Introduction to Microbes

and Cellular Biology

Mitochondria is
the powerhouse
of the cell !!!

Henrick Aaron Lo, RMT

 UNIT COVARAGE
1. Cellular Structure and Taxonomy
2. Acellular and Prokaryotic Microbes
3. Eukaryotic Microbes
 UNIT OUTCOMES
1. Describe the meaning of the cell theory.
2. Examine the differences between bacterial, animal, and plant cells.
3. Describe the traits used to categorize viruses.
4. Describe some distinctive characteristics of viruses that set them apart from bacteria.
5. List the numerous categories that bacteria might fall into.
6. Compare and contrast the variations among fungus, protozoa, and algae.
Cell Structure and Taxonomy
 EUKARYOTIC CELL
Cell membrane

• aka plasma, cytoplasmic, or cellular membrane

• “skin” around the cell
• selective permeability

Nucleus

• eukaryotes (true nucleus) vs prokaryotes

• ”command center”
a. nucleoplasm: embedded / suspended
b. chromosomes: 46 (23 pairs)
c. nuclear membrane: nucleopores
 EUKARYOTIC CELL
Cytoplasm

• where most metabolic reactions occur

• cytosol: nutrient matrix

Endoplasmic Reticulum

• transport network of tubules and flattened sacs

• ribosomes
a. Rough ER: protein synthesis
b. Smooth ER: detoxification
 EUKARYOTIC CELL
Ribosomes

• cluster of ribosomes = polysomes / polyribosomes

• Svedberg units (S) : sedimentation coefficients
a. 40S : small subunit
b. 60S : large subunit
c. 80S

Golgi complex

• aka Golgi body or Golgi apparatus

• “packaging plants” : completes the transformation of
newly synthesized proteins into mature, functional ones
and packages them into small, membrane-enclosed
vesicles for storage within the cell or export outside the
cell
 EUKARYOTIC CELL
Lysosomes

• lysozyme and other digestive enzyme

• autolysis : destroy entire cell

Peroxisomes

• catalase : catalyzes (speeds up) the breakdown of

hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
 EUKARYOTIC CELL
Mitochondria

• adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

• “power plants” , “power houses” , “energy factories”

Plastids

• sites of photosynthesis
• e.g. chloroplast
 EUKARYOTIC CELL
Cytoskeleton

• system of fibers
• strengthen, support, and stiffen the cell, and give the
cell its shape
a. microtubules: cell division, contraction, motility
b. microfilaments: tubulins
c. intermediate filaments

Cell wall

• external structures that provide rigidity, shape, and

protection
• cellulose: algae, plants
• chitin: fungi
 EUKARYOTIC CELL
Flagella

• whip-like
• organelles of locomotion : “swim" through liquid
environments

Cilia

• hair-like
• coordinated, rhythmic movement
 PROKARYOTIC CELL
Cell membrane

Chromosome

• consists of a single, long, supercoiled, circular DNA

molecule
• control center of the bacterial cell
• suspended or embedded in the cytoplasm
• plasmid: extrachromosomal DNA

Cytoplasm
 PROKARYOTIC CELL
Cytoplasmic particles

• ribosomes
a. 70S = 30S + 50S
 PROKARYOTIC CELL
Cell wall

• quite different from the relatively simple structure of

eukaryotic cell walls
• main constituent of most bacterial cell walls is a
complex macromolecular polymer known as
peptidoglycan (also known as murein)
a. Gram positive: thick layer of peptidoglycan
combined with teichoic acid and lipoteichoic
acid molecules
b. Gram negative: much thinner layer of
peptidoglycan, but this layer is covered with a
complex layer of lipid macromolecules, usually
referred to as the outer membrane
c. L-form or cell wall deficient (CWD)
 PROKARYOTIC CELL
Glycocalyx

• thick layer of material located outside their cell wall

a. slime layer
• neither highly organized nor firmly attached to
the cell wall and it easily detaches from the cell
wall and drifts away
b. capsule
• highly organized and firmly attached to the cell
wall
• negative stain: a capsule staining procedure
• The capsule appears as an unstained halo
around the bacterial cell
• antiphagocytic function: protecting the
encapsulated bacteria from being
phagocytized
 PROKARYOTIC CELL
Flagella

