Cellular Structure and Taxonomy
All living cells arise from pre- existing
CELL
A cell is the fundamental unit of life,
containing essential
molecules that make up all living organisms.
It can exist as an individual entity or serve
as a building block within a larger
multicellular organism.
• A single cell can be a complete organism,
such as a bacterium or yeast.
• As cells mature, they acquire specialized
functions and collaborate with other cells to
form complex organisms like humans and
other animals.
• Despite their small size, cells play a crucial
role in life processes.
• The smallest known cells are tiny bacteria
called mycoplasmas, with diameters as
small as 0.2 μm (micrometers) and a total
mass equivalent to that of 8 billion
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hydrogen atoms.
• Human cells, although larger, are still only
about 20 μm across. To cover the head of a
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pin, you’d need a sheet of approximately
10,000 human cells, and the entire human
body comprises over 30 trillion cells
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Functions of the Cell
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• basic unit of life protection and support
movement
• communication
• cell metabolism and energy release
• inheritance
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Cell Theory
• is a collection of ideas and conclusions
from many
different scientists over time that describes
cells and how
cells operate
All known living things are made up of one
or more cells.
2.
cells by division.
3. The cell is the basic unit of structure and
function in all living organisms
Cell theory timeline
1665- Robert Hooke, discovered cell
1674- Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, observed a
living cell
1883- Robert Brown, discovered nucleus
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1835- Felix Dujardin, discovered the fluid
content of cell
1838- Matthias Scgleiden, proposed that all
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plants are made of cells
1839- J.E Purkinjie, named the fluid content
of cell as protoplasm
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1839- Theodor Schwann, proposed that all
animals are made up of cells.
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1845- Carl Heinrich Braun, proposed the
cell as the basic unit of life
1855- Rudolf Virchow, proposed all cells
arise from pre-existing cells
Uni- is made up of only one cell.
• Paramecia are free-living organisms
found in freshwater, brackish, and marine
environments.
• They often thrive in stagnant basins and
ponds.
• The body of a Paramecium is typically
ovoid, elongate, or foot-shaped.
• Their cell structure is enclosed by a stiff,
yet elastic layer called the pellicle
• Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled
microorganisms
classified within the fungus kingdom.
• This superstar yeast species is renowned
for its ability to
convert carbohydrates into carbon dioxide
and alcohols
through fermentation.
• It has been used for thousands of years in
baking and the
production of alcoholic beverages cellular
Organism
Multicellular Organism
is made up of more than one cell
While both animal and plant cells have a
defined nucleus and membrane
bound organelles, they exhibit some key
differences:
1. Cell Walls: Animal cells lack cell walls,
Cell Shape
• cell shape variation depends on its
function
-Human RBCs are circular biconcave
for easy passage through human
capillaries.
-Nerve cells are branched to conduct
impulses from one point to another.
Human WBCs can change their
shape to engulf the

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which are present in plant cells. microorganisms that enter the
2. Chloroplasts: Animal cells do not have Body
chloroplasts, specialized organelles

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for photosynthesis (unlike plant cells).
3. Central Vacuole: Plant cells tend to have
a large, central vacuole, while

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animal cells lack this feature.
4. Support Structures: Instead of cell walls,
multicellular animals rely on other
structures like skeletons and cartilage for
support.
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Cell Size -- can be microscopic or
macroscopic
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• Mycoplasma is a genus of bacteria. Unlike

most other bacteria, mycoplasmas
lack a cell wall around their cell membrane.
Principal groups of procaryotic and
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• They are gram-negative and require

eucaryotic organism
sterols (such as cholesterol) for growth.
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Interestingly, common antibiotics like

PROKARYOTES DOMAIN
penicillin, which target cell walls, do not
-BACTERIA
affect mycoplasma. These tiny organisms
-BLUE GREEN ‘’ ALGAE’’
are among the smallest of bacterial
specie
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EUKARYOTES DOMAIN
-FUNGI
-ALGAE
-PROTOZOA
-PLANTS
-ANIMALS
Microorganism Gram-negative:
ACELLULAR Bacteroides
Viroids Prevotella
Prions Porphyromonas
Viruses Fusobacterium
Leptotric
CELLULAR
PROKARYOTES Nucleoid
• referred to as the bacterial chromosome
Archaea
• comprised of a double stranded loop,

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Bacteria
supercoiled DNA
Cyanobacteria • Genetic Material: Not present as a true
nucleus because it lacks

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EUKARYOTES nuclear membrane
Algae • Plasmids: additional DNA in the form of
Protozoa small, self-replicating

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Fungi extrachromosomal elements
Prokaryotic Cell 20XX
• means "before nucleus"
• generally single-celled (unicellular)
• smaller than eukaryotic cells
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Pitch deck title
Ribosomes
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• principal internal structure of the bacterial
Bacilli are diverse bacteria with cell
both beneficial and harmful roles • composed of a complex of protein and
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in nature and human activities RNAs

