Ethics and Existentialism

I. Introduction
Annoyed by ineffective and unrelatable absolute rationalism, which in the view of
existentialists, was unable to mitigate or altogether hinder the horrors and atrocities of two world
wars, existentialism emerged.1 In contrast to the abstract and non-pragmatic absolute rationalism,
existentialism came about declaring that it wished to return to the way the ancients, especially
socrates, philosophized, ie, how they preached and lived a lived philosophy 2. This means that in
contrast to the positivist and abstract absolute rationalist philosophy, existentialism came labelled
itself as an ethical philosophy or as a philosophy that concerns itself with ethics.
A characteristic of the ethics of the ancient is that it is teleological 3 ( τέλος or purpose)
which means that it concerns itself with the ends of man and of his actions insofar as they are
related to that end.4 It is with this in mind that this small study is conducted.
Peter Kreeft, a doctor and professor of philosophy at Boston College, wrote a book,
which is more philosophical than it is fictional -or rather it is philosophy inserted in literature-,
entitled “Socrates meets Sartre.”5 In the book, the father of philosophy, cross examines the
leading figure of existentialism, Jean Paul Sartre, with cross examination and aphoria in order to
lead to aletheia or truth.6
Thus, this study aims to cross examine Existentialism, mainly as it is taught by Sartre in
the aspect of its being an ethical philosophy. This study uses as a measurement, the
understanding of Ethics based on the Ancients that Ethics is the Metaphysical Study of the ends
of man and his actions insofar as it relates to that end. 7

1 Francisco Labastida and Mariano Fazio, A History of Contemporary Philosophy (New York: Scepter
Publishers, 2011), p. 247.
2 Douglas Burnham and George Papandreopolous, “Existentialism,”
(https://www.iep.utm.edu/existent/#SH1a, accessed september 17, 2019).
3Julius Rocca, “Teleology in the Ancient World,” (https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/teleology-in-the-ancient-
world-philosophical-and-medical-approaches/, Accessed spetember 19, 2019).
4 Joseph M Detorre, Christian Philosophy (Manila: Sinagtala Publishers: 1980), p. 205.
5 Peter Kreeft, “Socrates meets Sartre: In Hell?,”
(http://www.ignatiusinsight.com/features2005/pkreeft_socrsart_jun05.asp, accessed September 18, 2019 )
6Most Rev. Dennis Villarojo Ph.D, “Notes in the History of Ancient Philosophy,” (San Carlos Seminary
College).
7 Joseph M Detorre, Christian Philosophy, p. 205.

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 II. Ethics
Just as some have debated whether philosophy is a way of life or a science, there are
different understandings of ethics -each understanding, connoting different things and resulting
to often mutually exclusive or at least different views.

The Nature of Ethics

1. Human acts
It seems unreasonable that any philosopher would question that man acts. Aquinas makes
the distinction that man has two kinds of acts: human acts and acts of man. Human acts are the
acts in which man is master8 and acts of man would be the acts in which man is not master but
comes from him.
Acts of man would be those that man does but is beyond his control. For instance,
sneezing, growing, dying, or pumping blood, or renewing skin cells -these in general- are acts of
man. These actions are not done consciously and willingly.
A human act is that act in which man is master. For instance, writing, drinking, watching,
or clapping -in general- are human acts. These actions are free actions thus they are done
consciously and willingly.9
On account of the fact that human acts are the only kind of acts in which man is master
and because they are the only acts that are done consciously and willingly, it follows that these
are the only actions that are eligible to be evaluated ethically.

2. The ends of man

On account of the fact that it belongs to the will of man to act towards an end 10 or a point
to which the tendency is directed,11 it can be said that man has a τέλος or end or purpose. The
will of man essentially moves towards an end, hence it is to be asserted that it is proper to man to
act towards an end.

8 St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica(Ohio: Benzinger Bros, 1947), Ia IIA. q1.art 7.
9 Joseph M Detorre, Christian Philosophy,p. 206.
10 St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica Ia IIA. q1.art 1.
11 Joseph M Detorre, Christian Philosophy, p. 205.

