i

CONCEPTUAL
ADVANCED MATHEMATICS

For Secondary Schools

Form VI

ii
iii
 CONCEPTUAL
ADVANCED MATHEMATICS
For Secondary Schools
Form VI
Author
Petro L Mayombya

Edited by:
Peter Amos Kasunzu
Petro L Mayombya

iv
Published by: Petro L Mayombya
P.o Box 14
Bagamoyo, Tanzania
Tel: +255765365925
Email: mayombyap@gmail.com

Text Petro L Mayombya

First Edition 2020

ISBN 978 9976 59 708 0

Author: Petro L Mayombya
Typeset: Petro L Mayombya
Pictures: Petro L Mayombya
Art work: Petro L Mayombya
Page layout: Petro L Mayombya
Cover design: Petro L Mayombya

All Rights Reserved®. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

any a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the
terms of the Copyright and Designs.

v
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...............................................................................................x
PREFACE...................................................................................................................... xi
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.........................................................................................1
1.1 BASIC HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS ..................................................................1
1.2 GRAPHS OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS ........................................................3
1.3 HYPERBOLIC IDENTITIES ...............................................................................8
1.4 HYPERBOLIC COMPOUND VALUES ...........................................................13
1.5 HYPERBOLIC DOUBLE VALUE ....................................................................15
1.6 HYPERBOLIC TRIPLE VALUE .......................................................................17
1.7 OSBORN’S RULE ..............................................................................................19
1.8 FACTOR FORMULAE ......................................................................................20
1.9 HYPERBOLIC EQUATIONS ............................................................................23
1.10 LOGARITHM FORM OF INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS..............25
1.11 DERIVATIVE OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS ...........................................35
1.12 INTEGRATION OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.........................................41
1.13 APPLICATIONS OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS .......................................70
VECTORS .....................................................................................................................73
2.1 TERMINOLOGIES USED IN VECTORS .........................................................73
2.2 COMPONENTS OF VECTORS .........................................................................76
2.3 OPERATION OF VECTORS .............................................................................77
2.5 UNIT VECTOR...................................................................................................83
2.6 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS ............................................................84
2. 7 MID-POINT BETWEEN TWO POINTS ..........................................................85
2.8 RATIO THEOREM.............................................................................................86
2.9 DIRECTION RATIO AND DIRECTION COSINE ...........................................90
2.10 DOT PRODUCT ...............................................................................................93
2.11 CROSS PRODUCT .........................................................................................109
2.12 COLLINEAR VECTORS ...............................................................................116
vi
 2.13 LINEAR COMBINATION OF VECTORS ....................................................118
2.14 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT (BOX PRODUCT) .......................................118
2.15 COPLANAR....................................................................................................120
2.16 DERIVATIVE AND INTEGRATION OF VECTORS ..................................121
2.17 REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS OF VECTORS...............................................126
NUMERICAL METHODS .........................................................................................131
3.1 ERRORS............................................................................................................132
3.2 NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION .................................................................134
3.3 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION .......................................................................152
3.4 APPLICATIONS OF NUMERICAL METHODS ............................................164
COMPLEX NUMBERS ..............................................................................................171
4.1 REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER ON THE ARGAND
DIAGRAM ..............................................................................................................172
4.2 CONJUGATE OF A COMPLEX NUMBER ...................................................174
4.3 MODULUS AND ARGUMENT OF COMPLEX NUMBERS ........................175
4.4 OPERATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS ......................................................178
4.5 REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS ..........................................180
4.6 DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM ..............................................................................188
4.7 COMPLEX ROOTS ..........................................................................................206
4.8 ROOTS OF THE COMPLEX NUMBERS .......................................................207
4.9 CUBE ROOTS OF A UNIT ..............................................................................212
4.10 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS OF Z-PLANE AND W-PLANE ..............214
4.11 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRIGONOMETRIC AND HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS ...........................................................................................................216
4.12 LOCUS ............................................................................................................218
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS .................................................................................239
5.1 FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS .............................................247
5.2 SECOND ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ........................................276
5.3 SUPERPOSITION DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS........................................304

vii
 5.4 EXACTNESS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ...............................................307
5.5 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ................311
5.6 APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ......................................314
COORDINATE GEOMETRY II ................................................................................346
6.1 PARABOLA......................................................................................................348
6.1.1 TANGENT TO THE PARABOLA ................................................................376
6.1.2 NORMAL TO THE PARABOLA .................................................................382
6.2 ELLIPSE............................................................................................................385
6.2.1 TANGENT TO AN ELLIPSE ........................................................................408
6.2.2 EQUATIONS OF TANGENT AND NORMAL OF AN ELLIPSE ..............409
6.2.3 CIRCLES OF AN ELLIPSE ..........................................................................416
6. 2.4 CONCETRIC ELLIPSES ..............................................................................417
6.3 HYPERBOLA ...................................................................................................418
6.3.1 TANGENT TO THE HYPERBOLA .............................................................439
6.3.2 EQUATION OF NORMAL TO THE HYPERBOLA ...................................443
6.3.3 TRANSVERSE AXIS OF THE HYPERBOLA ............................................444
6.3.4 ASYMPTOTES TO THE HYPERBOLA ......................................................446
6.3.5 RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA .................................................................449
6.4 POLAR COORDINATES .................................................................................451
6.5 APPLICATIONS OF CONIC SECTIONS .......................................................465
STATISTICS ...............................................................................................................480
7.1 REPRESENTATION OF DATA ......................................................................481
7.2 MEASURES OF DATA....................................................................................482
7.3 APPLICATION OF STATISTICS ....................................................................519
PROBABILITY ...........................................................................................................523
8.1 COUNTING TECHNIQUES FOR THE SAMPLE SPACE .............................524
8.2 PROBABILITY AXIOMS AND THEOREM ..................................................539
8.3 CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY ....................................................................559
8.4 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS ..................................................................567
viii
 8.4.1 Discrete Random Variable..........................................................................567
8.4.2 Continuous Random Variable ....................................................................575
8.5 SOME SPECIAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION.......................................583
8.5.1 Binomial Distribution .................................................................................583
8.5.2 Poisson Distribution ...................................................................................592
8.5.3 Normal Distribution....................................................................................597
8.6 APPLICATIONS OF PROBABILITY .............................................................611
NECTA FORMAT EXAMINATIONS.......................................................................629
ANSWERS .................................................................................................................683
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.....................................................................................683
VECTORS ...................................................................................................................685
NUMERICAL METHODS .........................................................................................688
COMPLEX NUMBERS ..............................................................................................689
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS .................................................................................692
COORDINATE GEOMETRY II ................................................................................699
STATISTICS ...............................................................................................................701
PROBABILITY ...........................................................................................................702
INDEX.........................................................................................................................707
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................710

ix
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express sincere appreciation to my family most especially my lovely wife, E.David,
my daughter (Naomi), my incomparable mom, N. Kazungu, my beloved sisters,
Salome, Winfrida and Josephine.

I am extremely thankful to my colleagues and Mathematician from various schools for

their useful suggestions as well as fruitful ideas, most especially;

1. Mr. Christian Haule (Marian Girls High School)

2. Mr. Peter Amos Kasunzu (Eagles High School)

3. Mr. Solomon & Mr. Zufko (Marian Boys High School)

4. Mr. Didas Boniphase & Mr. Samson (AHMES)

5. Mr. Telemu Majigwa (Feza Boys’ High School)

6. Mr. Musa Kisinza (Thomas More Machrina)

7. Mr. Masebo and Mr. Francis (Tusiime Secondary School)

8. Sir Kiteddy (EKU345 ACADEMY)

9. Mr. Ally Abdallah (ALLAI ACADEMY)

10. Mr. E. Zablon and S. Minule (Barbro Johannson Model Girls Sec. School)

11. Mr. Patrick Clement (Kwemaramba Secondary School)

12. Mr. Majallah, R (Kibaha High School)

13. Mr. Steven Rutabingwa (St. Joseph Cathedral School)

14. Mr. Yessaya Joseph Mnyambi (St. Mary’s Mazinde Juu Secondary School)

15. Mr. kasmiri George (Kisimiri High School)

I am greatly grateful to various students who have given their valuable suggestions
for the preparation of this book, most especially Marian High Schools particularly
form six (2016/17, 2017/18, 2018/19 . I sincerely acknowledge their great
contribution.

I am really very grateful to our Manager, Head of School and other members of the
staff for making the project successful.

Lastly, I thank the Almighty God for enabling the successful completion of this book.

Suggestions for further improvements from the readers will be thankfully

received and will be duly incorporated.
x
 PREFACE
This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative
information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the
understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering professional
services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the
services of a competent professional should be sought.

In addition, major effort has been made to make the text suitable for a wider
range of students. Consideration has been made to reduce unnecessary
complexity especially with vivid examples. Particular care has been taken with
introduction to each topic, some sections have been recognized, sub headings
added. It is hoped that these changes will improve the readability while
retaining the vigor and depth of the text.

It is also, my hope that, the book will be resourceful to all teachers and other
professionals specialised and interested in Mathematics.

Petro L Mayombya

Tel: +255765365925

E-mail: mayombyap@gmail.com

Bagamoyo Tanzania

January 2020

xi
 Chapter One

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Introduction.
Hyperbolic functions are analogs of trigonometric functions which consists of
natural exponents.

1.1 BASIC HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

Basic hyperbolic functions are hyperbolic cosine, hyperbolic sine and
hyperbolic tangent and also we have reciprocal of these basic hyperbolic
functions which are hyperbolic secant, hyperbolic cosecant and hyperbolic
cotangent.

(i) Hyperbolic cosine (cosh)

Hyperbolic cosine of x is defined as e x  ex
cosh x 
2

Proof;
Since hyperbolic functions are defined interm of exponential functions, we use the series
of e x and e  x to proof the above formula.
x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
ex 1 x        ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
e x  1  x        ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
Add the above series of e x and e  x
 x2   x4   x6 
e x  e  x  2  2   2   2   ...
 2!   4!   6! 
e x  ex x2 x4 x6
1    ...
2 2! 4! 6!
x2 x4 x6
But series of cosh x  1     ...
2! 4! 6!
e x  e x
cosh x  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
2

1
(ii) Hyperbolic sine (sinh)

e x  ex
Hyperbolic sine of x is defined as sinh x 
2

Proof;
Since hyperbolic functions are defined interm of exponential functions, we use the series
of e x and e  x to proof the above formula.
x 2 x3 x 4 x5 x6 x7
ex  1 x        ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
x 2 x3 x 4 x5 x6 x7
e  x  1  x        ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
Subtract the above series of e x and e  x
 x3   x5   x7 
e x  e  x  2 x  2   2   2   ...
 3!   5!   7! 
x
e e
x
x 3
x5 x7
 x     ...
2 3! 5! 7!
x3 x5 x7
But series of sinh x  x     ...
3! 5! 7!
e x  ex
sinh x  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( ii)
2

(iii) Hyperbolic tan (tanh)

Hyperbolic tangent of x is defined as e x  ex
tanh x  x
e  e x
Proof :
e x  ex
sinh x e x  ex
tanh x   x 2 x  x x
cosh x e  e e e
2
x
e e
x
tanh x  x  x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(iii)
e e

2
(iv) Hyperbolic sec (sech)
2
Hyperbolic sec of x is defined as sec hx  …….……… (iv)
e  ex
x

(v) Hyperbolic cosec (cosech) 2

Hyperbolic cosec of x is defined as cos echx  ………… (v)
e  ex
x

(vi) Hyperbolic cotangent (coth)

Hyperbolic cotangent of x is defined as e x  e x

coth x 
e x  ex
Proof :
e x  e x
cosh x e x  e x
coth x   x 2 x  x
sinh x e  e e  e x
2
x
e e
x
coth x  x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(vi)
e  e x

1.2 GRAPHS OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

We can use table of values or scientific calculator to sketch graphs of
hyperbolic functions as follows;

3
 fig 1. 1

Example 1
Using the definition of sinh x , show that
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  2 cosh mx sinh x .
Solution
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  2 cosh mx sinh x
Consider left hand side
e ( m1) x  e  ( m1) x e ( m1) x  e  ( m1) x
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  
2 2
 mx  x
e e e e
mx x
e e  e mx e x
mx  x
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  
2 2
1

sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  e mx e x  e mx e  x  e mx e  x  e mx e x
2

1 mx
  
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  e  e mx e x  e mx  e mx e  x
2
 
1

sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  e mx  e mx e x  e  x
2
 
 e mx  e mx  e x  e  x 
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  2   
  2   2 
 sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  2 cosh mx sinh x

4
Example 2
Using the definition of sinh x , show that
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  2 sinh mx cosh x .
Solution
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  2 sinh mx cosh x
Consider left hand side
e ( m1) x  e  ( m1) x e ( m1) x  e  ( m1) x
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  
2 2
 mx  x
e e e e
mx x
e e  e mx e x
mx  x
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  
2 2
1 mx x

sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  e e  e mx e  x  e mx e  x  e mx e x
2

1
  
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  e mx  e mx e x  e mx  e mx e  x
2
 
1

sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  e mx  e mx e x  e  x
2
 
 e mx  e mx  e x  e  x 
sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  2  
 2  2 
 sinh( m  1) x  sinh( m  1) x  2 sinh mx cosh x

Example 3
Using the definition of cosh x or otherwise, show that
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2 sinh mx sinh x .
Solution
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2 sinh mx sinh x
Consider left hand side
e ( m 1) x  e  ( m 1) x e ( m 1) x  e  ( m 1) x
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  
2 2
 mx  x
e e e e
mx x
e e  e  mx e x
mx  x
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  
2 2
1

cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  e mx e x  e  mx e  x  e mx e  x  e  mx e x
2


cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  e mx  e  mx e x  e mx  e  mx e  x
1
2


