Basic geometric concepts

1. The Points, straight line, planes and their mutual position

• The point, the „straight line, the plane and the expression lying on are basic
concepts, these are not defined
• A straight line is divided into two rays by a point lying on the straight line.
• Two point of a straight line define a line segment
• A plane is divided into two half-planes by a straight line lying on plane

Mutual position of these concepts:

 Point-straight line
- A point P lies on straight line e. Notation: P e
- A point P does not lie on straight line e. Notation P  e
 Straight line-straight line
Two distinct straight lines situated in same plane (they are coplanar) are:
- Intersecting, if they have a common point
- Parallel, if they have no points in common
 Two distinct straight lines are:
Skew, if they are not intersecting and not parallel, they are not coplanar
 Point-plane
- A point P lies on plane S. Notation: P  S
- A point P does not lie on plane S. Notation P S
 Straight line-plane
- A straight line lies on a plane, if every point of the straight line is also a point of the
plane
- - A straight line intersects a plane, if they have exactly one point in common
- - A straight line is parallel with a plane, if they have no point in common

2. Geometric figures, shapes

a) Angles

Def: Two rays starting at a given point divide the plane into two parts. These plane parts are
called angular domain or shortly angles.
The angel parts are the vertex, the angular domain and the arms of the angle. The angles are
measured in degrees.
Types of angles:
- If an angle is equal to 0°, it is called a zero angle
- If an angle is large than 0° and smaller than 90°, it is called an acute angle
- If an angle is equal to 90°, it is called a right angle
Two lines that form a right angle arc said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular
- If an angle is larger than 90° and smaller than 180°, it is called obtuse angle
- If an angle is equal to 180° is called a straight angle
- If an angle is larger than 180° but less then 360°, it is called a concave (reflex) angle
- If an angle it equal to 360°, it is called a full angle, complete angle, or perigon
- If an angle is larger than 0° and smaller than 180°, it is called a convex angle
Special angle pairs:
- If two convex angles have a common vertex, and their arms are mutually each other's
extensions, then these are called vertical angles. The vertical angles are of equal size
- If two convex angles have one common arm and the other two arms make up a
straight line, then these are called adjacent angles. The sum of adjacent angles is 180°
- If the sum or two angles is 180°, then these are called supplementary angles
- If the sum of two angles is 90°, then these are called complementary angles
Distance:
- between two points
- from a point to a straight line
- of two parallel straight lines
- of two intersecting straight lines
- from a point to a plane
- of two parallel planes
- of two intersecting planes.

Triangles

The triangle is a geometric figure, which has three angles and three sides.
- If an angle's arms coincide with the triangle sides, then this angle is called interior angle
- If an angle forms adjacent angles with an interior angle of a triangles, then this angle is
called an exterior angle
- The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°
- Any exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two interior angles not adjacent
to it.
- The sum of the exterior angles of the triangle is 360°.

type of triangles:
• by internal angles:
- acute triangle
- right-angled (right) triangle:
o The sides of a right triangle are: two legs and one hypotenuse (the longest
side)
o The legs are the right-angle's arms
o The hypotenuse can be found opposite the right angle
- obtuse triangle
• by length of sides:
- scalene
- isosceles:
o An isosceles triangle has two sides of equal length, and the third side is
called base
o An isosceles triangle also has two angles or the same measure, namely the
angles on base (the base angles)
- Equilateral/regular:
o An equilateral triangle has all sides the same length
o An equilateral triangle's all angles measuring 60°

Triangle inequality: In any triangle, the sum of any two sides is greater than the third side
A triangle is unambiguously defined, if the following are given:
- Its three sides
- Two of this sides and the included angle
- One if its sides and the two angles on it
- Two of its sides and the angle opposite the longer side
In a triangle there are equal angles opposite equal sides.
If two angles of a triangle are equal, then the sides opposite them are also equal.
In any triangle there is a larger interior angle opposite the longer side of two sides than
opposite the shorter one.
Pythagoras'/pythagorean theorem: In a right-angled triangle the square of the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the squares or the other 2 sides.

Points, lines and circles associated with a triangle

An angle bisector of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex which cuts the
corresponding angle in half. The three angle bisectors intersect in a single point, the
incenter, usually denoted by I, the centre of the triangle's incircle. The incircle is the circle
which lies inside the triangle and touches all three sides.
A median of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite
side, the three median intersect in a single point, the triangle’s centroid, usually denoted by
G. The centroid is also its centre of mass. A median divides the triangle in two equal areas.
The G point is third section point of the median. The distance of the G and the vertex of the
median is 2/3 median. The distance of the G and foot of the median is 1/3 median.
A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a straight line passing through the midpoint
of the side and being perpendicular to it. The three perpendicular bisectors meet in a single
point, the triangle's circumcentre, usually denoted by O, this point is the centre of the
circumcircle, the circle passing through all three vertices.
An altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and it is perpendicular to (i.e.
forming a right angle with) the opposite side. This opposite side is called the base of the
altitude, and the point where the altitude intersects the base (or its extension) is called the
foot of the altitude.
Midline of a triangle is the segment which connect two midpoints of the sides of the
triangle. The midlines are parallel with the sides of the triangle. The length of the midlines
are equals with the half of the parallel sides.