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 Furthermore, Aristotle would explain that to deny that a thing has an end in affirming that
a thing is indefinite would tantamount to denying its goodness. 12 Thus it is necessary to admit
that there is one last end of human life -that human life has a final cause.
With that in mind, it is to be asked whether each human person can have a final cause
different from other persons or whether all men have the same end. In answer to this, Augustine
would declare that all men desire happiness in general.13 In this sense, all men then have the
same last end in so far as it is the last end. However, Aquinas would continue to explain that
each man may differ in realizing his last end.14
From these we may conclude that man has a τέλος or end, that man has one end, and that
all men have the same end.

3. Metaphysical study
Metaphysics is the study of Being as being. 15 Ethics studies human actions in the light of
their end. It is in this sense then that ethics is a metaphysical study.
The Material object of ethics is the human act while its formal object is the end of human
acts. Thus it can be said that ethics, by its formal object, is a metaphysical study.

From these we can come to the classic definition of ethics as the Metaphysical study of
the end of man and of human acts in so far as they relate to that end.16

Pivotal Ethical Themes

1. Natural Law
From asserting that there is eternal law,17 on account of the view that the world is
governed by a transcendent being, it can be said that there is a natural law that binds reality.
In another angle, it is evident that man has three main tendencies: “The first, which is in
common with all substances, comprises essentially the inclination to preserve and to develop
one’s own existence. The second, which is in common with all living things, comprises the
12 Aristotle, Metaphysics (http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.2.ii.html, accessed september 19,
2019), II, 2.
13 St. Augustine, De Trinitate( Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1963), xiii 3
14St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica Ia IIA. q1.art 7
15 Tomas Alvira et al, Metaphysics (Manila: Sinagtala publishers,1982 ), p. 10 .
16 Joseph M Detorre, Christian Philosophy, p. 205.
17 St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Ia IIae. q94.

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inclination to reproduce, in order to perpetuate the species. The third, which is proper to the
human person as a rational being, comprises the inclination to know the truth about God and to
live in society. “18 From these tendencies emanate natural law without alluding to a transcendent
lawgiver.
Natural law is the rational creatures participation in the eternal law.19
On account of the fact that there are good tendencies in each man and that these good
tendencies can be a basis of natural law, we may conclude that as long as he has the right
disposition, any man can come to the realization that there is natural law.
As mentioned, the tendencies or dynamisms in man are universal. Since natural law
comes from these, it is therefore universal.
As we have seen that natural law is universal, ie, it is true for all ages and for all cultures,
natural law is therefore immutable. On this note, the Angelic Doctor would add that man’s
understanding of natural law may progress.
Natural law, following the three tendencies of man, have coincided very well with the ten
commandments. While in many cultures and religions natural law has various expressions, it can
be said that natural law is most accurately and perfectly in the ten commandments.20

2. Human Freedom
Quite contrary to the mirage that freedom is the capacity to do what you want 21, The
Angelic Doctor defines freedom as “the property of the human will whereby man determines
himself in his acts towards an end.”22
In view of his end, man then may or may not order himself towards his end on account of
freedom as opposed to other created things that are automatically ordered to their end.
On this point, it must be said that the end of man becomes the criterion of his actions. If
for instance, a man acts in a way in keeping with his end, he would be making a good action
whereas if he were to go contrary to that end, it would become a bad action.
Freedom, then, is guided by man’s ends.
18 International Theological Commision, In Search of a universal Ethic(Vatican City: L’osservatore
Romano: 2009), no.46.
19St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Ia IIae. q94.
20 International Theological Commision, In Search of a universal Ethic(Vatican City: L’osservatore
Romano: 2009).
21 That would be omnipotence. See: Joseph Detorre, Christian Philosophy.
22 St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Ia. q83.