5
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x 
2
e e 
1 mx mx x  x
e e  
 e mx  e mx  e x  e  x 
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2  
  2   2 
 cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2 sinh mx sinh x

Alternative way by compound angle

cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2 sinh mx sinh x
Consider the left hand side
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  coshmx  x   coshmx  x 
 cosh mx cosh x  sinh mx sinh x  cosh mx cosh x  sinh mx sinh x   2 sinh mx sinh x
 cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2 sinh mx sinh x

Example 4
Using the definition of cosh x or otherwise, show that
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2 cosh mx cosh x .
Solution
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2 cosh mx cosh x
Consider left hand side
e ( m1) x  e  ( m1) x e ( m1) x  e  ( m1) x
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  
2 2
 mx  x
e e e e
mx x
e e  e mx e x
mx  x
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  
2 2
1

cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  e mx e x  e mx e  x  e mx e  x  e mx e x
2

1
  
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  e mx  e mx e x  e mx  e mx e  x
2
 
1 mx

cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  e  e mx e x  e  x
2
 
 e mx  e mx  e x  e  x 
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2  
 2  2 
 cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2 cosh mx cosh x

6
Alternative way by compound value
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2 cosh mx cosh x
Consider the left hand side
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  coshmx  x   coshmx  x 
 cosh mx cosh x  sinh mx sinh x  cosh mx cosh x  sinh mx sinh x  2 cosh mx cosh x
 cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2 cosh mx cosh x

Example 5
If x  In3 , find (a) cosh x (b) sinh x (c) tanh x
Solution
Given that x  In 3
 e  x e In 3  e  In 3 3  13 5
x
a  cosh x  e   
2 2 2 3
x  In 3
b  sinh x  e  e  e  e  3  3  4
x In 3 1

2 2 2 3
c  tanh x  sinh x  4  5  4
cosh x 3 3 5

Example 6
If x is very large show that;
(a) In (cosh x)  x  In 2
(b) In (sinh x)  x  In 2
(c) In (tanh x )  0
Solution
(a) In (cosh x)  x  In 2
Consider left hand side
 e x  ex 
In (cosh x)  In  
  In e x  e  x  In 2
 2 
As x  , e  x  0
 
In (cosh x)  In e x  In 2
 In (cosh x)  x  In 2

7
(b) In (sinh x)  x  In 2
Consider left hand side
 e x  ex 
In (sinh x)  In 
  In e x  e  x  In 2 
 2 
As x  , e  x  0
 
In (sinh x)  In e x  In 2
 In (sinh x)  x  In 2

(c) In (tanh x)  0
Consider left hand side
 e x  ex 
In (tanh x)  In  x x

e e 
As x  , e  x  0
 ex 
In (cosh x)  In  x   In1  0
e 
 In (tanh x)  0

1.3 HYPERBOLIC IDENTITIES

Hyperbolic identities these are hyperbolic functions connected together to form
hyperbolic equations
Consider equations below;
e x  e x
cosh x  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
2
e x  e x
sinh x  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( ii)
2
Add equation (i) and equation (ii)
e x  ex e x  ex
cosh x  sinh x  
2 2
cosh x  sinh x  e x …………………………………….. (iii)

8
Subtract equation (i) and equation (ii)
e x  ex e x  ex
cosh x  sinh x    ex
2 2
cosh x  sinh x  e  x
………………………………..…. (iv)

Multiply equation (iii) and equation (iv)

cosh x  sinh x cosh x  sinh x   e x  e  x
cosh2 x  sinh 2 x  1 ……………………………………… (v)

Divide equation (v) by cosh 2 x throughout

......................................................... (vi)
1  tanh 2 x  sec h 2 x

Divide equation (v) by sinh 2 x throughout

coth 2 x  1  cos ech 2 x
…………………………………… (vii)

Example 7
By using definition of sinh x and cosh x prove that
(sinh x  cosh x) m  cosh mx  sinh mx

Solution
(sinh x  cosh x) m  cosh mx  sinh mx
Consider left hand sides
m
 e x  ex e x  e x 
(sinh x  cosh x)  
m
   e x   m
 e mx but e mx  cosh mx  sinh mx
 2 2 
 (sinh x  cosh x)  cosh mx  sinh mx
m

9
Example 8
By using definition of sinh x and cosh x prove that
(sinh x  cosh x) n  sinh nx  cosh nx

Solution
(sinh x  cosh x) n  cosh nx  sinh nx
Consider left hand sides
n
 e x  ex e x  ex 
(sinh x  cosh x)  
n
 
   e  x n
 e nx
 2 2 
But  e nx  cosh nx  sinh nx
 (sinh x  cosh x) n  sinh nx  cosh nx

Example 9
By using definition of sinh x and cosh x prove that
(sinh x  cosh x) 2  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x

Solution
(sinh x  cosh x) 2  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
Consider left hand sides
2
 e x  ex e x  ex 
(sinh x  cosh x)  
2
   e x   2
 e 2 x but e 2 x  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
 2 2 
 (sinh x  cosh x) 2  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x

Example 10
Show that cosh x  sinh xn  cosh x  sinh xn  2 cosh(nx)
Solution
cosh x  sinh x n  cosh x  sinh x n  2 cosh(nx)
Consider the left hand side
 e nx  e nx 
n n
   e 
 cosh x  sinh x   cosh x  sinh x   e x
n x n
 e nx  e nx  2   2 cosh nx
 2 

10
Example 11
Show that cosh x  sinh xn  cosh x  sinh xn  2 sinh(nx)
Solution
cosh x  sinh x n  cosh x  sinh x n  2 sinh(nx)
Consider the left hand side
  e  nx 
cosh x  sinh x n  cosh x  sinh x n  e x n  e  x n  e nx  e nx  2 e
nx

 2 
 cosh x  sinh x   cosh x  sinh x   2 sinh nx
n n

Example 12
Show that cosh x  sinh x  cosh x  sinh x  1
n n

Solution
cosh x  sinh x n cosh x  sinh x n  1
Consider the left hand side
cosh x  sinh x n cosh x  sinh x n  e x n e  x n  e nx e nx  e nxnx  e 0  1
 cosh x  sinh x  cosh x  sinh x   1
n n

Example 13

Show that
cosh x  sinh x 
n
 cosh 2nx  sinh 2nx
cosh x  sinh x n
Solution
cosh x  sinh x n  cosh 2nx  sinh 2nx
cosh x  sinh x n
Consider the left hand side
cosh x  sinh x n  e x n  e nx  e nxnx  e 2 nx but e 2 nx  cosh 2nx  sinh 2nx
cosh x  sinh x n e  x n e nx

cosh x  sinh x n  cosh 2nx  sinh 2nx
cosh x  sinh x n

11
Example 14

Show that
cosh x  sinh x n 1
cosh x  sinh x n
Solution
cosh x  sinh x n  1
cosh x  sinh x n
Consider the left hand side
cosh x  sinh x n  e x n 
e nx
1
cosh x  sinh x n e  x n e nx


cosh x  sinh x n  1
cosh x  sinh x n

Example 15
If tan x  sinh  , prove that   In (sec x  tan x)
Solution
Consider sinh   tan x
e  e 
 tan x
2
e  e   2 tan x
e 2  2 tan x e  1  0
2 tan x  4 tan 2 x  4
e 
2
2 tan x  2 tan 2 x  1
e 
2
e  tan x  tan 2 x  1
e  tan x  sec2 x
e  tan x  sec x
  In tan x  sec x  ignore  ve
  In tan x  sec x 

12
1.4 HYPERBOLIC COMPOUND VALUES

(i) Compound value for cosh(A  B)

cosh( A  B )  cosh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B

Proof :
Consider the definitionof cosh(A  B)
e ( A  B )  e  ( A B )
cosh(A  B ) 
2
e e  e  Ae B
A B
cosh(A  B ) 
2
cosh(A  B )  cosh A  sinh Acosh B  sinh B   cosh A  sinh Acosh B  sinh B 
1
2
1 cosh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B  sinh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B 
cosh(A  B )  
2  cosh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B  sinh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B 

cosh(A  B ) 
1
2 cosh A cosh B  2 sinh A sinh B
2
 cosh(A  B)  cosh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B

(ii) Compound value for cosh(A  B)

cosh(A  B )  cosh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B

Proof :
Consider the definitionof cosh(A  B)
e ( A B )  e  ( A  B )
cosh(A  B) 
2
e e  e  Ae B
A B
cosh(A  B) 
2
cosh(A  B)  cosh A  sinh Acosh B  sinh B   cosh A  sinh Acosh B  sinh B 
1
2
1 cosh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B  sinh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B 
cosh(A  B)  
2  cosh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B  sinh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B 

cosh(A  B) 
1
2 cosh A cosh B  2 sinh A sinh B
2
 cosh(A  B)  cosh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B

13
(iii)Compound value for sinh( A  B )
sinh( A  B )  sinh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B
Proof :
Consider the definitionof sinh( A  B)
e ( A B )  e  ( A B )
sinh( A  B) 
2
e Ae B  e  Ae B
sinh( A  B) 
2
sinh( A  B)  cosh A  sinh Acosh B  sinh B   cosh A  sinh Acosh B  sinh B 
1
2
1 cosh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B  sinh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B  
sinh( A  B)  
2  cosh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B  sinh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B 

sinh( A  B) 
1
2 sinh A cosh B  2 cosh A sinh B
2
 sinh( A  B)  sinh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B

(iv) Compound value for sinh( A  B )

sinh( A  B )  sinh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B

Proof :
Consider the definitionof sinh( A  B)
e ( A B )  e  ( A B )
sinh( A  B) 
2
e Ae  B  e  Ae B
sinh( A  B) 
2
sinh( A  B)  cosh A  sinh Acosh B  sinh B   cosh A  sinh Acosh B  sinh B 
1
2
1 cosh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B  sinh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B  
sinh( A  B)  
2  cosh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B  sinh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B 

sinh( A  B) 
1
2 sinh A cosh B  2 cosh A sinh B
2
 sinh( A  B)  sinh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B

14
(v) Compound value for tanh( A  B)
tanh A  tanh B
tanh( A  B ) 
1  tanh A tanh B
Proof :
Consider the definitionof tanh( A  B)
sinh( A  B)
tanh( A  B) 
cosh( A  B)
sinh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B
tanh( A  B) 
cosh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B
Divide by cosh A cosh B to each term on R.H .S
tanh A  tanh B
 tanh( A  B) 
1  tanh A tanh B

(vi) Compound value for tanh( A  B )

tanh A  tanh B
tanh( A  B ) 
1  tanh A tanh B
Proof :
Consider the definitionof tanh( A  B)
sinh( A  B)
tanh( A  B) 
cosh( A  B)
sinh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B
tanh( A  B) 
cosh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B
Divide by cosh A cosh B to each term on R.H .S
tanh A  tanh B
 tanh( A  B) 
1  tanh A tanh B

1.5 HYPERBOLIC DOUBLE VALUE

(i) Double value formula for sinh(2 A)

Considersinh( 2 A)  sinh( A  A)
sinh( 2 A)  sinh A cosh A  cosh A sinh A
sinh( 2 A)  sinh A cosh A  sinh A cosh A
sinh( 2 A)  2 sinh A cosh A

15
(ii) Double value formula for cosh(2 A)
Considercosh(2 A)  cosh(A  A)
cosh(2 A)  cosh A cosh A  sinh A sinh A

cosh(2 A)  cosh2 A  sinh 2 A

(iii)Double value formula for tanh( 2 A)

Considers tanh (2 A)  tanh( A  A)
tanh A  tanh A
tanh ( 2 A) 
1  tanh A tanh A

2 tanh A
tanh ( 2 A) 
1  tanh 2 A

Example 16
By using definition of sinh x and cosh x prove that
(sinh x  cosh x) 2  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
Solution
(sinh x  cosh x) 2  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
Consider left hand sides
(sinh x  cosh x) 2  sinh 2 x  2 sinh x cosh x  cosh2 x
 
(sinh x  cosh x) 2  sinh 2 x  cosh2 x  2 sinh x cosh x 
 (sinh x  cosh x) 2  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x

Alternative
(sinh x  cosh x) 2  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
Consider left hand sides
2
 e x  ex e x  ex 
(sinh x  cosh x)  
2
   e x  
2
 e 2 x but e 2 x  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
 2 2 
 (sinh x  cosh x) 2  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x

16
1.6 HYPERBOLIC TRIPLE VALUE

(a) Triple value for sinh(3 A)

Consider the hyperbolic triple value below,
sinh(3 A)  sinh( A  2 A)
sinh(3 A)  sinh A cosh 2 A  cosh A sinh 2 A
sinh(3 A)  sinh A(cosh2 A  sinh 2 A)  cosh A(2 sinh A cosh A)
sinh(3 A)  sinh A cosh2 A  sinh 3 A  2 sinh A cosh2 A
sinh(3 A)  3 sinh A cosh2 A  sinh 3 A
sinh(3 A)  3 sinh A(1  sinh 2 A)  sinh 3 A
sinh(3 A)  3 sinh A  3 sinh 3 A  sinh 3 A

sinh(3 A)  3 sinh A  4 sinh 3 A

(b) Triple value for cosh(3 A)

Consider the hyperbolic triple value below,
cosh(3 A)  cosh(A  2 A)
cosh(3 A)  cosh A cosh 2 A  sinh A sinh 2 A
cosh(3 A)  cosh A(cosh2 A  sinh 2 A)  sinh A(2 sinh A cosh A)
cosh(3 A)  cosh3 A  cosh A sinh 2 A  2 sinh 2 A cosh A
cosh(3 A)  cosh3 A  3 cosh A sinh 2 A
cosh(3 A)  cosh3 A  3 cosh A(cosh2 A  1)
cosh(3 A)  cosh3 A  3 cosh3 A  3 cosh A
cosh(3 A)  4 cosh3 A  3 cosh A