• site of protein synthesis
• The causative agent of cholera, a 20XX
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severe diarrheal disease. 23

• Transmitted through Pitch deck title
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contaminated water and food. Endospores

• Can lead to dehydration and death
if not treated promptly.
Prokaryotic Cell Shape
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• produced by bacteria such as Bacillus and
Clostridium
• ensures the survival of bacteria in adverse
environmental conditions

help cope and adapt to external conditions • responsible in making bacteria highly
• Rods: (Elongated, Cylondrical) - able to resistant to extreme
take up nutrients from the environment temperature, pH, and other environmental
Example: factors
Gram-positive: Examples:
Eubacterium Bacterial species that can form endospores
Lactobacillus include:- Bacillus cereus- Bacillus anthracis-
Actinomyces Bacillus thuringiensis- Clostridium
Bifidobacterium botulinum- Clostridium tetani
Propionibacterium 20XX
 25 Gram-Positive Cell Wall
Pitch deck title • has thicker peptidoglycan
Plasma Membrane • Teichoic Acid: negatively charged, acidic
• semi-permeable membrane polysaccharides
• responsible in keeping the cell contents in • Lipoteichoic Acid: teichoic acid attached to
• it is also responsible in allowing the glycolipid
selective passage of certain substances in
and out of the cell Gram-Negative Cell Wall
20XX • has thinner peptidoglycan,
26 hence, less sturdy

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Pitch deck title Outer Membrane:
Plasma Membrane • Porins
• Amphiphilic (amphipathic) • • Lipopolysaccharide

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• hydrophobic (water-fearing) and • Lipid A
hydrophilic (water-loving) • Core Polysaccharide
Composition: • O-specific Side Chain

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• Lipid bilayer •phospholipids
• Proteins
• Carbohydrates

Cell Wall
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Extracellular Structures
Flagella
• thin hair-like structures often
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• maintains integrity of the cells and much longer than the bacterial cell
determine its shape itself
• is a cell that has had its cell wall removed • Hollow but rigid cylindrical
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• responsible for the enlargement filament made of protein flagellin,

attached via hook to a basal body
Cell wall for locomotion
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• Peptidoglycan
• is the major component of the cell Extracellular Structures
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wall responsible for its rigidity Pili

• Composition: Types:
• N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) • Fimbrae-attachment pili
• N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) • Sex Pilus -involved in the transfer of
• Peptide chain Structure genetic
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information by conjugation
Cell wall • Glycocalyx- helps protect bacteria from
• Two Distinct Structural Types: drying up
• Gram-Positive • an attachment of certain bacteria to a
• Gram-Negative substratum
• derived from the Danish scientist, Hans
Christian Gram, who developed a rapid Extracellular Structures
staining technique that could differentiate Pili
bacteria as belonging to one or two basic • superficially resemble short
types flagella
• not associated with motility but
instead they anchor the bacterium
to an appropriate surface
Adhesins
• present on the pili of which
adhere to specific receptors on
host tissue
Plasma Membrane
• extremely delicate, thin , elastic,
living and semi-permeable
membrane
• made up of two layers of lipid
molecules in which protein
molecules are floating

Eukaryotic Cell Plasma Membrane

• larger and much more complex Functions:

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than procaryotes, containing a • maintains shape & size of the
range of specialized subcellular cell
organelles Eukaryotic • protects internal contents of the

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Microorganisms: cell
• Fungi • regulates entry and exit of
•Protists substances in and out of the cell

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• maintains homeostasis
Animal Cell
1.Nucleus
2.Golgi body
3.Vesicle
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Cell Wall
• non-living and outermost
covering of a cell (plants &
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4.Plasma membrane 5.Mitochondria bacteria)
6.Cytoskeleton • can be tough, rigid and
7.Centriole sometimes flexible
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8.Lysosome • made up of cellulose,

9.Cytoplasm hemicellulose and pectin
10. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
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11.Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Cell Wall Functions:

12. Nucleolus • provides definite shape, strength
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and rigidity
Plant Cell • prevents drying up(desiccation)
1.Nucleus of cells
2.Golgi body • helps in controlling cell
3.Vesicle expansion
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4.Lysosome • protects cell from external