The quadrilaterals

A quadrilateral is a polygon with four side and four vertices. The sum of the interior angles
of the quadrilateral is 360°
The classification of quadrilaterals:
- Convex quadrilateral: all of its angles are convex
- Concave quadrilateral: it has a concave angle
The convex quadrilaterals:
Irregular quadrilateral: no sides are parallel
Kite: two pairs of adjacent sides are of equal length
Trapezium (UK) or trapezoid (US): at least one pair of opposite sides are parallel. The
parallels sides called base. Isosceles trapezium is a special trapezium. Isosceles trapezium:
one pair of opposite sides are parallel, the length of the other sides pair is equal and the
base angles are equal in measure.
Right trapezoid has two adjacent right angles.
Parallelogram: a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides.
The special parallelograms are:
- Rhombus or rhomb: all four sides are of equal length
- Rectangle: all four angles are right angles
- Square (regular quadrilateral): all four sides are of equal length (equilateral), and all four
angles are right angles.
 Main features of Quadrilaterals:

Quadrilaterals sides angles diagonals

Parallelogram - two pairs sides - The opposite angles are equal - The diagonals bisect
are parallel in measure each other
- two pairs sides - the angles based on a side are
are equal length supplementary angles
Rhombus -two pairs sides - The opposite angles are equal -The diagonals bisect
are parallel in measure each other
- all four sides are -The diagonals are
of equal length perpendicular to each
other
-The diagonals bisect the
angels

Rectangle - two pairs sides - All angles are 90° - The diagonals bisect
are parallel each other
- two pairs sides - The diagonals are equal
are equal length length
Square - two pairs sides - All angles are 90° - The diagonals bisect
are parallel each other
- all four sides are - The diagonals are
of equal length perpendicular to each
other
-The diagonals bisect the
angels
-The diagonals are equal
length

Trapezium -at least one pair - the angles on the non-

sides are parallel parallels sides are
supplementary angles
Isosceles - one pair sides - the base angles are equal in - The diagonals are equal
trapezium are parallel measure length
- one pair sides - the angles on the non-
are equal length parallels sides are
supplementary angles

Regular n-sides polygons

A n-sides polygon is regular if the angles and the sides of them are equal.
𝑛(𝑛−3)
The number of the diagonals of a regular n-sides polygon:
2
Diagonal: the segment which connect to non-adjacent vertices.
180(𝑛−2)
The measure of the interior angles of a regular n-sides polygon: 𝑛
The sum of the interior angles of a regular n-sides polygon:180(𝑛 − 2)

The circle

The circle is the set of all points in a plane that are at a given distance from a given point
Parts of the circle:
- Centre: the point which is equidistant from the points the circle.
- Radius: a line segment joining the centre of the circle to any point on the circle itself
- Chord: a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle.
- Diameter: It is a special case of a chord, namely the longest chord, and it is twice the radius
- Secant: an extended chord, a coplanar straight line cutting the circle at two points
- Arc: any connected part of the circle
- Tangent: a coplanar straight line that touches the circle at a single point
- Sector: a region bounded by two radii and an arc
- Segment: a region, not containing the centre, bounded by a chord and an arc lying between
the chord’s endpoints
- Annulus: the ring-shaped object, the region bounded by two concentric circles

Thales’ theorem: If we connect the two end-points of any of the diameters of a circle with
any other point of the circle, then we get a right-angled triangle the hypotenuse of which is
the diameter of the circle.

Axially symmetric figures:

Scalene triangle: 0 symmetrical axis
Isosceles triangle: 1 symmetrical axis
Regular/equilateral triangle: 3 symmetrical axes
Kite:1 symmetrical axis
Parallelogram: 0 symmetrical axis
Rectangle: 2 symmetrical axes
Rhomb: 2 symmetrical axes
Square: 4 symmetrical axes
Trapezium: 0 symmetrical axis
Isosceles trapezium: 1 symmetrical axis
n-side regular polygon: n symmetrical axes
circle: infinite symmetrical axes

Area and perimeters:

Figure Area Perimeters
Scalene triangle:
𝑎𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 𝑎𝑏 ∙ 𝑏 𝑎𝑐 ∙ 𝑐 𝑃=𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝐴= = =
2 2 2

Isosceles triangle:
𝑎𝑏 ∙ 𝑏 𝑃 = 2𝑎 + 𝑏
𝐴=
2
Regular/equilateral triangle:
𝑎𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 𝑎2 √3 𝑃 = 3𝑎
𝐴= =
2 4

Kite

𝑒∙𝑓 𝑃 = 2𝑎 + 2𝑏
𝐴=
2

Trapezium
(𝑎 + 𝑐)ℎ 𝑃 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑
𝐴=
2

Parallelogram
𝐴 =𝑎∙ℎ 𝑃 = 2𝑎 + 2𝑏

Rectangle
𝐴 =𝑎∙𝑏 𝑃 = 2𝑎 + 2𝑏

Rhomb
𝑒∙𝑓 𝑃 = 4𝑎
𝐴=
2

Square

𝐴 = 𝑎2 𝑃 = 4𝑎

n-side polygon 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎𝑝 𝑃 = 𝑛𝑎
𝐴=𝑛∙
2
Circle 𝐴 = 𝑅2 𝜋 𝑃 = 2𝑅𝜋

Sector
𝑅2 𝜋 ∙ 𝛼 𝑃 = 2𝑟 + 𝑖
𝐴= 2𝑅𝜋 ∙ 𝛼
360 𝑖=
360