17
(c) Triple value for tanh( 3 A)
Consider the hyperbolic triple value below,
sinh 3 A
tanh( 3 A) 
cosh3 A
3 sinh A  4 sinh 3 A
tanh( 3 A) 
4 cosh3 A  3 cosh A
Divide by cosh3 A to each term on R.H .S
3 tanh A sec h 2 A  4 tanh 3 A
tanh( 3 A) 
4  3 sec h 2 A
But sec h 2 A  1  tanh 2 A
3 tanh A(1  tanh 2 A)  4 tanh 3 A
tanh( 3 A) 
4  3(1  tanh 2 A)
3 tanh A  3 tanh 3 A  4 tanh 3 A
tanh( 3 A) 
4  3  3 tanh 2 A

3 tanh A  tanh 3 A
tanh( 3 A) 
1  3 tanh 2 A

Example 17
By using definition of sinh x and cosh x prove that
(sinh x  cosh x) 3  cosh3 x  sinh 3 x

Solution
(sinh x  cosh x) 3  cosh3x  sinh 3x
Consider left hand sides
(sinh x  cosh x) 3  sinh 3 x  3 sinh 2 x cosh x  3 sinh x cosh2 x  cosh3 x
   
(sinh x  cosh x) 3  sinh 3 x  3 cosh2 x  1 cosh x  3 sinh x 1  sinh 2 x  cosh3 x
3

(sinh x  cosh x)  4 cosh 3
x  3 cosh x   3 sinh x  4 sinh x 
3

 (sinh x  cosh x) 3  cosh3x  sinh 3x

18
Alternative
(sinh x  cosh x) 3  cosh3 x  sinh 3x
Consider left hand sides
3
 e x  ex e x  ex 
(sinh x  cosh x)  
3
  
  e x
3
 e 3 x but e 3 x  cosh3 x  sinh 3 x
 2 2 
 (sinh x  cosh x)  cosh3 x  sinh 3 x
3

1.7 OSBORN’S RULE

Osborn’s rule is the rule which provide a simple way of converting
trigonometric identities into hyperbolic identities.
The rule change terms containing sine square ( sin 2 x ) into negative hyperbolic
sine square (  sinh 2 x ),
i.e.
sin x   sinh x
2 2

Some of trigonometric identities and hyperbolic identities which can be

deduced by Osborn’s rule,

Trigonometric identities Hyperbolic identities

cos2 x  sin 2 x  1 cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1

1  tan 2 x  sec2 x 1  tanh 2 x  sec h 2 x

sin 3 x  3 sin x  4 sin 3 x sinh 3 x  3 sinh x  4 sinh 3 x

2 tan x 2 tanh x
tan 2 x  tanh 2 x 
1  tan 2 x 1  tanh 2 x

19
1.8 FACTOR FORMULAE
Factor formulae are formulae which express the sum and difference of
hyperbolic functions into product form and vice versa it’s true.

Derivation of factor formulae:

Consider the compound values formulae to determine the factor formulae for
sinh addition and subtraction.

sinh A  B   sinh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B.......... .......... .......... .(i )

sinh A  B   sinh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B.......... .......... .......... (ii)
Add equations (i) and (ii)
sinh A  B   sinh A  B   2 sinh A cosh B.......... .......... .......... (iii)
Subtract equation (ii) from (i)
sinh A  B   sinh A  B   2 cosh A sinh B.......... .......... .......... (iv)
Let A  B  P.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (v)
A  B  Q.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( vi)
Add equations (v) and (vi)
2A  P  Q
PQ
A .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( vii)
2
Subtract equation (vi) from (v)
2B  P  Q
P Q
B .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( viii)
2
Substitute equations (v), (vi), (vii) and (viii) into equations (iii) and (iv)
  PQ  P Q 
sinh P  sinh Q  2 sinh 2  cosh 2 
    

sinh P  sinh Q  2 cosh P  Q  sinh P  Q 
  2   2 

20
Factor formulae for cosh addition and subtraction.

cosh A  B   cosh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B.......... .......... .......... .(i )

cosh A  B   cosh A cosh B  sinh A sinh B.......... .......... .......... (ii)
Add equations (i) and (ii)
cosh A  B   cosh A  B   2 cosh A cosh B.......... .......... .......... (iii)
Subtract equation (ii) from (i)
cosh A  B   cosh A  B   2 sinh A sinh B.......... .......... .......... (iv)
Let A  B  P.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (v)
A  B  Q.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( vi)
Add equations (v) and (vi)
2A  P  Q
PQ
A .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( vii)
2
Subtract equation (vi) from (v)
2B  P  Q
P Q
B .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( viii)
2
Substitute equations (v), (vi), (vii) and (viii) into equations (iii) and (iv)
  PQ  P Q 
cosh P  coshQ  2 cosh 2  cosh 2 
    

cosh P  coshQ  2 sinh P  Q  sinh P  Q 
  2   2 
Therefore hyperbolic factor formulae are :
  PQ  P Q 
(i ) sinh P  sinh Q  2 sinh 2  cosh 2 
    
  PQ  P Q 
(ii) sinh P  sinh Q  2 cosh  sinh 
  2   2 

(iii) cosh P  coshQ  2 cosh P  Q  cosh P  Q 
  2   2 

(iv) cosh P  coshQ  2 sinh P  Q  sinh P  Q 
    
 2   2 

21
Note: If  A  B 

(i ) 2 sinh A cosh B  sinh A  B   sinh A  B 

(ii) 2 cosh A sinh B  sinh A  B   sinh A  B 


(iii) 2 cosh A cosh B  cosh A  B   cosh A  B 
(iv) 2 sinh A sinh B  cosh A  B   cosh A  B 

Eg.

Express the following in factor form:

(a) sinh 5 x  sinh x

(b) sinh 6 x  sinh 2 x
(c) cosh3x  cosh x
(d ) cosh 7 x  cosh3x

Solution

(a ) sinh 5 x  sinh x
 PQ  P Q 
From, sinh P  sinh Q  2 sinh  cosh 
 2   2 
 sinh 5 x  sinh x  2 sinh 3 x cosh 2 x
(b) sinh 6 x  sinh 2 x
 PQ  P Q 
From, sinh P  sinh Q  2 cosh  sinh 
 2   2 
 sinh 6 x  sinh 2 x  2 cosh 4 x sinh 2 x
(c) cosh3 x  cosh x
 PQ  P Q 
From, cosh P  coshQ  2 cosh  cosh 
 2   2 
 cosh3x  cosh x  2 cosh 2 x cosh x
(iv) cosh 7 x  cosh5 x
 PQ  P Q 
From, cosh P  coshQ  2 sinh  sinh 
 2   2 
 cosh 7 x  cosh3x  2 sinh 5 x sinh 2 x

22
 1.9 HYPERBOLIC EQUATIONS
Hyperbolic equations are equations which consists of hyperbolic functions such
as hyperbolic sine, hyperbolic cosine, hyperbolic tangent, hyperbolic cosecant,
hyperbolic secant and hyperbolic cotangent.

Example 18
Solve 7 sinh x  20cosh x  24
Solution
7 sinh x  20 cosh x  24
 e x  ex   e x  ex 
7   20   24
 2   2 
7e x  e  x   20e x  e  x   48
27e x  13e  x  48
27e 2 x  13  48e x
27e 2 x  48e x  13  0
e x  13 9 , e x  13
 x  In 13 9 , x  In  13 

Example 19
Show that the condition of the equation p cosh x  sinh x  q  0 where by
p and q are real constant, to have real roots is p 2  q 2  1
Solution
Given that p cosh x  sinh x  q  0
 e x  ex   e x  ex 
p      q  0
 2   2 
 x x
  x x
p e  e  e  e  2q  0 
p e 2x
 1  e 2x

 1  2qe x  0
 p  1e 2x
 2qe   p  1  0
x

If it has real roots b 2  4ac

2q 2  4 p  1 p  1
4q 2  4 p 2  1  
q  p 1
2 2

 p2  q2  1

23
Example 20
Solve the equation 2 cosh x  3 sinh x  4
Solution
Consider 2 cosh x  3 sinh x  4
 e x  ex   e x  ex 
2   3   4
 2   2 
 x
2 e e 3 e e 8
x
 
x x

x
5e  e
x
8
5e 2x
 8e  1  0
x

8  84 8  2 21 4  21
ex   
10 10 5
 4  21 
x  In 

 ignore(-ve)

 5 
 4  21 
 x  In 

  0.540

 5 

Example 21
Find the value of cosh x if, 2 sinh 2 x  7 cosh x  8
Solution
Consider 2 sinh 2 x  7 cosh x  8
 
2 cosh2 x  1  7 cosh x  8
2 cosh x  7 cosh x  6  0
2

 cosh x  2, cosh x  1.5

Exercise 1.1
1. Given that 4 cosh2 x  7 sinh x  1 find the two possible values of sinh x .
2. Solve the equation 5 sinh x  cosh x  5  0 giving your answer in the form
Ina , where a is a rational number.
3. Solve the equation 3 cosh 2  2 sinh  11 giving each of your answer in
the form Ina .
4. Given that 4 cosh2 x  7 sinh x  1 giving each of your answer in the form
Ina .
5. Show that the equation 3 tanh 2 x  7 tanh x  2  0 has only one solution
for x , find this solution in the form 12 Ina , where a is an integer.
6. Given that 9 sinh x  cosh x  8 , find the exact value of tanh x .
7. Solve the equation 5 cosh2 x  3 sinh 2 x  9.5 giving your answer in
logarithmic form.

24
1.10 LOGARITHM FORM OF INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
(a) Logarithmic form for sinh 1 x
Let y  sinh 1 x
sinh y  x
e y  ey
x
2
e y  e  y  2x
e 2 y  1  2 xe y
e 2 y  2 xe y  1  0
2x  4x 2  4
ey 
2
2x  2 x 2  1
ey 
2
e y  x  x2 1
 
y  In x  x 2  1 ignore () to avoid In ()
y  In x  x  1  But y  sinh x
2 1

sinh 1 x  In x  x  1 
2

(b) Logarithmic form for cosh 1 x

Let y  cosh1 x
cosh y  x
e y  e y
x
2
e y  e y  2 x
e 2 y  1  2 xe y
e 2 y  2 xe y  1  0
2x  4x2  4
e 
y

25
 2x  2 x2  1
e 
y

2
e y  x  x2 1

y  In x  x 2  1 
When it is ()
y  In x  x  1  2

y   In x  x  1 .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... (i)

2

When it is ()
 
y  In x  x 2  1 rationalize the numerator
 x  x 2  1  x  x 2  1 
y  In   
 1  x  x 2  1 
 
 x 2  ( x 2  1) 
y  In 

 x  x 1 
2


y  In
1 
  In x  x 2  1

1
 
 x  x 1 
2

 
y   In x  x 2  1 .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( ii)
Combine the equation (i) and equation (ii)

y   In x  x 2  1 but y  cosh1 x 

cosh1 x   In x  x 2  1 its double valued 
cosh1 x   In x   x2 1 
(c) Logarithmic form for tanh 1 x
Let y  tanh 1 x
tanh y  x
e y  e y
x
e y  e y

e y  e y  x e y  e y 
y y
e e
y
 xe  xe y

(1  x)e  (1  x)e  y
y

26
 ey 1 x

e y 1  x
1 x
e2 y 
1 x
1  x 
2 y  In 
1 x 
1 1  x 
y  In 
2 1 x 
1 x
y  In but y  tanh 1 x
1 x
1 x
tanh 1 x  In
1 x
1 1  x 
tanh 1 x  In  where x  1
2 1  x 

(d) Logarithmic form for cos ech 1 x

Let y  cos ech 1 x
1
cos echy  x  x
sinh y
x sinh y  1
 e y  ey 
x   1
 2 

x e y  ey  2
x e 2y

 1  2e y
xe 2 y  2e y  x  0
xe2 y  2e y  x  0
2  4  4x2
ey 
2x
1 1 x2
e 
y

27
 1  1  x2 
y  In  ignore () and y  cos ech 1 x
 x 
 
1 1 x 2 
cos ech 1 x  In  where x  0
 x 
 

(e) Logarithmic form for sec h 1 x

Let y  sec h 1 x
1
sec hy  x  x
cosh y
x cosh y  1
 e y  e y 
x   1
 2 

x e y  e y  2 
x e 2y

 1  2e y
xe2 y  2e y  x  0
2  4  4x2
e 
y

2x
1 1 x2
ey 
x
1 1 x2 
y  In  ignore (-)
 x 
 
 1 1 x2 
sec h  x x  In  where x  0
 x 
 

28
(f) Logarithmic form for coth 1 x
Let y  coth1 x
coth y  x
e y  e y
x
e y  e y
e y  e  y  xe y  e  y 
e y  e  y  xe y  xe y
( x  1)e  y  ( x  1)e yy
x 1 e y

x 1 e y
x 1
e2 y 
x 1
 x 1
2 y  In 
 x 1 
1  x 1
y  In 
2  x 1 
x 1
y  In but y  coth1 x
x 1
x 1
coth1 x  In
x 1

1  x 1
coth1 x  In 
2  x 1

Example 22
 x2  n2   
x
Prove that tanh 1  2   In  
2 
 x  n  n
Solution
Consider left hand side
 x2  n2 
Let y  tanh 1  2 
2 
 x n 
x2  n2
tanh y  2 2
x n