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 III. The Nature of existentialism
1. Existentialism in general
With the horrors - the first world war (1914-1918), the second world war (1939-1945),
the great depression (1929-1930), the cold war (1950-1989), etc.- of the twentieth century as
backdrop, Existentialism emerges as an expression of disenchantment towards nineteenth
century positivism and ideal optimism23 -which for all their brilliance, were not able to stop or
mitigate the horrors of the twentieth century.
With these disenchantments in mind, existentialism assimilated the views of Keirkegaard
and Neitsche. It also allowed itself to be influenced by phenomenology and 20th century
Historicism and their reflections concerning time.24
Due to diversity, independence, and lack of organization, it is a daunting task to capsulize
what exactly is existentialism.25 Unlike philosophers like the scholastics, the existentialists did
not organize themselves or create a summary of basic credal beliefs.
Perhaps from its name, Existentialism, one may say that it is the philosophy(which is
something debatable)26 that teaches that existence precedes essence.27 While this might shed
some light on what existentialism is, it is incomplete as existentialism has more core beliefs apart
from that proposition.
Nevertheless in intuitive, non-speculative, and poetic language, Existentialism is defined
as the Philosophy that makes life possible. 28 This is because, emerging from the horrors of two
world wars, and from the great depression, and fed up with absolute rationalism, many people
were faced with the problem of meaning.29 In this scenario existentialism enters and presents
what seems to be the problem with that.
It is to be noted that existentialism has two major factions: the more famous atheistic
existentialism and the less famous theistic existentialism.
23 Francisco Labastida and Mariano Fazio, A History of Contemporary Philosophy (New York: Scepter
Publishers, 2011), p. 247.
24 ibid.
25 Christopher Panza and Gregory Gale, Existentialism for Dummies (Hoboken NJ: Wiley Publishing,
2008), p.9.
26 Christopher Panza and Gregory Gale, Existentialism for Dummies, P. 12.
27 Jean Paul Sartre, Existentialism is Humanism
(https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm, accessed September 17, 2019).
28Christopher Panza and Gregory Gale, Existentialism for Dummies, p.9.
29Ibid, p. 10

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 In the time it existed, Existentialism increasingly grew popular in many places. This is
mainly due to how existentialist philosophers were gifted with literary talents.30

2. Key details of existentialism

As it has been said that existentialism did not work as a unified body of philosophers with
basic credal systems, this compilation of some details of existentialism do not presume to be
representative of the whole system of thought in question. Nevertheless, these details are aimed
at the goal this paper would like to achieve.

Lived philosophy
To existentialists, the philosophy they preach is a lived one. To them it is not enough to
have classroom philosophy of methods, concepts, distinctions -although important- but to also
bring philosophy into daily life. To support this, existentialists would claim cite how Socrates,
Stoics, and Epicureans lived their philosophy and would set them as examples.31
As mentioned before, existentialism emerges from a disenchantment towards german
absolute rationalism32. They began to view that kind of philosophy as irrelevant to life. It is as a
reaction to this that existentialism would emphasize how it is a lived philosophy.

Anxiety and Authenticity

Anxiety is the feeling of one who realizes that life is absurd.33 Or to put it in a more
scholarly sense, the feeling one gets when one recognizes “being on its own.” Being on its own,
for atheistic existentialism, means realizing that there is no transcendent being that governs the
universe hence man is left with this feeling when the weight of responsibilities that once were on
that transcendent being are placed on him.34
After realizing the absence of this transcendent being thus becoming ‘on its own,’ man
must become authentic. This means that he has to shake off the mores and customs determined
by a transcendent being he once adhered to and to determine what is good and evil for himself. It
30 Francisco Labastida and Mariano Fazio, A History of Contemporary Philosophy, p. 247.
31Douglas Burnham and George Papandreopolous, “Existentialism,”
(https://www.iep.utm.edu/existent/#SH1a).
32Francisco Labastida and Mariano Fazio, A History of Contemporary Philosophy, p. 247.
33Christopher Panza and Gregory Gale, Existentialism for Dummies, p.12.
34 Douglas Burnham and George Papandreopolous, “Existentialism,”
(https://www.iep.utm.edu/existent/#SH1a).

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is in this sense that he is authentic: that he be honest with himself and base it on himself to
determine right and wrong.35

Freedom
Having no predetermined norms from a transcendent being, one is left to oneself to
determine things. It is in this sense that man is free. It is to be noted that freedom here means
absolute freedom. Although this freedom is absolute, it always happens in a particular context.36

Situatedness
While one is absololutely free, one has facticities or “a factor in authentic existence
concerning my past; I am thrown into the world without consultation and abandoned to chance
factors, which limits my human possibilities.” 37 These facticities are the body one has,
circumstances in history, and one’s past. These facticities are limits to one’s freedom.

