THERMAL PROPERTIES

Diffusion of particles
The flux of diffusing atoms across a plane is proportional to their
concentration gradient,
Fick’s 1st Law (in 3D → )

The proportionality is given by the diffusion coefficient,

⁄
Notice also that more than one type of
The units are, gradient may drive a single type of flux. For
[ ]=atoms·m-2·s-1 instance diffusion of ions in ceramics subject
to an electric field can cause charge flow,
[ dn/dx ]=(atoms·m-3)·m-1

Flux of electrons in a metal,

1 _

1 1
Charge flux

1
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Diffusion of particles
As the particle flux down concentration gradients will itself
change the concentration gradient.

So in time ∆ the number of particles in the region increases by,

∆
And the concentration (particles·m-3) increases ∆ in the same ∆ ,
∆ ∆ ∆
∆
So the increase rate of concentration is,
∆ ∆

Written properly, Fick’s 2nd law

We can relate D to the mean free path ℓ using the kinetic theory as follows,
ℓ
º

2
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Diffusion of particles
ℓ
º

1 1
ℓ ℓ
2 3
1
ℓ
3
Solution for the diffusion equation (If you are bored, see formal solution in the Appendix)

Simplest case solution: one-dimensional flux from a source which is laid down
and not replenished during the process, ,0

The solution in this case is, , exp

4 4

1
Note that, , 2

The diffusing material has traveled 2Dt after time t.

-At
-At
2
2 2
the concentration is 60% of n(0,t)
the concentration is 13% of n(0,t)
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Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
HEAT TRANSFER

Temperature
Gradient [K/m]
- CONDUCTION of heat.

Heat Transfer rate [W] Thermal Conductivity [W/m·K]

Area [m2]

- CONVECTION. Newton law of cooling

Convection Heat Transfer

Coefficient [W/m2·K]

- RADIATION heat transfer.

Net radiant exchange
between two surfaces
Emissivity (0 to 1) Stefan-Boltzmann constant
5.669×10−8 W/m2K4 ∝
4

Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials

 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Convection
“The heat loss of a liquid or solid surface to the surrounding gas is proportional to the
area of contact and to the temperature difference”

Example: Show that Newton’s law of cooling leads to an experimental decay of temperature.
⁄
Solution

Forced Convection
The Reynolds number
Shear stress that transmits the energy
through the different layers of the fluid,

is the dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)

The transition from laminar to turbulent
flow occurs when
free-stream velocity (m/s)
5 10 distance from the leading edge (boundary layer) (m)
⁄ kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

Reynolds number ≡ And in a tube 2300

5
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Forced Convection
The Prandtl number
How safe is to ignore convection when calculating heat transfer?
Convection dominates if momentum diffusion > heat diffusion

kinematic viscosity ⁄

Thermal diffusivity ⁄

Convection dominates for ≫ 1 and thermal conduction dominates for ≪1

for most gases 100 40.000 engine oil 0.015 for mercury

Nusselt number
≡ Contains what we want to calculate: Convection Heat Transfer
Coefficient for a given ,
For a given geometry an expression describing the convection may be calculated. For instance for a
uniformly heated plate, / ⁄
0.332
From these expression one can usually calculate the total heat transfer coefficient or its average value

And then the heat transfer

per unit of length would be 6
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Free Convection
The Grashof number

For ideal gases

gravity (m/s2)
Volume coefficient of expansion (ºC-1)
⁄ kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

For air in free convection on a vertical flat plate, turbulence for 4 10

Usual ranges for turbulence 10 10

Similar expressions can be obtained for free convection. For Instance for air
free convection on a vertical flat pate,
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
0.508 0.952

Then the average heat-transfer coefficient can be obtained with

1 4
Which leads to
3
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Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Thermal Conduction Equation

Energy coming from the left + Energy generated =

= Energy accumulated + Energy leaving out the right face

1 3D 1
Cartesians coordinates, (See Appendix for 3D equation)

1 1 1
Cylindrical coordinates,

1 1 1 1
8
Spherical coordinates,

Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials

 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Thermal Diffusion Equation
The steady state

In a steady state, the properties are not time dependent, 0

So the thermal diffusion equation reduces to the Laplace’s equation, 0

Example: The plane x=0 is at T1 and the plane x=L is T2. Find the heat flux
Example: Solve the thermal diffusion equation for a sphere in the steady state
Example: Find the rate at which an spherical animal looses heat.