29
e y  e y x2  n2

e y  e y x 2  n2
e2 y  1 x 2  n2

e2 y  1 x 2  n2
e 2 y  1x 2  n 2   e 2 y  1x 2  n 2 
2n 2 e 2 y  2 x 2  0
2
x2  x 
e 2y
 2  
n n
2

e y 2  x
 
n
x
ey 
n
 x  x2  n2 
y  In   but y  tanh 1  2 
2 
n  x n 
 x2  n2   x
 tanh 1  2   In  
 x n n
2


Example 23
1
Given that sinh x  loge . Find the expression defining m .
m

Solution
Consider sinh 1 x  loge
m

sinh 1 x  In m 
x  sinh In m 
e In m   e  In m  m  1m m 2  1
x  
2 2 2m
m 1
2
x
2m
m  2mx  1  0
2

2x  4x2  4
m
2
2x  2 x2  1
m
2
 m  x  x2  1

30
Example 24
Given that tanh 1 x  Ina . Find the expression defining a 2 .
Solution
Consider tanh 1 x  Ina
x  tanh Ina
e Ina  e  Ina a  1a a 2  1
x  Ina  Ina  
e e a  1a a 2  1
a 2 1
x 2
a 1
 
x a  1  a 2 1
2

xa 2  x  a 2  1
1  x  a 2  xa 2
1  x  1  x a 2
1 x
a2 
1 x

Example 25
Show that cosh1 ( x 2 ) can be expressed as In ( x 2  x 4  1) , where x  1 .
Solution

Required to show, cosh1 x 2   In x 2  x 4  1 
Let y  cosh x 1 2

cosh y  x 2

e y  ey
 x2
2
e  e y  2x 2
y

e2 y  2x 2e y  1  0
2x 2  4x 4  4
ey 
2
e y  x 2  x 4 1

y  In x 2  x 4  1 

 cosh1 x 2   In x 2  x 4  1 
31
Example 26
Show that sinh 1 ( x 2 ) can be expressed as In ( x 2  x 4  1)
Solution
Let y  sinh 1 x 2
sinh y  x
e y  e y
 x2
2
e y  e  y  2x 2
e2 y 1  2x 2e y
e2 y  2x 2e y 1  0
2x 2  4x 4  4
ey 
2
2x 2  2 x 4 1
ey 
2
e y  x2  x4 1
 
y  In x 2  x 4  1 ignore () to avoid In ()
y  In x 2
 x  1  But y  sinh
4 1
x2
 sinh 1 x  In x  x  1 
2 2 4

Example 27
1 4
Show that cosh ( x ) can be expressed as In ( x 4  x 8  1) , where x  1 .
Solution
Required to show, cosh1 x 4  In x 4     x8 1 
Let y  cosh 1
x 4

cosh y  x 4

e y  ey
 x4
2
e y  ey  2x4
e 2 y  2x 4e y  1  0
2x 4  4x8  4
ey   x4  x8 1
2

y  In x 4  x8 1 
 
 cosh1 x 4  In x 4   x8 1 
32
Example 28
1 1 x2 
Show that tanh 1 ( x 2 ) can be expressed as In 
2  1  x 2 
Solution
Let y  tanh 1 x 2
tanh y  x 2
e y  ey
y
 x2
e e
y

e y  e  y  x 2 e y  e  y 
e y  e  y  x 2 e y  xe y
(1  x 2 )e y  (1  x 2 )e  y
e y 1 x2

ey 1 x2
1 x2
e2 y 
1 x2
1 x2 
2 y  In 
2 
1 x 
1 1 x2 
y In 
2  1  x 2 
1 x2
y  In but y  tanh 1 x 2
1 x2
1 1 x2
 tanh x  In 2

1 x2

Example 29
Solve cosh1 x  cos ech 1 x leave your answer in surd form
Solution
Given that cosh1 x  cos ech 1 x
Let cosh1 x  A
x  cosh A.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
Also cos ech 1 x  A
1 1
x  cos echA  
sinh A cosh2 A  1

33
 1
x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( ii)
cosh2 A  1
Substite equation (i) into equation (ii)
1
x square both side
x2  1

x2 x2  1  1 
x  x 1  0
4 2

By general formula

1 5
x2 
2
1 5
x ignore () to avoid square root of - ve number
2
1 5
x 
2

Example 30
Find the valid value of x if cosh1 x  sec h 1 x
Solution
Given that cosh1 x  sec h 1 x
Let cosh1 x  A
x  cosh A.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
Also sec h 1 x  A
x  sec hA
1
x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
cosh A
Substitute the equation (i) into equation (ii)
1
x
x
x  1, x  1
2

 The valid value of x is 1

34
 Exercise 1.2

1. Prove the identity sinh 1 x  In x  x 2  1 

2. Prove the identity cosh1 x   In x  x 2  1 
1 1 1 x 
3. Prove the identity tanh x  In , x  1
2 1 x 
1 1  x 1
4. Prove the identity coth x  In , x  1
2  x 1
1
5. Prove that cos ech x  sinh 
1 1
x

1.11 DERIVATIVE OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

(a) Derivative of basic hyperbolic functions

(i) Derivative of sinh x

e x  ex 1 x
Let y  sinh x   e  e  x 
2 2
x
e e
 e  e  x  
x
dy 1 x
 cosh x
dx 2 2

d
sinh x   cosh x
dx

(ii) Derivative of cosh x

e x  ex 1 x
Let y  cosh x   e  e  x 
2 2
x
e e
 e  e  x  
x
dy 1 x
 sinh x
dx 2 2

d
cosh x   sinh x
dx

35
(iii) Derivative of tanh x
e x  ex
Let y  tanh x  x
e  e x
dy (e x  e  x )(e x  e  x )  (e x  e  x )(e x  e  x )

dx (e x  e  x ) 2
dy (e x  e  x ) 2  (e x  e  x ) 2

dx (e x  e  x ) 2
2
dy  e x  e x 
 1   x x

dx e e 
dy
 1  tanh 2 x  sec h 2 x
dx
d
tanh x   sec h 2 x
dx

(iv) Derivative of cos echx

Let y  cos echx
1 2
y  x
sinh x e  e  x



dy  2 e x  e  x  
  x
2  e  e

 x
x x


dx 
e e
x x 2
 e e
x
 e  e
x

dy
  cos echx coth x
dx
d
cos echx   cos echx coth x
dx

(v) Derivative of sec hx

Let y  sec hx
1 2
y  x
cosh x e  e  x



dy  2 e x  e  x  
  x
2  e  e

 x
x x


dx 
e e
x x 2
  e  e x  e  e
x

dy
  sec hx tanh x
dx
d
sec hx   sec hx tanh x
dx

36
(vi) Derivative of coth x
e x  ex
Let y  coth x 
e x  e x
dy (e x  e  x )(e x  e  x )  (e x  e  x )(e x  e  x )

dx (e x  e  x ) 2
dy (e x  e  x ) 2  (e x  e  x ) 2

dx (e x  e  x ) 2
2
dy  e x  e x 
 1   x x

dx e e 
dy
 1  coth 2 x   cos ech 2 x
dx
d
coth x    cos ech 2 x
dx

NB: Derivative of hyperbolic functions use the same rules and techniques as
applied in calculus, for instance product rule, quotient rule, chain rule and etc.

Example 31
Find the derivative of the following functions;
(a) y  sinh( 2 x)
(b) y  cosh(x 3 )
(c) y  tanh( e x )
Solution
(a) y  sinh(2 x)
dy
  2 cosh 2 x
dx

(b) y  cosh(x 3 )
dy
  3x 2 sinh x 3
dx
 
(c) y  tanh( e x )
dy
  e x sec h 2 e x
dx
 

37
Example 32
Find the derivative of the following functions;
(a) y  e
cosh x

(b) y  sinh x 2  In cosh x 

Solution
(a) y  e cosh x

 sinh x e cosh x
dy

dx

(b) y  sinh x 2  In cosh x 

dy
  2 x cosh x 2  tanh x
dx

(b) Derivative of inverse hyperbolic functions

(i) Derivative of sinh 1 x

Let y  sinh 1 x
sinh y  x
Differentiate both side w.r.t x
dy
cosh y  1
dx
dy 1 1
  but sinh y  x
dx cosh y 1  sinh 2 y
dy 1

dx 1 x2
d
 
sinh 1 x 
1
dx x 2 1

38
(ii) Derivative of cosh 1 x
Let y  cosh1 x
cosh y  x
Differentiate both side w.r.t x
dy
sinh y  1
dx
dy 1 1
  but cosh y  x
dx sinh y cosh2 y  1
dy 1

dx x2 1

d
cosh1 x  
1
dx x2 1

(iii) Derivative of tanh 1 x

Let y  tanh 1 x
Differentiate w.r.t x
tanh y  x
dy
sec h 2 y 1
dx
dy 1 1
  but tanh y  x
dx sec h y 1  tanh 2 y
2

dy 1

dx 1  x 2

d
dx
 
tanh 1 x 
1
1 x2

39
(iv) Derivative of cos ech 1 x
Let y  cos ech 1 x
cos echy  x
Differentiate both side w.r.t x
dy
 cos echy coth y 1
dx
dy 1 1
  but cos echy  x
dx cos echy coth y cos echy 1  cos ech 2 y
dy 1

dx x 1  x 2

1
d
cos ech1 x  
dx x 1 x2

(v) Derivative of sec h 1 x

Let y  sec h 1 x
sec hy  x
Differentiate both side w.r.t x
dy
 sec hy tanh y  1
dx
dy 1 1
  but sec hy  x
dx sec hy tanh y sec hy 1  sec h 2 y
dy 1

dx x 1  x 2

1
d
sec h 1 x  
dx x 1 x2

40
(vi) Derivative of coth 1 x
Let y  coth 1 x
coth y  x
Differentiate both side w.r.t x
dy
 cos ech 2 y 1
dx
dy 1 1
  but coth y  x
dx cos ech y coth y  1
2 2

dy 1 1
 2 
dx x  1 1  x 2

d
dx

coth1 x 
1

1 x2

1.12 INTEGRATION OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

(i) Integration of sinh x

e x  ex e x  ex
 sinh xdx   2
1
  1
 
dx   e x  e  x dx  e x  e  x 
2 2 2
 cosh x  c

 sinh xdx  cosh x  c

(ii) Integration of cosh x
e x  ex e x  ex
 cosh xdx   2
1
  1
 
dx   e x  e  x dx  e x  e  x 
2 2 2
 sinh x  c

 cosh xdx  sinh x  c

(iii) Integration of tanh x
sinh x
 tanh xdx   cosh x dx  In (cosh x)  c

 tanh xdx  In(cosh x)  c

41
(iv) Integration of coth x
cosh x
 coth xdx   sinh x dx  In (sinh x)  c
 coth xdx  In(sinh x)  c
(v) Integration of sec hx tanh x
From
d
sec hx   sec hx tanh x
dx
d (sec hx)   sec hx tanh xdx
Integrate both sides

 d (sec hx)    sec hx tanh xdx

sec hx  c    sec hx tanh xdx

 sec hx tanh xdx   sec hx  c

(vi) Integration of cos echxcoth x

From
d
cos echx   cos echx coth x
dx
d (cos echx)   cos echx coth xdx
Integrate both sides

 d (cosechx)   cos echx coth xdx

cos echx  c    cos echxt coth xdx

 cos echxt coth xdx   cosechx  c

(vii) Integration of sec h 2 x
d
From (tanh x)  sec h 2 x
dx
d (tanh x)  sec h 2 xdx
Integrate both sides

 d (tanh x)   sec h xdx

2

tanh x  c   sec h xdx 2

 sec h xdx  tanh x  c

2

42
(viii) Integration of cos ech 2 x
d
From (coth x)   cos ech 2 x
dx
d (coth x)   cos ech 2 xdx
Integrate both sides

 d (coth x)   cos ech xdx

2

coth x  c    cos ech xdx 2

 cos ech xdx   coth x  c

2

Integration which involves hyperbolic inverse concepts

(a) Integration by using sinh inverse concepts

All integration of the following forms can be solved by sinh inverse concepts.
1
(i )  dx
a  b2 x2
2

(ii)  a 2  b 2 x 2 dx
1
(iii)  dx
a  b 2 x  c 
2 2

(iv)  a 2  b 2  x  c  dx
2

Integration of the above concepts

43
 1 1 b 
 a 2  b2 x2
dx 
b
sinh 1  x   c
a 

44
  a 2  b 2 x 2 dx 
a2
2b
 
sinh 1  ba x   12 sinh 2 sinh 1 ( ba x)  c

1
(iii)  dx
a 2  b 2 x  c 
2

Let x  c  ba sinh  , x  c   sinh 2  , dx  ba coshd

2 a2
b2

1
 a b2

2 a2
sinh 2

a
b coshd
b2

1
 a  a sinh 
2 2
coshd
2
a
b

1 1
 a 1  sinh 2  ba coshd   b 1  sinh 2  coshd
1 1 1 1
 b cosh2  coshd   b cosh coshd  b  d  b   c
But   sinh 1  ba ( x  c) 

dx  sinh 1  ba ( x  c)   D
1 1
 a 2  b 2 x  c 
2 b

sinh 1  ba ( x  c)   D
1 1
 a 2  b 2 x  c 
2
dx 
b

45
(iv)  a 2  b 2  x  c  dx
2

Let x  c  ba sinh  ,  x  c   sinh 2  , dx  ba coshd

2 a2
b2

 a2  b2  a2
b2
sinh 2   a
b coshd

 a  a sinh  coshd
2 2 2 a
b

 a 1  sinh  coshd
2 a
b

 1  sinh  coshd
a2 2
b

 cosh  coshd
a2 2
b

 cosh d but cosh   1  cosh 2 

a2 2 2 1
b 2

a2
b  1  cosh 2 d
1
2

a2
2b  1  cosh 2 d    sinh 2   c a2
2b
1
2

But   sinh 1  ba ( x  c) 

 a 2  b 2 x  c  dx 
2 a2
2b sinh  1 b
a  
( x  c)   12 sinh 2 sinh 1  ba ( x  c)   A

 a 2  b 2 x  c  dx 
2 a2
2b sinh  1 b
a  
( x  c)   12 sinh 2 sinh 1  ba ( x  c)   A