5.Plasma membrane 6.Mitochondria pathogens
7.Chloroplast
8.Cell wall Nucleus
9.Vacuole • dense spherical body located
10.Smooth endoplasmic reticulum near the center of the cell
11. Rough endoplasmic reticulum • present in all the cells except red
12. Nucleolus blood cells and sieve tube cells
• well developed in plant and
animal cells
Nucleus
• undeveloped in bacteria and
blue-green algae (cyanobacteria)
• most of the cells are
uninucleated (having only one
nucleus)
• few types of cells have more
than one nucleus (skeletal
muscle cells)
Nucleus Functions:
• control all the cell activities like
metabolism, protein synthesis,
growth and cell division
• nucleolus synthesizes ribonucleic
acid (RNA) to constitute ribosomes
• store hereditary information in
gene
The Eukaryotic Nucleus, cont.
Types of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
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1. Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)
2. Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA)
3. Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
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4. Non-coding ribonucleic acid (
Characteristic of a particular species
• The number and composition of
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chromosomes
• The number of genes on each
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chromosome
Human diploid cells: 46 chromosomes (23
pairs).
It has been estimated that the human
genome consists of between 20,000 and
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30,000 genes.
Cytoplasm
• present between the plasma
membrane and the nucleus
• contains a clear liquid portion
called cytosol and various
particles (proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic
acids, lipids and inorganic ions)
Cytoplasm Functions:
• where processes as such cell
expansion, growth, and replication
happen
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• network of tubular and vesicular
structures which are
interconnected with one another
• some parts are connected to
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the nuclear membrane, while
others are connected to the cell
membrane
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Types: smooth(lacks ribosomes)
and rough(studded with
ribosomes
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Endoplasmic Reticulum Functions:
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• gives internal support to the
cytoplasm
• Rough ER synthesize secretory
proteins and membrane proteins
• SER synthesize lipids for cell
membrane
• In liver cells, SER detoxify drugs &
poisons
•In muscle cells SER store calcium ion
Golgi Body
• formed by stacks of 5-8
membranous sacs
• sacs are usually flattened and
are called the cisternae
Functions:
• modifies, sorts and packs
materials synthesized in the cell
• delivers synthesized materials to
various targets inside the cell and
outside the cell
• produces vacuoles and secretory
vesicles
• forms plasma membrane and
lysosomes
Lysosomes
• small, spherical, single
membrane sac
• found throughout the cytoplasm
• filled with hydrolytic enzymes
• occur in most animal cells and in
few type of plant cells
Lysosomes
• Functions:
• help in digesting of
largemolecules
• protect cell by destroying
foreign invaders like bacteria and
viruses
• degradation of worn out
organelles
• in dead cells performautolysis
Vacuoles
• single membrane sac filled with
liquid or sap (water, sugar and
ions)
• in animal cells, vacuoles are
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temporary, small in size and few
in number
• in plant cells, vacuoles are large
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and more in number
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Vacuoles Functions:
• store various substances
including waste products
• maintain osmotic pressure of
the cell
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• store food particles in
amoebacells
• provide turgidity and rigidity to
plant cells
Mitochondria
• small, rod shaped organelles
bounded by two membranes
inner and outer
• outer membrane is smooth and
encloses the contents of
mitochondria
• inner membrane is folded in the
form of shelf like inward
projections called cristae
Mitochondria
• inner cavity is filled with matrix
which contains many enzymes
• contain their own DNA which are
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responsible for many enzymatic
actions
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Mitochondria Functions:
• synthesize energy rich
compound ATP
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• ATP molecules provide energy
for the vital activities of living
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cells
Plastids
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• are double membrane- bound
organelles found inside plants
and some algae
Function:
• responsible for activities related
to making and storing food
Plastids: Chromoplasts
• are plastids that produce and
store pigments
Function:
• are responsible for different
colors found in leaves, fruits,
flowers and vegetables
Plastids: Leucoplasts
• are found in storage organs such
as fruits, tubers and seeds
• Function:
• are responsible in storing foods
Plastids: Chloroplasts
• double membrane-bound
organelles found mainly in plant
cells
• Two distinct regions:
• Grana
•Stroma
Plastids: Chloroplasts
• Grana are stacks of thylakoids
(membrane-bound, flattened
discs)
• Thylakoids contain chlorophyll
molecules which are responsible
for photosynthesis
• Stroma is a colourless dense
fluid
Centrosome
• is the membrane bound
organelle present near the
nucleus
• consists of two are hollow,
cylindrical structures made of
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microtubules called centrioles
Centrosome Functions:
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• form spindle fibers which help in
the movement of chromosomes
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during cell division
• help in the formation of cilia and
flagella
Cytoskeleton
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• formed by microtubules and
microfilaments
Function:
• determine the shape of the cell
• give structural strength to the cell
•responsible for cellular
movements
Other Eukaryotic Cell Structures
Cross sections of cilia
showing the arrangement
of microtubules.
• Flagella and Cilia (contain microtubules)-
Flagella: long, thin, whiplike organelles of
locomotion- Flagellated cells may possess
one or more flagella.- Cilia: Some cells
move by this mean- shorter, thinner, and
more numerous than flagella;
described as being “hair-like.”- Cilia can be
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found on some species of protozoa and
certain types of cells in our bodies (e.g.,
ciliated epithelial cells in the
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respiratory tract).
Taxonomy and Classification
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Why Classify
Biologists want to better understand
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One tool that they use to do this is
Taxonomy organisms so they organize
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them.
the grouping of objects or information
based on similarities.
classification
is the branch of biology that groups and
names
organisms based on studies of their
different
characteristics.
Biologists who study taxonomy are called
taxonomists.
Keeping track of species
The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384
322 B.C.) developed the first widely
accepted system of biological classification.
He classified all the organisms he knew
into two groups: plants and
animals.
>1 million species named, up to 15 million
more.
Taxonomy is not new; cultures have been
naming plants and
animals around them for 1000’s of years. Passer domesticus
It’s practical to have names.
Who devised a system for Even though the genus and species are
classification? thorough sometimes more is needed.
Carolus Linneaus (1707 -1778) a swedish
naturalist. Varities are splits of species. Example
Devised a two part naming system known peaches & nectarines are both from a
as peach tree.
binomial nomenclature. Subspecies are variations of species that
Binomial Nomenclature occur in different regions.