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Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
The Plane Wall

If the thermal conductivity is considered constant,

∆

If more than one material is present, as the energy transported has

to remain constant, the heat flow is

∆ ∆ ∆

Solving these three equations simultaneously, the heat flow is written

∆ ∆ ∆

Thermal potential Difference

Heat Flow
Thermal Resistance

∆
Rth is the thermal resistance in units of K/W
∑
10
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
The Plane Wall
For parallel resistances, the temperature across the set is constant

∆ ∆ ∆
As the total heat flow must be constant,
1 1 1
∆ ∆ ∆

1 1

Note when associating series and parallel resistances of very different k, the treatment must be
different.
, : 73 W/ m K
1000 K

: 2.5 W/ m K
300 K

: 1.8 W/ m K
: 2 W/ m K : 400 W/ m K

In classifying the performance of insulation, it is a common practice in the building industry to use a
term called the R value ∆
In ºC·m2/W 11
⁄

Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials

 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Cylinders
Long cylinder so the heat flows radially, through the area:
2

So: 2

Integrating with the boundary conditions , at ,

2
ln ⁄
ln ⁄
The thermal resistance in this case is:
2

This value can be used in a multilayer pipe like series resistances,

2
ln ⁄ ⁄ ln ⁄ ⁄ ln ⁄ ⁄

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Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Sphere
The area for the heat flow is now 4 , so 4
4
Integrating,
1⁄ 1⁄

Convection boundary conditions

As the convection heat transfer is defined as,

The convection heat resistance can be defined then, / 1⁄

1/
The overall heat transfer coefficient

∆
1⁄ ∆ ⁄ 1⁄

1
1⁄ ∆ ⁄ 1⁄
“Overall heat transfer coefficient” 13
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES

1⁄ ln ⁄ ⁄2 1⁄
1 1
or,
1 ln ⁄ 1 1 ln ⁄ 1
2 2

The general notion, for either the plane wall or cylindrical coordinate system, is that
1⁄∑ 1⁄ ,

Example: “Two-by-four” wood studs have actual

dimensions of (w=4.13cm)×(h=9.21cm) and a
thermal conductivity of 0.1W/mºC. A typical wall
for a house is constructed as shown in the figure.
Calculate the overall heat-transfer coefficient and
R value of the wall. 14
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Critical thickness for insulation

From the thermal network, the heat transfer is,

2
ln ⁄ 1

The heat transfer maximizes at a given r0,

1 1
2
0
ln ⁄ 1

If the outer radius is less than the value given by this equation, then the heat transfer will be
increased by adding more insulation!

Example: Calculate the critical radius of insulation for asbestos [k =0.17 W/mºC] surrounding a pipe

15
and exposed to room air at 20ºC with h=3.0 W/m2ºC. Calculate the heat loss from a 200◦C, 5.0-cm-
diameter pipe when covered with the critical radius of insulation and without insulation.

Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials

 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Heat Source Systems
Plane Wall with heat sources
The differential equation that governs the heat flow is,

The general solution is,

2
And with the boundary conditions at x
and at x 0,

or
2

Cylinder with heat sources

1
0 Can be rewritten as

and noting that we can integrate

2 4
ln
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Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Heat Source Systems
Cylinder with heat sources
ln
4
Now, the boundary conditions are
-Energy generated = Energy dissipated at the outer surface 2

0
2

-External temperature, at
4

or 1
4

For a hollow cylinder the solution is the same, ln

4
And with the boundary conditions at (inside surface), and at (outside surface)

ln
4

17
Where the constant is given by, /4
ln ⁄

Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials

 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Convection-Conduction Systems: Fins
Conservation of energy tells us

Equating we get 0 And defining ≡ 0

Defining ⁄ The general solution is then,

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Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Convection-Conduction Systems: Fins
Case 1: The fin is very long, and the temperature at the end of the fin is essentially that of the
surrounding fluid
The boundary conditions are at 0
0 at ∞

And then the solution becomes

Case 2: The end of the fin is insulated so that dT/dx=0 at x=L.

at 0
The boundary conditions are Thus
0 at L 0

cosh
Solving and
1 1 cosh

And the calculation of the heat transfer

Or alternatively

19
Case 1 Case 2
tanh

Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials

 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Convection-Conduction Systems: Fins
Heat transfer in the fin

Case 1 Case 2
tanh
For a very thin fin:

2 2 2 2
~

Long and thin fin ≫

These solutions would be unchanged for a cylindrical rod or a pin-type fin other than the value of P and m

2
For a pin or rod for radius r : m

Heat transfer for Case 2, is commonly used for fins that are not insulated at the end but loose their heat
loss along the sides is much larger than from the exposed end. In this case L is corrected by a corrected
length Lc only in evaluation of q:
Rectangular fin: /2
Cylindrical pin or rod: /2 20
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Fin Efficiency
Actual heat transferred

heat that would be transferred if entire fin area wereat base temperature

For a rectangular or a rod fin, the efficiency is easily obtained

Case 1 Case 2

If the efficiency is known, the heat transfer rate is given by the simple expression