Example 33
1
Integrate  1 x2
dx

Solution
1
Given  dx.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
1 x2
Let x  sinh  , dx  coshd .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
1 1
 1  x 2 dx   1  sinh 2  coshd  d    c but   sinh x
1

1
 dx  sinh 1 x  c
1 x 2

46
Example 34
1
Integrate  9  4x2
dx

Solution
1 1
Given  dx   dx.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
9  4x 2 3 1   23 x 
2

Let 2
3 x  sinh  , dx  32 coshd .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)

 32 cosh d  12  d  12   c but   sinh 1  23 x 

1 1
3 1   x 2 2
dx  13 
1  sinh  2
3

dx  sinh 1  23 x   c
1 1

9  4x 2 2

Example 35
1
Integrate  3  2x 2
dx

Solution
1 1 1
Given  dx   dx.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i)
3  2x 2 3 1 2 x 2
3  
Let 2
3 x  sinh  , dx  3
2 coshd .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
1

1
dx 
1

1
 3

cosh d 
1
 d 
1
 c
 
2
3 1  23 x
2
3 1  sinh 2  2 2


1
dx 
1
sinh 1  2
3 
x c
3  2x 2
2

Example 36
Integrate  1  x  12 dx
Solution
 1   x  1 dx.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( i )
2

Let  x  1  sinh  , dx  coshd .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)

 1   x  1 dx  
2
 1  sinh  coshd   cosh d  
2 2 1
2 1  cosh 2 d
 1   x  1 dx 
2 1
2   12 sinh 2   12   14 sinh 2  c but   sinh 1  x  1

  1   x  1 dx  12 sinh 1  x  1  14 sinh 2 sinh 1  x  1  c

2
 

47
(b) Integration by using cosh inverse concepts

All integration of the following forms can be solved by cosh inverse concepts
1
(i )  dx
b x  a2
2 2

(ii)  b 2 x 2  a 2 dx
1
(iii)  b x  c   a 2
2 2
dx

 b 2  x  c   a 2 dx
2
(iv)

Evaluate the above concepts

1
(i )  dx
b2 x2  a2
x  ba cosh , x 2  ba2 cosh2  , dx  ba sinh d
2


1
dx  
1
 ba sinh d
b x a
2 2 2
b 
2 a2
b2
cosh   a
2
 2


1
 ba sinh d
a cosh   a
2 2 2

a
b
sinh d  1  1
sinh d  1  d  1   c
cosh   1 2 b sinh  2 b b
But   cosh1  ba x 

dx  cosh1  ba x   c
1 1
 b2 x2  a2 b

dx  cosh1  ba x   c
1 1
 b2 x2  a 2 b

48
(ii)  b 2 x 2  a 2 dx
x  ba cosh , x 2  a2
b2
cosh2  , dx  ba sinh d

 b 2 x 2  a 2 dx   b 2  a2
b2

cosh2   a 2  ba sinh  d

 a 2 cosh2   a 2  ba sinh  d

 a2
b cosh2   1sinh  d  a2
b  sinh 2  sinh  d  a2
b  sinh
2
d
But sinh 2   cosh 2  1 1
2

b  sinh d  b  2 cosh 2  1d  2 b  2 sinh 2     c

2 2 2 2
a a 1 a 1

But   cosh1  ba x 

 b x  a dx  2ab 12 sinh 2cosh  ba x   cosh  ba x   c

2 2 2 1 2 1

 b2 x 2  a 2 dx  a2b
2
 1
2
 
sinh 2 cosh1  ba x   cosh1  ba x   c 

1
(iii)  b x  c   a
2 2 2
dx

x  c  ba cosh , x  c   cosh2  , dx  ba sinh d

2 a2
b2


1
dx  
1
 ba sinh d
b x  c   a
2 2 2
b 
2 a2
b2
cosh   a
2
 2


1
 ba sinh d
a cosh   a
2 2 2

a
b
sinh d  1  1
sinh d  1  d  1   c
cosh   1 2 b sinh  2 b b
But   cosh1  ba ( x  c) 

dx  cosh1  ba ( x  c)   D
1 1
 b x  c   a
2 b 2 2

dx  cosh1  ba ( x  c)   D
1 1
 b x  c   a
2 b 2 2

49
  b 2  x  c   a 2 dx
2
(iv)
Let x  c  ba cosh , x  c   cosh2  , dx  ba sinh d
2 a2
b2

 b 2  x  c   a 2 dx   b 2
2
 a2
b2

cosh2   a 2  ba sinh  d

 a 2 cosh2   a 2  ba sinh  d

a2 a2
 a cosh   1 ba sinh d   sinh 2  sinh  d 
b 
sinh 2 d
2

b
But sinh 2   cosh 2  1
1
2

b  sinh d  b  2 cosh 2  1d  2 b  2 sinh 2     c

2 2 2 2
a a 1 a 1

But   cosh1  ba x 

 b x  c   a dx  2ab 12 sinh 2cosh  ba x   cosh  ba x   c

2 2 2 2 1 1

b 
But   cosh1   x  c 
a 
a 1
2
 1  b  1  b  
 b 2
 x  c 2
 a 2
dx   sinh 2
 cosh   x  c   
  cosh   x  c    C
2b  2  a  a 

50
Example 37
1
Integrate  3x 2  5
dx

Solution
1 1 1
 dx   dx.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
3x 2  5 5  x 1
3
5
2

Let 3
5 x  cosh , dx  5
3 sinh d .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
1

1
dx 
1

1
 5

sinh  d 
1
 d 
1
 c
 x 1
3
5 3
2
5 cosh2   1 3 3
5


1
dx 
1
cosh1  x  c
3
5
3x  52
3

Example 38
1
Integrate  x2  4
dx

Solution
1 1 1
 x 4
2
dx  
2  x 2
dx.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
  1
2
x
Let  cosh , dx  2 sinh d .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
2
1 1 1 1
2 sinh d   d    c
2
dx  
 
x
2 2 cosh 2
  1
  1
2
1  x
 dx  cosh1    c
x 4
2
2

51
Example 39
1
Integrate  16x 2  1
dx

Solution
1 1
 16x  1 2
dx  
4 x 2  1
dx.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )

Let 4 x  cosh , dx  14 sinh d .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)


1
dx  
1
 14 sinh d  14  d  14   c
16x  1 2
cosh   12

dx  14 cosh1 4 x   c
1

16x  1 2

(c) Integration by using tanh inverse or coth inverse concepts

1
(i)  2 dx
a  b2 x2
1
(ii)  2 dx
a  b 2 x  
2

Evaluation of the above Integral

1
(i )  2 dx
a  b2 x2
Let x  ba tanh  , x 2  ba2 tanh 2  , dx  ba sec h 2d
2

 sec h 2d 
1 1
a 2
b x
2 2
dx   2
a  b b2 tanh 2 
2 a2

a
b

sec h 2
a
b sec h 
a 2

 a 2  a 2 tanh 2     a 2 1  tanh 2  d   d   c

b 1 1
d ab ab

 a 2  b 2 x 2 dx  ab1 tanh  ba x   c
1

tanh 1  ba x   c
1
a 2
 b2 x2
dx  1
ab

52
Alternative
1
 a 2  b 2 x 2 dx
Let x  ba coth , x 2  a2
b2
coth2  , dx   ba cosech 2d

a
1
dx   2
1
 ba cosech 2d 
 
2
b x
2 2
a  b b 2 coth 
2 a2 2

 ba cosech 2  ba cosech 2
 a 2  a 2 coth2  d    a 2 coth2   1d  1
ab  d  1
ab  c

 a 2  b 2 x 2 dx  ab1 coth ba x   c
1

coth1  ba x   c
1
a 2
 b2 x2
dx  1
ab

Example 40
1
Integrate  16  9 x 2
dx

Solution

1 1
 16  9 x 2
dx  161 
1   34 x 
2
dx.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i)

Let 3
4 x  tanh  , dx  43 sec h 2d .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( ii)

 16  9 x
1 1
dx 
1
16 1  tanh 
2 2 3 sec h  d 
4 2 1
12 
1

d    c
12

1 1 3 
 dx  tanh 1  x   c
16  9 x 2
12 4 

53
 1
(ii) a 2
 b x  c 
2 2
dx

Let x  c  ba tanh  ,  x  c   tanh 2  , dx  ba sec h 2d

2 a2
b2

 
1 1
a 2
b 2
x  c  2
dx  
a b
2

2 a2
tanh 2 
a
b sec h 2d
b2

sec h 2
a
b sec h 
a 2

 a 2  a 2 tanh 2  d   a 2 1  tanh 2  d     d   c
b 1 1
ab ab

 a 2  b 2 x  c 2 dx  ab1 tanh  ba ( x  c)  c

1

dx  ab1 tanh  ba ( x  c)  c

1
a 2
 b x  c 
2 2

Alternative
1
 a 2  b 2 x  c 2 dx
Let x  c  ba coth ,  x  c   coth2  , dx   ba cosech 2d
2 a2
b2

 coth   
1 1
a 2
 b x  c 
2 2
dx  
a b
2 2 a2 2
a
b cosech 2d
b2

 ba cosech 2  ba cosech 2
 a 2  a 2 coth2  d     a 2 coth2   1 d   
1
ab  d  1
ab A

 a 2  b 2 x  c 2 dx  ab1 coth ba ( x  c)  A

1

dx  ab1 coth ba ( x  c)   A
1
a 2
 b x  c 
2 2

54
(d) Integration by using sech inverse concepts
1
(i )  dx
x a2  b2 x2
(ii)  x a 2  b 2 x 2 dx
1
(iii)  dx
x a  b 2 ( x  c) 2
2

(iv)  x a 2  b 2 ( x  c) 2 dx

Evaluation of the above Integral

i  1
dx
x a2  b2 x2
Let x  ba sec h , x 2  a2
b2
sec h 2 , dx   ba sec h tanh d

1
sec h 1  ba x   c
1
x a b x
2 2 2
dx 
a

55
ii  x a 2  b 2 x 2 dx

Let x  ba sec h , x 2  a2
b2
sec h 2 , dx   ba sec h tanh d

 x a  b x dx   3ab2 tanh sec h ba x  c

2 2 2 3 1 3
 

iii 1
dx
x a  b 2 x  c 
2 2

Let x  ba sec h , x 2  a2
b2
sec h 2 , dx   ba sec h tanh d

1
sec h 1  ba ( x  c)   A
1
x a 2  b 2 ( x  c) 2
dx 
a

56
iv x a 2  b 2 x  c  dx
2

Let x  ba sec h , x 2  a2
b2
sec h 2 , dx   ba sec h tanh d

x 
a 2  b 2 ( x  c) 2 dx   3ab2 tanh 3 sec h1  ba ( x  c)  B
3


(e) Integration by using cosech inverse concepts

1
(i )  dx
x a  b2 x2
2

(ii)  x a 2  b 2 x 2 dx
1
(iii)  dx
x a  b 2 ( x  c) 2
2

(iv)  x a 2  b 2 ( x  c) 2 dx

57
Integration of the above concepts
1
(i )  dx
x a  b2 x2
2

Let x  ba cos ech , x 2  a2

b2
cos ech2 , dx   ba cos ech cothd

x
1
dx  
1
 ba cosech cothd 
a b x
2 2 2 a
b
cos ech a  b 2

2 a2
b2
cos ech 
2

 ba cos ech coth  coth  coth
 a
cos ech a  a cos ech 
2 2 2
d  
a  a cos ech 
2 2 2
d  
a 1  cos ech2
d
b

 coth 1 1
 d   d    c but   cos ech1  ba x 
a coth  2 a a
1
cos ech1  ba x   c
1
x a b x
2 2 2
dx 
a

1
cos ech1  ba x   c
1
x a 2  b2 x 2
dx 
a

(ii)  x a 2  b 2 x 2 dx
Let x  ba cos ech , x 2  ba2 cos ech2 , dx   ba cos echx cothd
2

 x a  b x dx  
2 2 2 a
b cos ech a 2  b 2  a2
b2

cos ech2  ba cos ech cothd 

  cosech a  a
a
b
2 2

cos ech2  ba cos ech coth d    ba2 cos ech2 coth2 d
3

du
Let u  coth , du   cos ech2d , d 
 cos ech2
du
  ba2 cosech  coth d   ba2  cosech  u  cosech2  ba2  u du  3ab2 u  c
3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 3 3

x a 2  b 2 x 2 dx  3ab2 coth3   c but   cos ech1  ba x 

3

x a 2  b 2 x 2 dx  3ab2 coth3 cos ech1  ba x   c

3

x 
a 2  b 2 x 2 dx  3ab2 coth3 cos ech1  ba x   c
3


58
 1
(iii)  dx
x a  b 2 x  c 
2 2

Let x  c  ba cos ech , ( x  c) 2  ba2 cos ech2 , dx   ba cos ech cothd

2

x
1
dx  
1
 ba cos ech cothd 
a  b x  c 
2 2 2 a
b cos ech a  b 2

2 a2
b2
cos ech 2

 ba cos ech coth  coth  coth
 a
cos ech a 2  a 2 cos ech2
d  
a 2  a 2 cos ech2
d  
a 1  cos ech2
d
b

 coth 1 1
 d   d    c but   cos ech1  ba ( x  c) 
a coth  2 a a
1
cos ech1  ba ( x  c)   A
1
x a 2  b 2 x  c 
2
dx 
a