• flagellin: three, four, or more threads of protein

twisted like a rope
• bacterial flagella arise from a basal body in the
cell membrane and project outward through
the cell wall and capsule(if present)
a. flagellated: motile
b. non-flagellated: non motile
 PROKARYOTIC CELL
Pili

• pilin: polymerized protein molecules

• sex pilus is a single structure that facilitates transfer
of genetic material from one bacterial cell to
another following attachment of the cells to each
other
• conjugation: genetic material (usually in the form of
a plasmid) is then transferred from the donor cell to
the recipient cell

Fimbriae

• enable bacteria to adhere or attach to surfaces

 PROKARYOTIC CELL
Spores (Endospores)

• means of survival when their moisture or nutrient

supply is low
• sporulation: formation of spores
• spores have been shown to survive for many years
in soil or dust, and some are quite resistant to
disinfectants and boiling
• spore stain
a. terminal spore
b. subterminal spore
EUKARYOTIC CELL VS PROKARYOTIC CELL
 PROKARYOTIC CELL REPRODUCTION
Binary fission

• one cell (the parent cell) splits in half to become

two daughter cells.
• before a prokaryotic cell can divide in half, its
chromosome must be duplicated (a process known
as DNA replication), so that each daughter cell will
possess the same genetic information as the parent
cell
• generation time: the time it takes for one
prokaryotic cell to become two cells
 TAXONOMY
Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology

1. classification
• the arrangement of organisms into taxonomic
groups on the basis of similarities or
relationships. Taxa include kingdoms or
domains, divisions or phyla, classes, orders,
families, genera, and species.
2. nomenclature
• the assignment of names to the various taxa
according to international rules.
3. identification
• the process of determining whether an isolate
belongs to one of the established
 Microbial Classification
Carolus Linnaeus

• binomial system

Homo sapiens

genus + specific epithet = species

 Microbial Classification
Standard Method

• to express the genus, capitalize the first letter of the word and underline or italicize the whole word
Escherichia coli Escherichia coli
• Frequently, the genus is designated by a single-letter abbreviation
E. coli
• Escherichia would be spelled out the first time the organism is mentioned; thereafter, the
abbreviated form, E. coli, could be used
 Microbial Classification
• In addition to the proper scientific names for bacteria, acceptable terms such as:
a. staphylococci (for Staphylococcus spp.),
b. streptococci (for Streptococcus spp.),
c. clostridia (for Clostridium spp.),
d. pseudomonads (for Pseudomomas spp.),
e. mycoplasmas (for Mycoplasma spp.),
f. rickettsias (for Ricketttsia spp.)
g. chlamydias (for Chlamydia spp.)

• Nicknames and slang terms frequently used within hospitals are:

a. GC and gonococci (for Neisseria gonorrhoeae),
b. meningococci (for N. meningitidis),
c. pneumococci (for S. pneumoniae),
d. staph (for Staphylococcus or staphylococcal),
e. strep (for Streptococcus or streptococcal).
Bacteria
 Algae
• phycology (or algology): study of algae
• photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms that, together with
protozoa are classified in the second kingdom (Protista)
• all algal cells consist of cytoplasm, a cell wall (usually), a cell
membrane, a nucleus, plastids, ribosomes, mitochondria, and
golgi bodies
• in addition, some algal cells have a pellicle (a thickened cell
membrane), a stigma (a light-sensing organelle, also known as
an eyespot), and flagella.
• although they are not plants, algae are more plant like than
protozoa
• algae lack true roots, stems, and leaves
• algae range in size from tiny, unicellular, microscopic
organisms (e.g., diatoms, dinoflagellates, and desmids) to
large, multicellular, plant like seaweeds. thus, not all algae are
microorganisms.
• dinoflagellates are responsible for what are known as "red
tides"
 Protozoa
• protozoology: study of protozoa
• eukaryotic organisms that, together with algae, are classified in
the second kingdom (Protista)
• most protozoa are unicellular (single-celled)
• most of them are free-living organisms, found in soil and water
• protozoal cells are more animal-like than plantlike
• all protozoal cells possess a variety of eukaryotic structures and
organelles, including cell membranes, nuclei, endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, golgi bodies, lysosomes, centrioles,
and food vacuoles.
• in addition, some protozoa possess pellicles, cytostomes,
contractile vacuoles, pseudopodia, cilia, and flagella.
• protozoa have no chlorophyll and, their own food by
photosynthesis.
• some protozoa are parasites
• parasitic protozoa break down and absorb nutrients from the
body of the host in which they live
 Fungi
• mycology: study of fungi
• fungi are found almost everywhere on Earth; some (the
saprophytic fungi) are living on organic matter in water and
soil, and others (the parasitic fungi) living on and within animals
and plants
• some are harmful, whereas others are beneficial
• fungi are the “recyclers”, "garbage disposers” of nature the
"vultures” of the microbial world
• fungi are sometimes incorrectly referred to as plants, but they
are not: no chlorophyll or other photosynthetic pigments
• cell wall: has chitin but no cellulose
• Although many fungi are unicellular (e.g., yeasts and
microsporidia), others grow as filaments called hyphae, which
intertwine to form a mass called mycelium or thallus; thus, they
are quite different from bacteria, which are always unicellular
 Lichens
• lichen represents a combination of two organisms an alga (or
a cyanobacterium) and a filamentous fungus-living together in
such a close relationship that they appear to be one organism
• they are not associated with human disease, but some
substances produced by lichens have been shown to have
antibacterial properties
 Slime moulds
• found in soil and on rotting logs, have both
fungal and protozoal characteristics and
have recently been transferred out of the
Kingdom Fungi and placed in the Kingdom
Protozoa; thus, they are not moulds
• slime moulds have very complex life cycles
initially starting as an ameba, but
progressing into a multicellular organism
• they are not known to cause human
disease
 Virus
• Scientists were unable to see viruses until, electron microscopes were invented in the 1930
• A negative staining procedure, developed in 1959, coupled with transmission electron
microscopy, revolutionized the study of viruses, making it possible to observe unstained viruses
against an electron-dense dark background
• Viruses are said to have five specific properties that distinguish them from living cells:
1. the vast majority of viruses possess either DNA or RNA, unlike living cells, which possess both.
2. they are unable to replicate (multiply) on their own; their replication is directed by the viral
nucleic acid once it has been introduced into a host cell.
3. unlike cells, they do not divide by binary fission, mitosis, or meiosis
4. they lack the genes and enzymes necessary for energy production
5. they depend on the ribosomes, enzymes, and metabolites ("building blocks” of the host cell for
protein and nucleic acid production)
 Virus
• Complete virus particles, called virions, are very small and simple in structure.
• A typical virion consists of:
1. genome of either DNA or RNA,
2. surrounded by a capsid (protein coat), which is composed of many small protein units called
capsomeres (capsomers).
3. Together, the nucleic acid and the capsid are referred to as the nucleocapsid
4. Some viruses (called enveloped viruses) have an outer envelope composed of lipids and
polysaccharides
 Virus
• Viruses are classified by the following characteristics:
1. type of genetic material(either DNA or RNA),
2. whether the virus nucleic acid is single stranded or double stranded,
3. whether the virus nucleic acid is positive-sense or negative-sense,
4. shape of the capsid,
5. number of capsomeres,
6. size of the capsid,
7. presence or absence of an envelope,
8. type of host that it infects,
9. type of disease it produces,
10.target cell
11.immunologic or antigenic properties
Virus
Virus
Virus
Virus
Virus
 Viroids
• viroids are consist of short, naked fragments of single-stranded RNA (about 300-400 nucleotides in
length) that can interfere with the metabolism of plant cells and stunt the growth of plants,
sometimes killing the plants in the process.
• they are transmitted between plants in the same manner as viruses.
• plant diseases thought or known to be caused by viroids include potato spindle
tuber (producing small, cracked, spindle-shaped potatoes), citrus exocortis (stunting of citrus
trees), and diseases of chrysanthemums, coconut palms, and tomatoes.
• thus so far, no animal diseases have been discovered that are caused by viroids.
 Prions
• prions are small infectious proteins that cause fatal neurologic diseases in animals and humans in
which the brain becomes riddled with holes (becomes sponge-like)
• prions are thought to be transmit- ted by consumption of food contaminated with the agent
• all these diseases are untreatable and fatal and are collectively referred to as transmissible
spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) which involve loss of coordination and dementia
• human prion disease:
1. Kuru
2. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)
3. Gerstmann-Straussler- Scheinker syndrome