Unidad I The Paragraph

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqxuNrhKhMc
What is a Paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop an idea; it can be
a single paragraph ori t would be part of a group of paragraphs as a
short reading or  an essay. Furthermore, the paragraph must
develop a main idea, which is usually found in the first sentence of it,
and it has to be supporting by several other sentences to give form
to the paragraph itself.

Example of a paragraph:

“Throughout human history, the physical universe has often

presented dangers to explorers. For example, when primitive
humans left their tribal villages to search for food and water,
they risked death or injury from dangerous animals. Later,
when people sailed the oceans in search of new lands for
settlement or trade, many died in terrible storms. Similarly, the
ocean of outer space has many dangers, but it also has several
unique challenges for explorers.”

Parts of Paragraph
- The main sentence or topic sentence: It establishes the
paragraph topic; it is also called the main or dominant idea of the
paragraph.

Example (taken from the previous paragraph):

“Throughout human history, the physical universe has often

presented dangers to explorers.”
- The body: It is the principal part of the paragraph and it contains
several sentences in order to support the topic sentence, which is
found in this part usually at the beginning of the paragraph. This part
has to be clear and provides information which makes attractive the
main idea of the passage.

- The closing sentence: It is the one which finally determines what

the main idea of the paragraph was and its meaning. It gives closure
to the paragraph and, also, provides a closure so another idea
would be develop in the case of a short Reading or essay.
  
Types of paragraphs
1.- Analysis Paragraph: In this sort of paragraph, a topic is
analyzed through its different elements to support the topic
sentence. They are usually goes from the general to the single
aspects of the idea.

Example:

“Modern man, in spite of his superior scientific knowledge,

often seems as superstitious as his ancestors. Astrology is a
half – billion – dollar business. Intelligent people still believe
that lines on their palms or the arrangement of tea leaves in a
cup predict the future. Airplanes do not have a row of seats
numbered 13, and buildings omit a thirteen floor. Black cats,
broken mirrors, and spilled salt create fear and anxiety in many
people. And Ouija boards continue to be a popular pastime”

2.- Description Paragraph: In this kind of paragraph, the topic is

describes in several forms; it could be physical, as from a person or
a place, or it could be the description of a process, or the detailed
explanation of a success.
Example:

“The problem of hairballs that have already formed in cat’s fur

can be solved by proper brushing. In order to brush your cat’s
hairballs, you’ll need two kinds of brushes: a wide-teeth wipe
and a metallic one. The former will help you dissolve and,
partially, remove tightly knotted hairballs without causing any
pain or discomfort to your cat. The latter, used subsequently,
will remove excess of loose puffy hair and decrease the
possibility of reoccurrence the next day. Once brushing is over,
make sure to polish your cat’s fur all over his body with the
help of a clean, cotton, or woolen cloth.”

More kinds of Paragraphs

In the classification of paragraphs, there are more types that are an
interesting part of study in the acquisition of knowledge of the
English language. Two important sort of paragraphs that have to be
studied by learners of the language are:

1.- Analogy Paragraphs: In this type of paragraph, the main

characteristics of an animal or object are used to described another
animal, object or even a person.

Example:

“Pupils are more like oysters than sausages. The job of

teaching is not to stuff them and then seal them up, but to help
them open and reveal the riches within. There are pearls in
each of us, if only we knew how to cultivate them with ardor
and persistence.”

2.- Definition Paragraph: This kind of paragraph has as a main

objective to define, explain or clarify the meaning of an idea. They
are difficult to precise since some elements such as the analysis,
comparison and contrast, description or even analogy can be part of
this kind of writing. But most of the time, this type of paragraph is
mostly objective and there is no subjectivity by the author.