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Modern Classification
Standard two
part system for naming things. Expanding on Linnaeus’s work, today’s

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taxonomists try to identify the underlying
A genus (genera In this system, the first evolutionary relationships of
word identifies the genus of the

Organism plural) consists of a group of
similar species. The second word, which
sometimes describes a characteristic
of the organism, is called the specific
epithet.
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Linnaeus described and named > 6,000
animals and >4,000
plants using Latin
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Grouping organisms
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organisms and use the information
gathered as a basis for classification.
on the basis of their evolutionary
relationships makes it easier to understand
biological diversity.
Taxonomists group similar organisms, both

Scientific name does not replace, but living and extinct. Classification provides a
instead further defines framework in which to study the
common name relationships among living and extinct
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Scientific and common names species.

How Living Things Are Classified In any
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Taxonomists are required to use Latin classification system, items are categorized,
because the making them easier to find and discuss.
language is no longer used in conversation
and,
therefore, does not change. Although biologists group organisms, they
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subdivide the groups on the basis of

Scientific names should be italicized in print
and
underlined when handwritten.
The first letter of the genus name is
uppercase, but the
first letter of the specific epithet is
lowercase.
more specific criteria. A group of organisms
is called a taxon (plural, taxa).
Organisms are ranked in taxa that range
from having very broad characteristics to
very specific ones. The broader a taxon, the
more general its characteristics, and
the more species it contains
 Phylogenetic Classification: Models
The evolutionary history of a species is
called its
A classification system that shows the
evolutionary history of species is a
phylogenetic classification
evolutionary relationships of species.
cladistics.
Phylogeny and reveals the

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Taxonomic rankings One biological system of classification that
is based on phylogeny is Scientists who use
The smallest taxon is cladistics assume that as groups of

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Species Organisms that look alike organisms diverge and evolve they retain
and successfully interbreed belong to the from a common ancestral group, some
same species. unique inherited characteristics that

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• taxonomists call derived traits
The next largest taxon is a .
genus a group of similar species that have
similar features and are closely related.

Taxonomic rankings
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Six Kingdom System
Kingdom Archaebacteria
Unicellular, Prokaryote
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Either autotroph or
heterotroph
Compare the appearance of a lynx, Cell walls made of
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a bobcat, lion, Lynx canadensis peptidoglycan

Panthera concolor , and a mountain Reproduces by binary
fission
Taxonomic goals
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Lives in Harsh
* Place organisms into logical categories environments: salty lakes,
system must be capable of being used for
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hot springs, anaerobic

information retrieval, so anyone can environments
properly identify any organism AKA–Kingdom Moneran
* Place organisms into categories that show Kingdom Eubacteria
ancestor descendant relationships Unicellular, prokaryote
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Either autotroph or
heterotroph
Cell walls made of
peptidoglycan
Reproduces by binary
fission
Includes common bacteria:
tooth decay, yogurt
production, food poisoning
AKA–Kingdom Moneran
Kingdom Protista
Unicellular or multicellular
Eukaryotic
Cell walls made of varying
materials
Autotroph or heterotroph
About 50,000 species
Reproduces-asexually
Examples include:
Euglena

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Amoeba
Kingdom Fungi
Unicellular or multicellular

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Eukaryotic
Heterotrophic
Cells walls made of chitin.

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Reproduces - asexually
100,000 species
Including: toadstools,
mushrooms, puffballs,
rusts or smut
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Kingdom Plantae
Multicellular
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Eukaryotic
Autotrophic
Can reproduce both
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ways.
Cell walls made of
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cellulose.
All but a few are land
dwellers. 350,000
species
Including:mosses, ferns,
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conifers, flower plants

Kingdom Animalia
Multicellular
Eukaryotic
Heterotrophic
No cell walls
Reproduces sexually by meiosis.
All animals have some type of
symmetry