO2 fixation

ii. Food source (Chlorella sp.)

iii. Eutrophication (algal bloom)

iv. Red tide (dinoflagellates)

v. Human health (Plasmodium sp. – malaria)

vi. Sewage treatment

SUBTOPIC: 1.5 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi

• Cross-walls or septa (singular septum): divide into

Septate Hyphae Non-septate Hyphae

• Each of the phylum is classified based on the spore-bearing

For Penicillium sp., they reproduce

c) The importance i. Decomposers

ii. Symbionts (example: Lichens

iv. Commercial importance in food

Group Common name Hypha Reproduction Example

SUBTOPIC: 1.6 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae

b) The Kingdom Plantae can be divided into 2 groups:

FOUR major groups of plants

SUBTOPIC: 1.6.1 Bryophytes

ii. Phylum Bryophyta (Polytrichum sp.)

iii. Phylum Anthocerophyta (Anthoceros sp.)

● Reproduction: Delicate sex cells must be protected by gametangium.

● Gaseous exchange: Presence of stomata facilitate the movement of

SUBTOPIC: 1.6.2 Pteridophytes

(a) Mature sporophyte (2n)

Reproductive organs in a gametophyte of Dryopteris sp

b) The i. Lycopodiophyta/ Lycohyta

SUBTOPIC :1.6.4: Gymnosperm

b) The i. Cycadophyta (Cycas sp.)

Male Cycas sp.

ii. Coniferophyta (Pinus sp.)