Example:

“Cholera is an intestinal infection that can be described

according to its cause, symptoms, and treatment. A bacterium,
called Vibrio cholera, is the causative agent of cholera. It can
be spread through contaminated food, water, or feces. Cholera
patients may exhibit different symptoms that can vary from
mild to severe. Some symptoms are watery diarrhea and loss of
water and salts. Oral or intravenous replacement of fluids and
salts as well as specific antibiotics is a possible treatment for
cholera. Patients can be treated with an oral rehydration
solution or, in severe cases, an intravenous fluid.”

3.- Cause and Effect Paragraph: This sort of paragraph analyzes

the reasons and/or the consequences of an action, event, or
decisión.They can be presented in several forms such as
chronological or reverse chronological order. Furthermore, this kind
of paragraph could use the emphasis in its structure, taking the most
important things first and go to the least important ones, or
viceversa.

Example:

“Recurring headaches can have initiate disruptive effects in a

person’s life. Initially, in many cases, these headaches make a
person nauseous to the point that he or she must go to
bed. Furthermore, sleep is often interrupted because of the
pain.
Disrupted sleep worsens the physical and emotional state of
the sufferer. For those who maintain a normal lifestyle, drugs
are often relied on to get through the day. Such drugs, of
course, can lead to other negative effects. Drugs can inhibit
productivity on a job, perhaps even causing regular absences.
Not only is work affected, but the seemingly unpredictable
occurrence of these headaches leads to disruption in family
life. The interruption to a person’s family life is enormous:
cancelling plans in the last minute and straining relationships
with friends and family. It is no wonder that many of these
people feel discouraged and even depressed due to the cycle
of misery reoccurring headaches cause”.
Unidad II the Perfect Tenses -
Paraphrasing and Summarizing
The Perfect Tenses
The Formation of the Present Perfect:
http://englishstandarts.blogspot.com/2012/01/p
erfect-tenses.html
Auxiliary verb to have (have/has) + Participle II 

(The present tense of the verb to have + the past participle of the

main verb.)
 (Verb Contractions: I have = I’ve; he has = he’s; she has = she’s; it
has = it’s;  we have = we’ve; you have = you’ve;  they have =
they’ve) 

The Present Perfect denotes:

1) A completed action closely connected with the present when the

time of the action is indefinite.

Key example:

Mr. Smith has finished his work. He can rest now.

For study:

Ÿ Smith had laid the table. The family are having dinner. 

Ÿ Granny has prepared a surprise. Everybody is looking forward to it.

Ÿ Granny has baked a layer cake. The family are enjoying it. 

Ÿ Jane has cleared the table. She can do her lessons now.

Ÿ Little Kate has gone for a walk. It is quiet in the house.

Note: - The Present Perfect is not used when the time of the action
in the past is definite, e.g.: I finished my work at 8 o’clock.
 2) An action performed within a period of time which has not yet
ended. The period may be indicated by such words as this month,
this year, never, yet, etc.

Key example:

Annie has written an article this year.

For study:

Ÿ Samuel has been to London this month. 

Ÿ Sarah has studied abroad this year. 

Ÿ She has taken the post-graduate course this year. 

Ÿ She has never failed in in her exams.

Ÿ She has already got a place at the hostel.

3) The beginning of the period is often indicated by the

conjunction since which denotes “from some definite moment in the
past till now”.

Key example:

Samuel has known me since he was twelve.

For study:

Ÿ Samuel has lived in Hanbury Street since he moved to London. 

Ÿ Sarah has studied abroad since she graduated from college. 

Ÿ We have been friends with Samuel since 2005. 

Ÿ Annie has worked as a hospital pharmacist since she graduated

from the University.

The Present Perfect Continuous

Auxiliary verb to have (have/has) + been + present participle 

(The present tense of the verb to have + been + present

participle of the main verb.)

The present perfect continuous (also called present perfect

progressive) is a verb tense which is used to show that an action
started in the past and has continued up to the present moment. The
present perfect continuous usually emphasizes duration, or the
amount of time that an action has been taking place. Read on for
detailed descriptions, examples, and present perfect continuous
exercises.
 