1
cos ech 1  ba ( x  c)   A
1
x a 2  b 2 x  c 
2
dx 
a

(iv)  x a 2  b 2 x  c  dx
2

Let x  c  ba cosech , ( x  c) 2  a2
cosech2 , dx   ba cosech cothd

 x a  b x  c  dx    cosech a  b  cosech  

b2

cosech cothd 
2 2 2 a 2 2 a2 2 a
b b2 b

  cosech a  a cosech   cosech coth d

a 2 2 2 a
b b

  cosech  coth d    cosech  coth  d

a3 a3
2 2 2 2
b2 b2

du
Let u  coth , du   cosech2d , d 
 cosech2
du
Therefore,  ba 2  cosech2coh2 d   ba 2  cosech2 u 2
3 3

 cosech2
 ba 2  u 2 du  3ab 2 u 3  D but u  coth and   cosech1  ba ( x  c) 
3 3

x a 2  b 2 x  c  dx  3ab 2 coth3   D
2 3

x a 2  b 2 x  c  dx  3ab 2 coth3 cosech1  ba ( x  c)   D

2 3
 
x a 2  b 2 x  c  dx 
2 a3
3b 2

coth3 cos ech1  ba ( x  c)   D 
59
Example 41
Integrate the following
1
(a)
x 1  x2
dx

1
(b) x 1 x 2
dx

Solution
1
(a)  dx
x 1  x2
Let x  sec h , dx   sec h tanh d
1
 sec h 1  sec h 2  sec h tanh  d  d   c
1
 dx  sec h 1 x  c
x 1 x 2

1
(b)  dx
x 1  x2
Let x  cos ech , dx   cos ch tanh d
1
 cos ech  cos ch tanh  d   d   c
1  cos ech 2
1
 dx  cos ech 1 x  c
x 1 x 2

Exercise 1.3
1. Differentiate sinh 1  ax  where a  0 .
2. Differentiate cosh1  ax  where a  0 .
3. Differentiate  
y  sec h 1 x 2
4. Differentiate y  cos ech 1 tan x 
5. Differentiate y  sinh 1 tan x 
1
6.  64  100x 2
dx

60
 1
7.  3  11x 2
dx

1
8.  5x 2  4
dx

1
9.  2  7x 2
dx

GENERAL EXAMPLES

Example 42
The curve C has equation y  cosh x  3 sinh x ;
(a) The line y  1 meets C at the point k ,1 show that e 2 k  e k  2  0 .
(b) Hence, find k giving your answer in the form Ina .
Solution
a  y  cosh x  3 sinh x
meets y  1 at k ,1
This gives  1  cosh k  3 sinh k
ek  e k  ek  e k 
1   3 
2  2 
 2  2e k  4e  k ,  1  e k  2e  k
 e k  e 2 k  2
 e2k  ek  2  0

b  From e2 k  ek  2  0
e k

 2 ek  1  0 
ek  2  0
ek  2
 k  In 2

Example 43
1 1 1 8
Solve for x if tanh 3x  tanh x  tanh  
 13 
61
Solution
8
tanh 1 3 x  tanh 1 x  tanh 1  
 13 
Let A  tanh 1 3x, tanh A  3 x
B  tanh 1 x, tanh B  x
Now, A  B  tanh 1 138 
tanh  A  B   138
tanh A  tanh B 8

1  tanh A tanh B 13
3x  x 8

1  3 x( x) 13
6 x 2  13x  2  0
 x  2, x  16

Example 44
1  tanh x
1
Evaluate  1  tanh x dx
0

Solution
e x  ex
1 1
1  tanh x
   
1 1
e x  e  x dx  e 2 x dx  1 e 2 x
0 1  tanh x 0 e x  e  x 0
1
dx  2 0  12 e 2  1
1  x x
e e
1  tanh x
 
1
 dx  12 e 2  1
0
1  tanh x

Example 45
If y  A cosh mx  B sinh mx where A and B are constant, prove that y   m 2 y
Solution
y  A cosh mx  B sinh mx
y   mA sinh mx  mB cosh mx
y   m 2 A cosh mx  m 2 B sinh mx
y   m 2  A cosh mx  B sinh mx 
 y   m 2 y

62
Example 46
Show that cosh2 x sin2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x  12 1  cosh2x cos2 x
Solution
Consider L.H.S cosh2 x sin 2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x
cosh2 x sin 2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x  cosh2 x1  cos2 x   sinh 2 x cos2 x
cosh2 x sin 2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x  cosh2 x  cosh2 x cos2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x
cosh2 x sin 2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x  cosh2 x  cosh2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x
cosh2 x sin 2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x  cosh2 x  cosh 2 x cos2 x
cosh2 x sin 2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x  1
2 1  cosh 2 x   cosh 2 x cos2 x
cosh2 x sin 2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x  12  12 cosh 2 x  cosh 2 x cos2 x
cosh2 x sin 2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x  12  12 cosh 2 x1  2 cos2 x 
cosh2 x sin 2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x  12  12 cosh 2 x2 cos2 x  1
 cosh2 x sin 2 x  sinh 2 x cos2 x  1
2 1  cosh 2 x cos 2 x 

Example 47
dy
If x  a cosh and y  b tanh  , find
dx
Solution
dx
x  a cosh ,  a sinh  .......... .......... .......... (i )
d
dy
y  b tanh  ,  b sec h 2 .......... .......... .......( ii)
d
dy dy d 1 b sec h 2
From,    b sec h 2  
dx d dx a sinh  a sinh 
dy b sec h  2
 
dx a sinh 

Example 48
2  3x
If tanh 1 x  tanh 1 y  In 5 , prove that y 
3  2x
Solution

63
Consider tanh 1 x  tanh 1 y  In 5
A  tanh 1 x, tanh A  x
B  tanh 1 y, tanh B  y
Now, A  B  In 5
tanh  A  B   tanh In 5  
tanh A  tanh B e In 5
 e  In 5

1  tanh A tanh B e In 5
 e  In 5

x y 5 1 5

1  xy 5 1 5
x y 2

1  xy 3
3 x  3 y  2  2 xy
3  2 x  y  2  3x
2  3x
y 
3  2x

Example 49
Given that a cosh x  b sinh x  r coshx    where a  b  0 . Show that
1  ab
  In .
2  a b 
Solution
a cosh x  b sinh x  r cosh x   
a cosh x  b sinh x  r cosh x cosh  r sinh x sinh 
Equate
a  r cosh .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
b  r sinh  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( ii)
Divide equation (ii) by equation (i)
b
 tanh 
a
 b  1 1 b  1  a  b 
  tanh 1    In b a   In 
 a  2 1 a  2  a  b 
1 ab
  In 
2  a b

64
Example 50
cosh x  sinh x
Find the possible values of sinh x if 9
sinh x cosh x
Solution
cosh x  sinh x
9
sinh x cosh x
cosh2 x  sinh 2 x  9
1  sinh 2 x  sinh 2 x  9
2 sinh 2 x  8
sinh 2 x  4
 sinh x  2

Example 51
ae x  be x
If a  b  0 , prove that b  a.
e x  ex
Solution
ae x  be x
We need to show if its true b   a.......... ....( i )
e x  ex
ae x  be x
Consider b 
e x  ex

b e x  ex   ae x  be x
x
be  be
x
 ae x  be x
be x  ae x
b  a which is true 
ae x  be x
Also consider  a.......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
e x  ex
ae x  be x 
 a e x  ex 
ae x  be x  ae x  ae x
be x  ae x
b  a which is true 
ae x  be x
 0  b  a, then b  a
e x  ex

65
Example 52
1  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
Show that  coth x
1  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
Solution
1  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x 1  2 cosh2 x  1  2 sinh x cosh x

1  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x 1  2 sinh x  1  2 sinh x cosh x
1  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x cosh2 x  sinh x cosh x

1  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  sinh 2 x  sinh x cosh x
1  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x cosh x  sinh x cosh x

1  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x cosh x  sinh x sinh x
1  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
  coth x
1  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x

Example 53
1 1
Solve for x from e sinh x  1  e cosh x

Solution
1 1
e sinh x
 1  e cosh x

In  x  x 2 1  In  x  x 2 1 
e  
 1 e  

x   
x 2  1  1  x  x 2 1 
x 2  1  1  x 2 1
Square both sides
x 2 1  1  2 x 2 1  x 2 1
1  2 x 2 1
Square both sides

1  4 x 2 1 
1  4x 2  4
x2  5
4

x   2
5

66
Example 54
 x y 
Show that tanh 1 x  tanh 1 y  tanh 1   .
 1  xy 
Solution
Consider L.H.S
Let A  tanh 1 x, tanh A  x
B  tanh 1 y, tanh B  y
A  B  tanh 1 tanh  A  B 
 tanh A  tanh B 
A  B  tanh 1 
1  tanh A tanh B 
 x y
A  B  tanh 1  
1  xy 
 x y 
 tanh 1 x  tanh 1 y  tanh 1  
 1  xy 

Alternatively
Consider L.H.S
Let P  tanh 1 x  tanh 1 y
Let A  tanh 1 x, tanh A  x
B  tanh 1 y, tanh B  y
Then, P  A  B
tanh P  tanh  A  B 
tanh A  tanh B
tanh P 
1  tanh A tanh B
x y
tanh P 
1  xy
 x y 
P  tanh 1  
 1  xy 
 x y 
 tanh 1 x  tanh 1 y  tanh 1  
 1  xy 

67
Example 55
x
1 e
Show that can be expressed as where m is an
5 cosh x  3 sinh x m  e2x
integer.
Solution
1 1

5 cosh x  3 sinh x  e  e   e x  ex
x x

5   3 
 2   2 
1 1
 5 x 5 x 3 x 3 x
5 cosh x  3 sinh x 2 e  2 e  2 e  2 e
1 1
 x
5 cosh x  3 sinh x e  4e  x
1 ex
 
5 cosh x  3 sinh x 4  e 2 x

Example 56
Solve the equation cosh1 5 x  sinh 1 4 x
Solution
cosh1 5 x  sinh 1 4 x
cosh1 5 x  sinh 1 4 x  0
Let A  cosh1 5 x, cosh A  5 x, sinh A  25x 2  1
B  sinh 1 4 x, sinh B  4 x, cosh B  16x 2  1
Then, A  B  0
sinh A  B   sinh 0
sinh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B  0
sinh A cosh B  cosh A sinh B
 25x  1 16x  1  5x4x
2 2

Square both sides

25x 2
 
 1 16x 2  1  400x 4
400x  25x  16x 2  1  400x 4
4 2

9x 2  1
x2  1
9

 x   13
68
Alternative 1
cosh1 5 x  sinh 1 4 x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
By definition
 
cosh1 5 x  In 5 x  25x 2  1 .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
sinh 1 4 x  In 4 x 
16x 2  1 .......... .......... .......... ....( iii)
Substitute equations (ii) and (iii) into equation (i)
  
In 5 x  25x 2  1  In 4 x  16x 2  1 
5 x  25x 2  1  4 x  16x 2  1
x  25x 2  1  16x 2  1
Suquare both sides then simplify
9x 2  1
x2  1
9

 x   13

Alternative 2
cosh1 5 x  sinh 1 4 x.......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i)
cosh1 5 x  sinh 1 4 x  0
Let A  cosh1 5 x, cosh A  5 x.......... .......... ...(ii)
Then, A  sinh 1 4 x, sinh A  4 x.......... .......... ...(iii)
Divide equation (iii) by equation (ii)
sinh A 4 x

cosh A 5 x
tanh A  54
A  tanh 1  54  but A  cosh1 5 x
cosh1 5 x  tanh 1  54 
 
5 x  cosh tanh 1  54 
x 1
5 coshtanh   1 4
5

 x  13

69
Alternative 3
cosh1 5 x  sinh 1 4 x.......... .......... .......... .......... ...( i )
cosh1 5 x  sinh 1 4 x  0
Let A  cosh1 5 x, cosh A  5 x.......... .......... ...( ii)
Then, A  sinh 1 4 x, sinh A  4 x.......... .......... ...( iii)
Divide equation (iii) by equation (ii)
sinh A 4 x

cosh A 5 x
tanh A  54
A  tanh 1  54  but A  sinh 1 4 x
sinh 1 4 x  tanh 1  54 
 
4 x  sinh tanh 1  54 
x 1
4 sinhtanh  
1 4
5

x  1
3

1.13 APPLICATIONS OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

The hyperbolic functions have numerous applications in physics. I will
enumerate several applications of particular importance.
Special Relativity: The Lorentz transformation can be interpreted as a
hyperbolic rotation of Minkowski space. In particular, this is most evident from
the velocity addition formula, which is analogous to the hyperbolic tangent
addition formula.
Wave Equation: The wave equation, a fundamental result in classical physics is
an example of a hyperbolic partial differential equation, and thus these
functions often appear in classical physics problems.
Heat Conduction: Relativistic heat conduction is best modeled by another
hyperbolic partial differential equation. Interestingly enough, this equation is
analogous to the Telegrapher's equation, which is used to model voltage and
current on a transmission line.
Fluid Dynamics: Depending on initial conditions, some solutions of the Navier-
Stokes equations can be hyperbolic

70
REVISION EXERCISE 1
1. Solve for x given that,
a) 4(cosh Inx)  sinh In   7
x
2
 x  x
b) cosh In   2 sinh In   3
 2  3
 x  2
c) 2 tanh 1    In 2
 x 1 
2. If x  0.5In5 , find (a) cosh 2x (b) sinh x
3. If y  In 3 and x  In 2 , evaluate the following in form of a b where b  0
(a) sinh 2( x  y ) (b) tanh( x  y )
1
4. Show that cosh x is double value.
5. If sec  tan   e u , show that (a). coshu  sec (b). sinh u  tan 