Where is total surface area of the fins and is the area of the wall, tube, etc. the

Example. Conditions when fins don’t help. A stainless-steel pin fin that has k =16W/mºC, L=10 cm,
d=1 cm and that is exposed to a boiling-water convection situation with h=5000 W/m2ºC. Calculate
the increase of heat transfer due to the fin.
21
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Fins
Example. Compare the temperature distributions in a straight cylindrical rod having a diameter of 2 cm
and a length of 10 cm and exposed to a convection environment with h=25 W/m2·ºC, for three fin
materials: copper [k =385 W/mºC], stainless steel [k =17 W/mºC], and glass [k =0.8 W/mºC]. Also
compare the relative heat flows and fin efficiencies.

22
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Steady-State Conduction Multiple Dimensions

a.- Numerical Solution (i.e. COMSOL)

b.- Analytical solution (in simple cases with symmetry)
Separation of variables ,
1 1 0
0
0

cos sin
0 0 0
cos sin

c.- Shape factor and the use of tables for known cases.
In a 2D system where only two temperature limits are involved, we may define a conduction
shape factor S such that
Δ
The values of S have been worked out for several geometries and they can be found in the
Appendix 23
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 PROBLEMS
1.-The diffusion coefficient of boron (B) atom in a single crystal of Si has been measured to be 1.5
10 m s at 1000 ºC and 1.1 10 m s at 1200 ºC. Find (a) The activation energy for the diffusion of B
in eV/atom, (b) the pre-exponential constant , (c) the rms distance (in micrometers) diffused in 1h by the B
atom in the Si crystal at 1200 ºC and at 1000ºC, and (d) If the diffusion coefficient of B in polycrystalline Si has
an activation energy of 2.4-2.5 eV/atom and 1.5 6 10 m s , what constitutes the diffusion
difference between the single crystal sample and the polycrystalline sample?
2.-Phosphorus has to be diffused into silicon to make transistors. At 125ºC, the diffusion for this system is
D=5.6·10-16 m2s-1. Carbon is diffused into iron at 950ºC to harden it and for this process D=1.4·10-11 m2s-1. How
far will the phosphorus go while the carbon goes 1 mm?
3.- (a) A cylindrical wire of thermal conductivity , radius a and resistivity uniformly carries a current I. The
temperature of its surface is fixed at T0 using water cooling. Show that the temperature T(r) inside the wire is
given by
(b) The wire is now placed in air at temperature Tair and the wire loses heat from its surface according to
Newton’s law of cooling (so the heat flux from the surface of the wire is given by . Find the
temperature T(r).
4.- An exterior wall of a house may be approximated by a 10 cm layer of common brick [k =0.7 W/m ◦C]
followed by a 3.8 cm layer of gypsum plaster [k =0.48 W/m◦C]. What thickness of loosely packed rock-wool
insulation [k =0.065 W/m◦C] should be added to reduce the heat loss (or gain) through the wall by 80 percent?
5.- A thick-walled tube of stainless steel [18% Cr, 8% Ni, k =19 W/m◦C] with 2-cm inner diameter (ID) and 4-
cm outer diameter (OD) is covered with a 3-cm layer of asbestos insulation [k =0.2 W/m◦C]. If the inside wall
temperature of the pipe is maintained at 600◦C and the outside is 100ºC, calculate the heat loss per meter of
length. Also calculate the tube–insulation interface temperature.
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Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 PROBLEMS
6.- A wall of thickness L and thermal conductivity k has a planar (zero width) heating
element in the middle, kept at a constant temperature T1. The surface at x=0 is at a constant
temperature T0, while the surface at x=L is cooled by convection with a coefficient h but
the fluid is also at T0. Calculate (as a function of h, T0, k and T1),
- The temperature T(x=L)
- The heat flow per unit of area at each of the surfaces of the wall (x=0 and x=L)
- The temperature at any point T(x)

7.- An infinite cylinder of radius R is at a constant temperature T0

and it is refrigerated through three plates (length L>>R and thermal
conductivity k) located at 120º as shown in the figure (the figure is a
cross section of the structure, which is infinite along the axis
perpendicular to this page). The three plates can dissipate heat only
through their ends and, while the end of the bottom plate is at a
constant temperature Tc, the ends of the two top plates dissipate heat
by convection to a fluid with a temperature T.
a) Calculate the temperature at the end of the two upper plates T2
as a function of k, L, h, T0 and T.
b) If T=2·Tc=0.5·T0, what is the proportion of the heat dissipated
by the bottom plate in relation to the one dissipated by the two
top plates.