The Present Perfect Continuous Forms
The present perfect continuous is formed using has/have + been +
present participle. Questions are indicated by inverting the subject
and has/have. Negatives are made with not.

Statement: You have been waiting here for two hours.

Question: Have you been waiting here for two hours?

Negative: You have not been waiting here for two hours.

  
 The Present Perfect Continuous Uses
USE 1 - Duration from the Past until Now

We use the present perfect continuous to show that something

started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five
minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations
which can be used with the present perfect continuous.

Examples:

Ÿ They have been talking for the last hour.

Ÿ She has been working at that company for three years.

Ÿ What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?

Ÿ James has been teaching at the university since June.

Ÿ We have been waiting here for over two hours!

Ÿ Why has Nancy not been taking her medicine for the last three

days?
 

USE 2 - Recently, Lately

You can also use the present perfect continuous WITHOUT a

duration such as "for two weeks." Without the duration, the tense
has a more general meaning of "lately." We often use the words
"lately" or "recently" to emphasize this meaning.

Examples:
Ÿ Recently, I have been feeling really tired.

Ÿ She has been watching too much television lately.

Ÿ Have you been exercising lately?

Ÿ Mary has been feeling a little depressed.

Ÿ Lisa has not been practicing her English.

Ÿ What have you been doing?

IMPORTANT: Remember that the present perfect continuous has

the meaning of "lately" or "recently." If you use the present perfect
continuous in a question such as "Have you been feeling alright?", it
can suggest that the person looks sick or unhealthy. A question
such as "Have you been smoking?" can suggest that you smell the
smoke on the person. Using this tense in a question suggests you
can see, smell, hear or feel the results of the action. It is possible to
insult someone by using this tense incorrectly.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed

Verbs
It is important to remember that non-continuous verbs cannot be
used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous
meanings for mixed verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses.
Instead of using present perfect continuous with these verbs, you
must use present perfect.

Examples:

- Sam has been having his car for two years. Not Correct

- Sam has had his car for two years. Correct

 The Past Perfect
 Auxiliary verb had + Participle II

(The past tense of the verb to have + the past participle of the

main verb.)

The Past Perfect denotes an action completed before a certain

moment in the past.

Key example:

He told us that he had passed his exams.  

For study:

Ÿ They told us that John had gone to the dentist. 

Ÿ I had come to the station before the train arrived. 

Ÿ I had seen my friend before the train stopped.

Ÿ I had called her before she saw me. 

Ÿ I had run up to her carriage before she got off.

The Past Perfect Continuous

Auxiliary verb had + been + present participle 

(The past tense of the verb to have + been + present participle of

the main verb.)

The past perfect continuous (also called past perfect progressive) is

a verb tense which is used to show that an action started in the past
and continued up to another point in the past. Read on for detailed
descriptions, examples, and present perfect continuous exercises.
 
The Past Perfect Continuous Forms
The past perfect continuous is formed using had + been + present
participle. Questions are indicated by inverting the subject and had.
Negatives are made with not

Statement: You had been waiting there for more than two hours

when she finally arrived.

Question: Had you been waiting there for more than two hours

when she finally arrived?

Negative: You had not been waiting there for more than two hours

when she finally arrived.

The Past Perfect Continuous Uses

USE 1 - Duration Before Something in the Past

We use the past perfect continuous to show that something started

in the past and continued up until another time in the past. "For five
minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which can be used
with the past perfect continuous. Notice that this is related to
the present perfect continuous; however, the duration does not
continue until now, it stops before something else in the past.

Examples:

1.- They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.

2.- She had been working at that company for three years when it
went out of business.

3.- How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?

4.- Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day
at work.

5.- James had been teaching at the university for more than a year
before he left for Asia.

6.-   A: How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved

to Ankara?

B: I had not been studying Turkish very long.

 

USE 2 - Cause of Something in the Past

Using the past perfect continuous before another action in the past
is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.

 Betty failed the final test because she had not been
attending class.

Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect

Continuous
If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two
weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakers choose to use the
past continuous rather than the past perfect continuous. Be careful
because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Past
continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas past perfect
continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the
past. Study the examples below to understand the difference.

Examples:

Ÿ He was tired because he was exercising so hard. (This sentence

emphasizes that he was tired because he was exercising at that
exact moment.)

Ÿ He was tired because he had been exercising so hard. (This

sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he had been
exercising over a period of time. It is possible that he was still
exercising at that moment OR that he had just finished.)
 
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed
Verbs
It is important to remember that Non-continuous verbs cannot be
used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous
meanings for mixed verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses.
Instead of using past perfect continuous with these verbs, you must
use past perfect.

Examples:

- The motorcycle had been belonging to George for years before

Tina bought it. Not Correct

- The motorcycle had belonged to George for years before Tina

bought it. Correct

Paraphrasing and Summarising

Writing information in your own words is a highly acceptable way
to include the ideas of other people in your writing. There are two
ways you can do this: paraphrasing and summarising. It is very
important, however, to paraphrase and summarise correctly
because there is a fine balance
between acceptable and unacceptable paraphrasing and
summarising (plagiarism).

1.- To paraphrase information

To paraphrase is to rewrite something using different words without
changing the original meaning. This is what is usually meant by the
phrase ‘in your own words’. The paraphrase should be clearer and
more easily understood than the original and is often about the
same length.
 Paraphrases are a good alternative to using direct quotations. In
your writing, you may make a paraphrase of:

Ÿ Short sections of text (e.g. phrases, sentences)

Ÿ Longer sections of text (e.g. a paragraph)

Ÿ Information that explains tables or

Steps for paraphrasing

Ÿ Read the text carefully. Underline, or note, any important subject-

specific

Ÿ Look up any difficult words, and find synonyms for

Ÿ Find different ways of expressing the information in the groups of

words (phrases).

Ÿ Rewrite Simplify the sentence structure and the vocabulary without

changing the meaning.

Ÿ Put your text out of sight and write your paraphrase from

Ÿ Revise your paraphrase and compare to the original. Is it written

and clearly in your own words?

Ÿ Do not forget to use an in-text reference (or footnote) at the start

or end of your

For APA referencing subjects, APA requires NO page or paragraph

numbers for paraphrases EXCEPT for Business & Linguistic
degrees, where students must use page or paragraph numbers for
ALL direct quotations AND paraphrases
 Example of correctly Paraphrased
Information
Assess your paraphrase

Ÿ The MEANING is the

Ÿ Most of the words have been

Ÿ The sentences have been significantly

Ÿ This is about the same length as the original writing

Ÿ The information is correctly referenced

2.- To summarise information

Many assignments are accompanied by a compulsory and/or
suggested reading list. No doubt you have often wondered how your
2000 or so word assignment could possibly incorporate all those
resources that are meant to inform your writing. Summaries of
material can give an overview of the work of one or more authors, so
they are much shorter than the original text. Because they are very
brief outlines of arguments made, they are very useful when you
want to indicate the support given for and/or against some position
you are taking in your argument.

In your writing, you make a summary from:

Ÿ one or more paragraphs

Ÿ an entire article, chapter or complete work

Ÿ a combination of readings with similar ideas. (synthesizing
information)

Example of correctly Summarised

Information
Assess your summary

Ÿ The MEANING is the

Ÿ The summary keeps the degree of certainty of the

Ÿ This is a much shorter version of the original

Ÿ The source/s of information is/are clearly

Unidad III Passive Voice

Active / Passive Verb Forms
Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses also have
"active forms" and "passive forms." You must learn to recognize the
difference to successfully speak English.

Active Form
In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the
sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most
sentences are active.

Examples:
Passive Form
In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of
the sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included
near the end of the sentence. You can use the passive form if you
think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should
be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not
know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is
doing the action.

Examples:

Active / Passive Overview