6. If tan x  sinh  , prove that   In (sec x  tan x)

7. If sinh x  tan y , show that x  In (tan y  sec y ) .
8. Given that y  tanh 1 x, show that tanh 1 x  1 In 1  x  , when x  1 .
2 1 x 
e 1
2y

9. If tanh 1 x  y , show that x  and hence express in logarithmic

e2 y  1
form.
 x2  a2    x
10. Prove that tanh 1  2   In   .
2 
x a  a
11. Suppose sinh x  loge a . Find the expression defining a .
1

12. (a) Find the condition for equation a cosh x  b sinh x  c , should have
equal roots.
(b) Show that the condition of the equation a cosh x  sinh x  b  0 where
by a and b are real constants to have real roots is a 2  b 2  1
13. Prove that the point a cosh t , b sinh t  lie on the branch of
x2 y2
hyperbola 2  2  1 .
a b

14. Show that,

 x2  1
a) tanh 1  2   Inx
 x  1

71
 1  tanh x
b)  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  e 2 x
1  tanh x
1  cosh Inx  sinh Inx 
c)   1
e  cosh Inx  sinh Inx 
2 Inx

15. Show that cosh1 ( x 2 ) can be expressed as In ( x 2  x 4  1) , where x  1 .

16. Using the definition of cosh x , show that
cosh(m  1) x  cosh(m  1) x  2 sinh mx sinh x .
17. Find the critical values of y  cosh x and hence sketch it, from the sketch
deduce the domain and range.
18. Prove that sin( x  iy)  sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y .
19. If x is very large show that;
(a) In (cosh x)  x  In 2 (b) In (sinh x)  x  In 2 (c) In (tanh x )  0
20. Solve the following simultaneous equations, sinh x  cosh y  5 and
sinh 2 x  cosh2 y  13 leave your answer in natural logarithms.
5 1
21. Given that sinh 1 x  sec h 1 x , show that x 
2
x2 x4
22. Show that when x is small In (cosh x)    ... and that when x is
2 12
large In (cosh x)  x  In 2
23. Given that y  sinh x  k cosh x , show that the least value is y  k  1
2

1  k 1 
and this occurs at x  In  , where k is constant and k  1 .
2  k 1
24. Show that the minimum value of sinh x  n cosh x is n 2  1 and this
 n 1 
occurs x  0.5In 
 n 1
25. By using definition of sinh x and cosh x prove that
(sinh x  cosh x) n  cosh nx  sinh nx
26. Show that cosh x  sinh x  cosh x  sinh x   2 cosh(mx) where
m m
m is
a real number and hence solve cosh x  sinh x  cosh x  sinh x  5
5 5

27. If sinh  tan x , sin x  tanh  , prove that   In tan x   

 2 4 
28. Show that cosh x  sinh x .
29. Solve for x if 5 cosh x  13sinh x  12sinhIn 2 .

72
 Chapter Two
VECTORS
Introduction
A physical quantity is a physical property of a phenomenon, body, or substance
that can be quantified by measurement.
Types of quantities
There are two types of physical quantities which are;
(a) Scalar quantity is the quantity which has magnitude only,
eg speed, weight, mass, time, temperature etc.
(b) Vector quantity is the quantity which has both magnitude and direction,
eg Acceleration, velocity, force, momentum, etc.
Definition
Vectors are physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction.
Presentation of vectors
A vector is always presented by capital letters with an arrow on top for instance
vector AB also vector can be presented by small letter with a bar on bottom
for example a or v .

2.1 TERMINOLOGIES USED IN VECTORS

(a) Displacement vectors are vectors which initiate from one point and ends
to another point with a specified direction, eg AB is a vector having
initial point A and end point B likewise to vector CD

fig 2. 1

73
(b) Position vectors are vectors which originate from the origin, eg vector
OA

fig 2. 2

(c) Parallel vectors are vectors having the same direction, eg vectors AB
and CD are parallel vectors.

fig 2. 3

(d) Negative or Opposite Vectors these are vectors having the same
magnitude but different direction, eg vectors a and b are opposite
vectors.

fig 2. 4

74
(e) Equal vectors are vectors having the same magnitude and direction, eg
vectors AB and CD are equal vectors.

fig 2. 5

(f) Null or Zero vectors are vectors which have magnitude of zero, eg
a  (0,0) or a  (0,0,0)

(g) Free vectors are vectors which originate from any point.

fig 2. 6

(h) Collinear vectors are vectors which lie on the same line, for instance
vectors a, b, c and d are vectors which lies on the same line.

fig 2. 7

(i) Coplanar vectors are vectors which lie on the same plane, for example
vectors a, b, c and d lie in the same plane.

fig 2. 8

75
2.2 COMPONENTS OF VECTORS
Components of vectors depend on the dimension of vectors either two
dimension or three dimension.

(i) Two dimension vectors

Two dimension vectors are vectors which have two coordinates and can be
located in xy plane as shown below, consider the vector v  xi  yj where
x and y corresponds with i and j respectively

fig 2. 9

 x
The above vector can be expressed in coordinate form as v  ( x, y) or v   
 y

(ii) Three dimension vector

Three dimension vectors are vectors which have three coordinates and can be
located in xyz plane as shown below, consider the vector v  xi  yj  zk where
x, y and z corresponds with i , j and k respectively.

fig 2. 10

 x
 
The above vector can be expressed in coordinate form as v  ( x, y, z ) or v   y 
z
 

76
2.3 OPERATION OF VECTORS
Vectors can be operated in three forms which are Addition, Subtraction and
Multiplication.

(a) Addition of vectors

Addition of vectors lets say vectors a and b results to resultant vector a  b

fig 2. 11

OA  AB  OB
ab  c

c  a  b where c is resultant vector of vectors a and b

LAWS OF VECTORS ADDITION

Laws of vectors addition are categorized into three types which are Triangular,
Parallelogram and Polygonal laws of vectors addition.

(i) Triangular law of vectors addition

Triangular law of vector addition is a law which express the given two vectors
into resultant vector, consider vectors c  a  b by applying triangular law
results to resultant vector a  b

fig 2. 12

77
 (ii) Parallelogram law of vectors addition
Parallelogram law of vectors addition is a law which express the given two
vectors into resultant vector, consider vectors c  a  b by applying
parallelogram law results to resultant vector r

fig 2. 13

(iii)Polygonal law of vectors addition

Polygonal law of vector addition is a law which express more than two vectors
into resultant vector, consider vectors a , b and c by applying polygonal law
results to resultant vector a  b  c

fig 2. 14

The resultant of the vectors above is r  a  b  c

78
PROPERTIES OF VECTORS ADDITION
(i) Vector addition are commutative, i.e. a  b  b  a
Proof:
Consider the figure below

fig 2. 15

From the figure above the resultant of vectors a and b can be

evaluated by using two consideration,
Consider OAB, OA  AB  OB, a  b  r.......... .......... ....( i )
Also consider OCB, OC  CB  OB, b  a  r.......... ........( ii)
Equate equation (i) and equation (ii)
a b ba

(ii) Vector addition are associative, i.e. a  b  c  a   b  c 

Proof:
Consider the figure below

fig 2. 16

79
 
Consider a  b   c  OA  AB  BC 
a  b   c  OB  BC
a  b   c  OC.......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i)
Also consider a  b  c   OA  AB  BC 
a  b  c   OA  AC
a  b  c   OC.......... .......... .......... .......... ......( ii)
Equate equation (i) and equation (ii)

a  b  c  a  b  c

(b) Subtraction of vectors

Consider the figure below which shows the subtraction of two vectors

fig 2. 17

Consider the above OA  AB  OB, AB  OB  OA, AB  b  a

AB  b  a

(c) Multiplication of vectors

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar changes the magnitude of the vector, but
leaves its direction unchanged. The scalar changes the size of the vector. The
scalar "scales" the vector.

80
2.4 MODULUS OF VECTORS

Magnitude of vector is the length or size of the vector. Modulus of vector

sometime is called magnitude or absolute value of vectors
Consider the figure below which represent vector v  xi  y j . The magnitude

of vector v is denoted by v

fig 2. 18

Apply Pythagoras Theorem

v  x2  y2
2

The modulus of vector in two dimension is given by

v  x2  y2

Also consider a vector in three dimension v  xi  y j  z k .

fig 2. 19

The modulus of vectors in three dimension is given by v x2  y2  z2

81
Example 1
Given that a  2i  j  2k and b  3i  3 j  k , find a  b .
Solution
a  2i  j  2k and b  3i  3 j  k
a  b  2i  j  2k   3i  3 j  k   5i  4 j  3k

 a  b  5 2  4 2  32  5 2

Example 2
Find a vector in the direction of vector 5i  j  2k which has magnitude of
8 units.
Solution
Required a vector of 8 units in adirection of vector 5i  j  2k
Let the required vector "b " in the direction a  5i  j  2k
b  8aˆ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
a 5i  j  2k 5i  j  2k
aˆ    .......... .......... .......... ......( ii)
a 5  (1)  2
2 2 2
30
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
 5i  j  2k 
b  8 
8
5i  j  2k 
 30  30

 A vector is
8
5i  j  2k 
30

Example 3
Find the vector parallel to the vector i  2 j and has magnitude 10 units.
Solution
Required a vector of 10 units in parallel to vector i  2 j
Let the required vector " b " in the direction a  i  2 j
b  10aˆ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
a i2j i2j
aˆ    .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( ii)
a 12  (2) 2 5

82
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
i2j
b  10   2 5 i  2 j 
 5 
 A vector is 2 5 i  2 j 

Example 4

    
Given that a  i  2 j and b  2i  j . If a  b , are the vectors a and b

equal?
Solution
a  i  2 j, a  5
b  2i  j , b  5
 Vectors a and b are not equal because the corresponding
components are not equal, although a  b

2.5 UNIT VECTOR

Unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is one. Consider vector a , the unit
vector of vector a is denoted by â . Unit vector is given by a
aˆ 
a
Example 5
Find the unit vector in a direction of 2i  3 j  k
Solution
Let a  2i  3 j  k
a 2i  3 j  k 2i  3 j  k 2i  3 j  k
From, aˆ    
a 2i  3 j  k 2  3 1
2 2 2
14

 The unit vector is

1
2i  3 j  k 
14

83
Example 6
i j
Show that is a unit vector.
2
Solution
Unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is one
i j i j
Let a   
2 2 2
2 2
 1   1  1 1
a       1
 2  2 2 2
 The given vect or is a unit vector

2.6 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

Consider two points Ax1 , y1 , z1  and Bx2 , y2 , z2  whose position vectors are a
and b respectively as shown below

fig 2. 20

From the figure above OA  AB  OB

 x2   x1   x2  x1 
     
AB  OB  OA  b  a   y 2    y1    y 2  y1 
z  z  z z 
 2  1  2 1
AB   x2  x1 i   y 2  y1  j  z 2  z1 k

Vector distance formula AB  x2  x1 2   y2  y1 2  z 2  z1 2

84
Example 7
Find the length of the line AB if A(2,2,1) and B ( 4,1,2) .
Solution
AB  x2  x1 2   y2  y1 2  z 2  z1 2

AB  4  22  1  22  2  (1)2  14

 The length of the line AB is 14 unit

2. 7 MID-POINT BETWEEN TWO POINTS

Suppose 'M ' is a midpoint of the line joining points Ax1 , y1 , z1  and
Bx2 , y2 , z2  whose position vectors are a and b respectively as shown below

fig 2. 21

From the figure above OA  AM  OM but AM  12 AB

OM  OA  12 AB but AB  OB  OA  b  a
a  b ( x1 , y1 , z1 )  ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 )
OM  a  12 b  a   12 a  12 b 

2 2
 x  x y  y 2 z1  z 2   x1  x2   y1  y 2   z1  z 2 
OM   1 2 , 1 ,  i    j  k
 2 2 2   2   2   2 

 x  x y  y2 z1  z2 
Midpoint formula is OM   1 2 , 1 , 
 2 2 2 

85
Example 8
Find the position vector which divides line AB having points A(5,3,6) and
B (1,1,2) into two equal parts.

Solution
Let  x1 , y1 , z1   5,3,6  and  x2 , y 2 , z 2    1,1,2
 x  x y  y 2 z1  z 2 
Midpoint   1 2 , 1 , 
 2 2 2 
 5  (1) 3  1 (6)  2 
Midpoint   , ,   2,2,2
 2 2 2 
 Midpoint  2,2,2

2.8 RATIO THEOREM

Ratio Theorem is categorized into two forms which are internal and external
division.