Existence
This theme is seen in the popular catchphrase of existentialism popularised by Sarte in his
Lecture “existentialism is humanism’’: “existence precedes essence.”38 By saying this, Sartre
would like to illustrate that man does not have a predetermined essence or nature but that he
exists first and determines himself afterwards.

AbsurdityExistentialism sees no meaning in life.39 While there might have been attempts
to derive
meaning in life, existentialism reckons that all this have failed. It is in this sense that life
is absurd, ie, that it has no meaning in itself. Thus, man must then define his existence.

3. Ethical existentialism
35ibid.
36 ibid.
37Martin Heidegger, Essential selections, (https://www.utm.edu/staff/jfieser/class/316/pri/13-316-
heidegger.htm, accessed sept 18, 2019)
38 Jean Paul Sartre, Existentialism is Humanism
(https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm, accessed September 17, 2019).
39 Christopher Panza and Gregory Gale, Existentialism for Dummies, p.12.

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 The idea of existentialist ethics is still being debated. This is because, unlike other
philosophies, existentialism was not very structured and that it focused more on describing the
world around them.40 Nevertheless, it seems to be helpful to point out somehow ethical themes in
existentialism.

Lived philosophy
Ethics, to put it in a basic while seemingly oversimplified sense, is concerned with how it
is for man to live well. It is in this sense that the oriental philosophies are considered to be more
ethical and practical as opposed to the more speculative western philosophy. Existentialism
claims to be concerned with ethics. Emerging from historical horrors and disenchanted by what it
calls irrelevant philosophical schools,41 it proclaims itself as a lived or ethical philosophy,
concerned with human life, with making human existence meaningful. 42 While it seems difficult
to establish the ethicality of existentialism, it seems sufficient to recognize it as such on the basis
that it claims to be so.

Freedom and choice

In ‘existentialism is humanism,’ Sartre, mentions a student who asked for help to decide
on something: whether to remain and stay with his mother or to fight the war and avenge his
brother.43 To answer this, Sartre, just tells the student to choose without give him a dogmatic
lecture on values or family. From this, it can be said that for existentialism, freedom is absolute 44
and lies in the capacity to choose.45
Moreover, in “being and nothingness” and in “existentialism is humanism,” It is clear, at
least in atheistic existentialism that the freedom and the existence of God are mutually exclusive.

Determine one’s own essence

40 Jonathan Crow, “Is an Existentialist Ethics Possible?”

(https://philosophynow.org/issues/47/Is_an_Existentialist_Ethics_Possible September 18, 2019).
41 Francisco Labastida and Mariano Fazio, A History of Contemporary Philosophy, p. 247.
42Christopher Panza and Gregory Gale, Existentialism for Dummies, p.9.
43Jean Paul Sartre, Existentialism is Humanism
(https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm).
44 Francisco Labastida and Mariano Fazio, A History of Contemporary Philosophy, p. 256.
45 Christopher Panza and Gregory Gale, Existentialism for Dummies, p.169.

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 In “existentialism is humanism,” Sartre explains that “existence precedes essence.” this
means that there is no inherent essence in man and that he simply exists absurdly 46 and that it is
up to him to make sense of his existence. In this sense, if man is nothing, he can be anything. 47
There is then nothing to limit how man defines himself. In this thought, there is no absolute.48

Finally, while existentialism has no one form, seeing that it has been defined as the
“philosophy that makes life possible,”49 or as “nothing else but an attempt to draw the full
conclusions from a consistently atheistic position,”50 it seems more enlightening to follow it by
this definition: “ Existentialism is the philosophy that tries to find a way of thinking about the
notion of existence and about the human condition. In this sense, existence is the movement in
which man is in the world and involves himself in the physical and social situation.”51

IV. Ethics and Existentialism

Having seen what ethics is and what existentialism is, it seems most oppurtune to
evaluate the “ethicality” of existentialism, ie, whether it fits the criterion: “Ethics as the
Metaphysical study of the end of man and of human acts in so far as they relate to that end.”,
whether truly it is ethical.