25
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 PROBLEMS
8.-A hollow cylinder of thermal conductivity k, generates heat per unit of volume . The
cylinder is perfectly insulated on the outside and can only dissipate the heat through a
liquid flowing in the inside, following the Newton law of cooling q=hA(Ti-T0), where T0
is the temperature of the liquid and Ti is the temperature of the inside surface in the
cylinder. In steady state, calculate T(r) for ri<r<R. Calculate the difference in temperature
between outer and inner surface when 10 W/m , ri=10cm, R=50cm k=200 W/m·K,
h=3000 W/m2·K and T0=300K.
9.- Water flows at 50ºC inside a 2.5-cm-inside-diameter tube such that hi =3500 W/m2 ºC. The tube has a wall
thickness of 0.8 mm with a thermal conductivity of 16 W/mºC. The outside of the tube loses heat by free
convection with ho =7.6 W/m2ºC. Calculate the overall heat-transfer coefficient and heat loss per unit length to
surrounding air at 20ºC.
10.- A current of 200 A is passed through a stainless-steel wire [k =19 W/mºC] 3 mm in diameter. The resistivity of
the steel may be taken as 70 μΩcm, and the length of the wire is 1 m. The wire is submerged in a liquid at 110 ◦C
and experiences a convection heat-transfer coefficient of 4 kW/m2ºC. Calculate the center temperature of the wire.
11.- An aluminium fin [k =200 W/mºC] 3.0 mm thick and 7.5 cm long protrudes from a wall, as in
the figure. The base is maintained at 300◦C, and the ambient temperature is 50◦C with h=10 W/m2ºC.
Calculate the heat loss from the fin per unit depth of material.

12.-A hollow sphere of concrete (κ=1.5 W·m-1·ºC-1) of r0=10cm and ri=1 cm, has a radioactive
material inside releasing a uniform constant power of q=10 W. This sphere is exposed to a
convective dissipation of a gas at T=20ºC and h=5 W·m-2·ºC-1. In steady state calculate. Show
that the temperature in this internally heated hollow sphere, refrigerated by an outside convection
h, follows the expression below and calculate T(ri) and T(r0).

T (r ) 
q 1 1  
  
4  r r0  hr0

 1  T

26
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 PROBLEMS
13.- Buried Pipe. A horizontal pipe 15 cm in diameter and 4 m long is buried in the earth at a depth of 20 cm. The
pipe-wall temperature is 75ºC, and the earth surface temperature is 5ºC. Assuming that the thermal conductivity of
the earth is 0.8 W/mºC, calculate the heat lost by the pipe.
14.- Cubical Furnace. A small cubical furnace 50 by 50 by 50 cm on the inside is constructed of fireclay brick [k
=1.04 W/mºC] with a wall thickness of 10 cm. The inside of the furnace is maintained at 500ºC, and the outside is
maintained at 50ºC. Calculate the heat lost through the walls.
15.- Buried Disk. A disk having a diameter of 30 cm and maintained at a temperature of 95ºC is buried at a depth
of 1.0 m in a semi-infinite medium having an isothermal surface temperature of 20ºC and a thermal conductivity of
2.1 W/mºC. Calculate the heat lost by the disk.

16.- Buried parallel disks. Two parallel 50-cm-diameter disks are separated by a distance of 1.5 m in an infinite
medium having k =2.3 W/mºC. One disk is maintained at 80ºC and the other at 20ºC. Calculate the heat transfer
between the disks.

27
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 APPENDIX

Solution for the diffusion equation

It can be solved by Fourier transforming n(x,t) using, , ,

,
So that, ,

,
Hence, the diffusion equation now looks like, ,

Which is now a simple first-order differential equation whose solution is, , ,0

1
Inverse Fourier transform yields, , ,0
2
In particular, if the initial distribution of n is given by, ,0

Then, ,0

And hence, , exp

4 4

28
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 APPENDIX
3D: Thermal Diffusion Equation

Heat Flux J → Heat energy flowing per unit of time and unit of area [J·s-1·m-2]

Where is the thermal conductivity in units of [W·m-1·K-1]

The total heat flow out of a closed surface S is given by,

This flow must be equal to the rate at which we loose thermal energy,

As the divergence theorem implies that ∬ ∭ , we have

And substituting we finally have the thermal diffusion equation,

⁄ is the thermal diffusivity
→
→
→
29
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 APPENDIX

30
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 APPENDIX

31
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 APPENDIX

32
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 APPENDIX

33
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 APPENDIX

34
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials
 APPENDIX

For a 3D wall, as in a furnace, separate shape factors are used to calculate the heat flow through
the edge and the corner sections

0.54 0.15

A=area of the wall L=wall thickness D=length of edge

35
Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Materials