1. Existentialism as a philosophy
There have been views concerning whether or not existentialism is a philosophy.

46 Ibid, p.12.
47 Francisco Labastida and Mariano Fazio, A History of Contemporary Philosophy, p. 256.
48Ioannes di Napoli, Gnoseolgia
(https://www.academia.edu/29280151/GNOSEOLOGIA_IOANNES_Di_NAPOLI?auto=download accessed
September 18, 2019) P. 39.
49Christopher Panza and Gregory Gale, Existentialism for Dummies, P. 12.
50Jean Paul Sartre, Existentialism is Humanism
(https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm).
51 Mons. Joseph Tan PC, STL. , “Notes in Existentialism, Phenomenology, and Post-Modernism,” (San
Carlos Seminary College).

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Philosophy in the strict sense is the “rational science of all things by their ultimate causes” 52
whereas existentialism is, as stated in the previous page, “the philosophy that tries to find a way
of thinking about the notion of existence and about the human condition.” We shall now see
whether it meets the criteria of being a philosophy.
Existentialism, in all its diversity within itself and lack of unity, seems to be rather
intuitive rather than rational or speculative. It would even seek the truth on the basis of the “here
and now of man” and with a denial of anything absolute. 53 In this sense, Ioannes de Napoli calls
it the “forma suprema de irracionalismo.”54 In this sense, it seems that existentialism is not
rational.
A particular means of thinking or inquiry is called a science on account of its proceeding
systematically.55 Furthermore, the Angelic Doctor presents two kinds of sciences: “We must bear
in mind that there are two kinds of sciences. There are some which proceed from a principle
known by the natural light of intelligence, such as arithmetic and geometry and the like. There
are some which proceed from principles known by the light of a higher science.”56 Following
either two criterias of what it means to be scientific, existentialism falls short. It is neither
systematic nor does it have any fixed principles. It seems, therefore, that it is not a science.
Philosophy, as has been said, studies all things and all reality. Surprisingly, existentialism
fits this category as it has been seen as ontological.57
Philosophy studies all reality in the aspect of its ultimate causes. It seems that
existentialism fails to meet this criterion also. Having said that it emerges from an intuitive
perspective, it is difficult to see that existentialism studies all things in the aspect of their reality.

52 Ioannes di Napoli, Gnoseolgia

(https://www.academia.edu/29280151/GNOSEOLOGIA_IOANNES_Di_NAPOLI?auto=download accessed
September 18, 2019) P. 39.
53 Ibid.
54 Ioannes di Napoli, Gnoseolgia
(https://www.academia.edu/29280151/GNOSEOLOGIA_IOANNES_Di_NAPOLI?auto=download accessed
September 18, 2019) P. 43.
55 Meriam Webster’s Dictionary, “Science,” (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science,
accessed September 19, 2019).
56 St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Ia. q1, a1.
57 Jonathan Crow, “Is an Existentialist Ethics Possible?”
(https://philosophynow.org/issues/47/Is_an_Existentialist_Ethics_Possible).

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 Writing a fictional yet philosophical work entitled “Socrates meets Sartre,” Peter Kreeft,
an american philosopher, mentions in one chapter in which the two meet in hell that Socrates
would not even recognize Sartre as a philosopher.58
With these in mind, it seems that Existentialism is not a philosophy.

2. Metaphysics
“Metaphysics is the Study of being as being.” Ethics, as has been said in the second part
of this paper is necessarily metaphysical as it studies the ends of man for it is from metaphysics
that the ends of man are recognized.
However, Existentialism posits or even dogmatically declares that life is absurd 59 and that
human existence has no meaning. Hence it outrightly rejects the idea that man has a τέλος. While
it cites the examples of Socrates, the Stoics, and the Epicureans for its ethicality, it seems that
existentialism differs from them in this regard. Socrates, the Stoics, and the Epicureans all view
that man has a τέλος-the very thing existentialism denies.
As has been shown, existentialism is rather intuitive and seems to be unscientific. In this
sense, while some claim it to be ontological, it does not seem to fit the criterion of being
metaphysical: “to study being as being.”
In the Humani Generis of Pius XII he mentions existentialism that is either simply
atheistic or denies denies the validity of the reason in the field of metaphysics.60
Existentialism then cannot be metaphysical

3. God
While this paper does not attempt to refute any arguments shown by atheistic
existentialism against the existence of God, it seems interesting to note that there seems to be a
vehement fixation among atheistic existentialists on the idea of God. While one would imagine
that existentialism, being as has been said in the previous part, “the philosophy that tries to find
a way of thinking about the notion of existence and about the human condition,”61 or as “the

58Peter Kreeft, “Socrates meets Sartre: In Hell?,”

(http://www.ignatiusinsight.com/features2005/pkreeft_socrsart_jun05.asp )
59 Christopher Panza and Gregory Gale, Existentialism for Dummies, P. 9.
60 Pius XII, Humani generis (Vatican City: L’osservatore Romano, 1950), 32.
61Mons. Joseph Tan PC, STL. , “Notes in Existentialism, Phenomenology, and Post-Modernism,” (San
Carlos Seminary College).

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philosophy that makes life possible,“ it seems surprising that existentialist such as sartre seem to
be more focused and more evangelical in proclaiming and arguing the non-existence of God than
living life. There seems to be a fixation or an obsessive interest.
As previously mentioned regarding Humani Generis, this is only in the atheistic
existentialism.
Furthermore, atheistic existentialism seems to be held by a few now. This owes that to
the fact that atheistic existentialism is impossible to live.62

4. Objective Moral Norms

As previously mentioned, existentialism rejects any predetermined essence in man and
would suggest that man must define his own essence. 63 Its atheistic version of it would be that
there is no transcendent lawgiver.64
Either way, this creates a problem.
Without a transcendent lawgiver, there cannot be objective moral laws and in the absence
of this, only social constructs.
Furthermore, while it seems that some philosophers may have a way of deriving objective
moral norms without calling upon a transcendent lawgiver, in the absence or in the rejection of
any objective τέλος of man, there seems to be no room for any objective moral norms.
This is evident in the anecdote of Sartre in “existentialism is humanism” in which a
young man consults him on a dilemma. In the said anecdote, mentioned in the previous part of
this paper, Sartre does not present any hierarchy of values or any objective moral values. In this
sense it is subjectivist a subjectivist framework.
With this, it denies natural law -although there seems to be a recognition of this in the
idea of facticities-, seeing it as a mere limitation to freedom -in the sense that existentialism sees
it.

5. Human freedom

62 Francisco Labastida and Mariano Fazio, A History of Contemporary Philosophy, p. 258..

63 Jean Paul Sartre, Existentialism is Humanism
(https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm).
64 ibid.

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 As has been said in the previous part, existentialism views the man to be absolutely free.
In the sense that it seems to equate freedom with omnipotence. As mentioned before, for
existentialism, man is nothing and being nothing he can become anything. 65 However, the
problem lies here. It is evident that man is not omnipotent.66
According to Peter Kreeft, the mistake lies first in equating freedom with
independence.67 This is particularly seen in how Sartre explains that the existence of God and
human freedom are mutually exclusive.68 Second, the mistake lies in how it seems that man only
exercises freedom in rejecting whatever is predetermined. As Peter Kreeft puts it: “Sartre makes
the adolescent mistake of equating freedom with rebellion. He says freedom is only ‘the freedom
to say no.’ But this is not the only freedom. There's also the freedom to say yes. Sartre thinks we
compromise our freedom when we say yes, when we choose to affirm the values we've been
taught by our parents, our society, or our Church. “

Conclusion
Having examined the nature of ethics and some ethical themes based on how
philosophers such as St. Thomas Aquinas or Joseph Detorre as criteria prior to having examined
the nature of existentialism, its basic themes, and its ethical implications, we have tried to check
whether existentialism complies with the aforementioned criteria.
In conclusion, we would like to say that after having examined these ideas,
existentialism, to say the least, is not a metaphysical study of the “Ethics as the Metaphysical
study of the end of man and of human acts in so far as they relate to that end.”69

65 Francisco Labastida and Mariano Fazio, A History of Contemporary Philosophy, p. 256.

66 Joseph M Detorre, Christian Philosophy, p.182.
67Peter Kreeft, Pillars of Unbelief: Sartre, the apostle of Absurdity, (https://www.peterkreeft.com/topics-
more/pillars_sartre.htm, Accessed September 18, 2019)
68 Jean Paul Sartre, Existentialism is Humanism
(https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm).
69 Joseph M Detorre, Christian Philosophy, p. 205..

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