(a) Internal Division

Suppose 'P ' is the point which divides the line joining points Ax1 , y1 , z1  and
Bx2 , y2 , z 2  internally in the ratio m : n where the position vectors of
Ax1 , y1 , z1 and Bx2 , y2 , z2  are a and b respectively
Consider the sketch below

fig 2. 22

86
Consider OAP, OA  AP  OP
AP  OP  OA.......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
Also consider OPB, OP  PB  OB
PB  OB  OP.......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
Take the ratio of equation (i) and equation (ii)
AP OP  OA AP m
 but 
PB OB  OP PB n
m OP  OA

n OB  OP

, m OB  OP  n OP  OA   
mOB  mOP  nOP  nOA
mOB  nOA  mOP  nOP, m  n OP  mOB  nOA
mOB  nOA
OP  but OB  b and OA  a
mn
mb  na  m   n 
OP   b   a
mn mn mn

 m   n 
Internal division formula OP   b   a
mn mn

Example 9
A and B are two vectors which are 3i  j  2k and i  3 j  k respectively. Find
the position vector of the points dividing AB internally in the ratio 1 : 3
Solution
a  3i  j  2k , b  i  3 j  k and m : n  1 : 3
 m   n 
Internal division   b a
mn mn
 1   3 
Internal division   i  3 j  k    3i  j  2k 
1 3  1 3 
Internal division  i  3 j  k   3i  j  2k 
1 3
4 4

87
Internal division 
1
i  3 j  k  9i  3 j  6k 
4
Internal division  10i  7k 
1
4
5 7
 Internal division  i  k
2 4

(b) External division

Suppose ' P ' is the point which divides the line joining points Ax1 , y1 , z1  and
Bx2 , y2 , z 2  externally in the ratio m : n where the position vectors of
Ax1 , y1 , z1 
and Bx2 , y2 , z2  are a and b respectively
Consider the sketch below

fig 2. 23

Consider OAP, OA  AP  OP
AP  OP  OA.......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
Also consider OBP, OB  BP  OP
BP  OP  OB.......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
Take the ratio of equation (i) and equation (ii)
AP OP  OA AP m
 but 
BP OP  OB BP n
m OP  OA

n OP  OB

, m OP  OB  n OP  OA   
88
mOP  mOB  nOP  nOA
mOP  nOP  mOB  nOA, m  n OP  mOB  nOA
mOB  nOA
OP  but OB  b and OA  a
mn
mb  n a  m   n 
OP   b   a
mn mn mn

 m   n 
External division formula OP   b   a
mn mn

Example 10
A and B are two vectors whose are 3i  j  2k and i  3 j  k respectively. Find

the position vector of the points dividing AB externally in the ratio 3 : 1

Solution
a  3i  j  2k , b  i  3 j  k and m : n  3 : 1
 m   n 
External division   b   a
mn mn
 3   1 
External division   i  3 j  k    3i  j  2k 
 3 1   3 1 
External division  i  3 j  k   3i  j  2k 
3 1
2 2
External division  3i  9 j  3k   3i  j  2k 
1
2
External division   10 j  k 
1
2
1
 External division  5 j  k
2

89
 2.9 DIRECTION RATIO AND DIRECTION COSINE
(a) Direction Ratio (Dr)
Suppose we have a vector a  xi  y j  z k , the direction ratio of a vector is
given by ratio of coefficient, Direction Ratio(Dr)  x : y : z

Example 11
Find the direction ratios of the vector OP where P is the point (2,3,6) .
Solutions
Given that x, y, z   2,3,6
Direction ratio  x : y : z  2 : 3 : 6
 Direction ratio  2 : 3 : 6

(b) Direction cosine

Consider the vector r  xi  y j  z k in three dimension figure

fig 2. 24

x y z
From the figure above cos  , cos   and cos 
r r r
x y z
Directioncosine   cos , cos  , cos    , , 
r r r
x y z
Directioncosine   , , 
r r r

90
NB
x2 y2 z2
cos2   cos2   cos2   2
 2
 2
r r r
x2  y2  z 2
cos2   cos2   cos2   2
r
cos2   cos2   cos2   1

Example 12
Find the direction cosines of the vector OP where P is the point 2,1,3
Solutions
Given that r   x, y, z   2,1,3
r  x 2  y 2  z 2  2 2  12  32  14
x y z 2 1 3
Direction cosine  , ,  , ,
r r r 14 14 14
2 1 3
 Direction cosine  , ,
14 14 14

Example 13
Find the direction cosines of the vector OP where P is the point 2,3,6
Solutions
Given that r  x, y, z   2,3,6
r  x 2  y 2  z 2  2 2  32  (6) 2  49  7
x y z 2 3 6
Directioncosine  , ,  , ,
r r r 7 7 7
2 3 6
 Directioncosine  , ,
7 7 7

91
Example 14
Find the direction cosines of the vector OP where OP  5i  3 j  4k
Solutions
Given that OP  5i  3 j  4k
OP  x 2  y 2  z 2  5 2  32  4 2  50  5 2
x y z 1 3 4
Direction cosine  , ,  , ,
OP OP OP 2 5 2 5 2

1 3 4
 Direction cosine  , ,
2 5 2 5 2

Example 15
Find the vector joining the points P (2,3,0) and Q (1,2,4) and also direction
cosines of PQ .
Solution
OP  2,3,0
OQ   1,2,4
PQ  OQ  OP   1,2,4  2,3,0   3,5,4
 PQ  3i  5 j  4k

 
 x y z 
Direction cosine   , , 
 PQ PQ PQ 
 
PQ   3i  5 j  4k  5 2
 3 5 4 
 Direction cosine   , , 
5 2 5 2 5 2 

92
2.10 DOT PRODUCT
Dot product also known as the "scalar product", an operation that takes two
vectors and returns a scalar quantity. The dot product of two vectors can be
defined as the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of
the angle between the two vectors.
Suppose we have two vectors a  a1 i  b1 j  c1 k and b  a2 i  b2 j  c2 k , the
dot product of these vectors is given by a  a 
 1  2
a  b   b1    b2   a1a2  b1b2  c1c2
c  c 
 1  2

Standard definition of dot product, consider the figure below;

fig 2. 25

Standard dot product formula a  b  a b cos

 a b 
The angle between two vectors by using dot product   cos1  

ab

PROPERTIES OF DOT PRODUCT

(a) Dot product result into scalar quantity
(b) Dot product is commutative, i.e. a  b  b  a
(c) Dot product is distributive, i.e. a  b  c   a  b  a  c
(d) Parallel vectors are vectors whose angle between them is zero, i.e.
a b  a b
(e) Orthogonal or perpendicular vectors are vectors whose angle between them
is 90  , i.e. a  b  0

93
NB:
(a) i  i  j  j  k  k  1 1 cos 0  1
i  i  j  j  k  k  1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )

(b) i  j  j  k  i  k  1 1 cos 90  0

i  j  j  k  i  k  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)

We can use the above concepts to determine the dot product formula
Let a  a1 i  b1 j  c1 k and b  a2 i  b2 j  c2 k then determine dot product
 
a  b  a1 i  b1 j  c1 k  a2 i  b2 j  c2 k 
a  b  a1a2 i  i  a1b2 i  j  a1c2 i  k  b1a2 i  j  b1b2 j  j  b1c2 k  j
 c1a2 i  k  c1b2 j  k  c1c2 k  k
a  b  a1a2  b1b2  c1c2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(iii)
(c) a  a  a a cos 0  a a  a
2

a  a .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( iv)
2 2

(d ) (a  b)  (a  b)  a  b a  b cos 0  a  b a  b  a  b
2

(a  b) 2  a  b .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( v)
2

Example 16
Find the scalar or dot product of vectors i  2 j  3k and 2i  j  k .
Solution
Let a  i  2 j  3k and b  2i  j  k
 1  2
   
a  b   2     1  2  2  3  3
  3  1 
   
 The scalar product is  3

94
 Example 17
Given that a  2i  4 j  k and b  i  2 j  7k . Determine  such that
(a) a and b are perpendicular
(b) a and b are collinear
Solution
Given that a  2i  4 j  k and b  i  2 j  7k , determine  when
(a) a and b are perpendicular i.e.  90  
From, a  b  a b cos
a  b  a b cos 90
a b  0
 2  1
   
a  b   4    2  0
  7
   
2  8  7  0
10
  
7

(b) a and b are collinear i.e.  0   

From, a  b  a b cos
a  b  a b cos0 
a  b  a b .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( i )
 2  1
   
a  b   4    2   10  7.......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
  7
   
ab  20    54 
2

 
a b  54 20  2 .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iii)
Substitute equations (ii) and (iii) into equation (i)
10  7  5420  2 

95
10  7 2  5420  2 
100  140  492  1080  542
52  140  980  0
   14

Example 18
If a  2 , b  3 and   60 where  is the angle between a and b . Find the
values of ;
(a) a  b (b) a  b
Solution
(a) a  b
From, a  b  a  b 
2 2

a  b  a  2a  b  b
2 2 2

a  b  a  2 a b cos  b
2 2 2

a  b  2 2  2(2)(3) cos60  32
2

a  b  19
2

 a  b  19

(b) a  b
From, a  b  a  b 
2 2

a  b  a  2a  b  b
2 2 2

a  b  a  2 a b cos  b
2 2 2

a  b  2 2  2(2)(3) cos60  32
2

a  b  10
2

 a b  7

96
Example 19
Show that vectors 2i  3 j  4k and  4i  6 j  8k are collinear.
Solution
a  2i  3 j  4k , a  29
b  4i  6 j  8k , b  116
If a and b are collinear the angle between them is 0  or 180
From, a  b  a b cos
 a b 
  cos1  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )

ab
 2    4
   
a  b    3    6   58.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( ii)
 4    8
   
ab  29  116  58.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(iii)
Substitute equations (ii) and (iii) into equation (i)
  58 
  cos1  
 58 
  cos1  1  180
 The two given vect ors are collinear

Alternative

a  2i  3 j  4k and b  4i  6 j  8k
If a and b are collinear b   a where   
a  2i  3 j  4k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
b  4i  6 j  8k  22i  3 j  4k .......... .......... .......( ii)
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
b  2a where   2
 Vectors a and b are collinear

97
Example 20
     
If ( x  a )  ( x  a )  12 , where a is a unit vector, Find x
Solution
x  a   x  a   12
x  a  12
2 2

x  a  12 but a  1
2 2

x  1  12
2

x  13
2

 x  13

Example 21
For any two vectors a and b prove that a  b  a b
Solution
From a  b  a b cos
a b
 cos but  1  cos  1
ab
a b
 cos
ab
a b
 cos but cos  1
ab
a b
 cos  1
ab
a b
1
ab
 a b  a b

98
Example 22
For any two vectors a and b prove that a  b  a  b
Solution
From, a  b  a  b 
2 2

a  b  a  2a  b  b but a  a , b  b
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

a  b  a  2 a b  b but a  b  a b
2 2 2

ab  a 2a b  b
2 2 2

a  b  a  b 
2 2

 ab  a  b

Example 23
Find the angle between the vectors i  2 j  3k and 3i  2 j  k
Solution
Let a  i  2 j  3k , a  14
b  3i  2 j  k , b  14
From a  b  a b cos
 a b 
  cos1  .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )

 a b 
 1   3 
   
a  b    2     2   10.......... .......... .......... .(ii)
 3   1 
   
ab  14  14   14.......... .......... .......... ..(iii)
 10 
  cos1    44 24


 14 
 The angle between ve ctors is 44 24

99
Alternative
Let a  i  2 j  3k , a  14
b  3i  2 j  k , b  14
From a  b  a b sin
 ab 
  sin 1  .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )

 a b 
i j k
a  b  1  2 3  4i  8 j  4k
3 2 1
a  b  4i  8 j  4k  96.......... .......... ........( ii)
ab  14  14   14.......... .......... .......... ....(iii)
96 

  sin 1    44 24

 14 
 The angle between ve ctors is 44 24

Example 24
Show that the vectors 2i  3 j  6k , 3i  6 j  2k and 6i  2 j  3k are mutually
perpendicular
Solution
Let a  2i  3 j  6k , b  3i  6 j  2k and c  6i  2 j  3k
If the given vectors are mutually perpendicular a  b  b  c  0
 2  3 
   
a  b   3     6   6  18  12  0
6  2 
   
 3   6 
   
b  c    6    2   18  12  6  0
 2    3
   
Since a  b  b  c  0
The vectors are mutually perpendicular

100
Example 25
  
If a  5i  j  3k and b  i  3 j  5k then show that the vectors a  b and
 
a  b are perpendicular
Solution
a  b  5i  j  3k   i  3 j  5k   6i  2 j  8k
a  b  5i  j  3k   i  3 j  5k   4i  4 j  2k
 
If a  b and a  b are perpendicular   90 then a  b   a  b   0
 6   4 
a  b  a  b    2     4   24  8  16  0
  8  2 
   
 The vectors a  b and a  b are perpendicular

Example 26
  
If a  2i  2 j  3k , b  i  2 j  k and c  3i  j and such that a  b is

perpendicular to c then find  .
Solution
Given that a  2i  2 j  3k , b  i  2 j  k and c  3i  j
If a  b is perpendicular to c mean that a  b  c  0.......... .......... .......... ....( i )
a  b  2i  2 j  3k     i  2 j  k   2   i  2  2  j  3   k .......... ....( ii)
 2     3
   
a  b  c   2  2    1   8    0
 3    0
   
8  0
 The value of   8

Example 27
If is  the angle between two point unit vectors a and b . Show that
1  
(a  b)  cos  .
2 2
Solution

101
a  b 2  a 2  2a  b  b 2
But a 2  a , b 2  b and a  b  a b cos
2 2

a  b 2  a  2 a b cos  b 2
2
but a  b  1 (unit vectors)
a  b 2  1  2 cos  1
a  b 2  2  2 cos
a  b 2  21  cos 
1
a  b 2  1  cos
2
1
a  b 2  1  2 cos2 2   1
2
1
a  b 2  2 cos2 2 
2
1
a  b 2  cos2 2 
4
 a  b   cos2 
1
2

Example 28
Two vectors a and b have the same magnitude and angle between them is
1
60  . If their scalar product is . Find their magnitude.
2
Solution
from a  b  a b cos
1
 a b cos60 but a  b
2
1
 a a cos60
2
1 1 2
 a
2 2
a 1
2

a 1
 The magnitude of vectors a and b is 1

102
 Exercise 2.1
1. Two vectors a and b have the same magnitude and angle between them
is 60  . If their scalar product is 1 . Find their magnitude
4
 
2. If x  a   x  a   3 , where a is a unit vector, Find x
  
3. If a  2i  2 j  3k , b  i  2 j  k and c  3i  j and such that a  mb is

perpendicular to c then find m .
4. Find the scalar or dot product of vectors i  2 j  3k and 2i  j  k .
5. Find the direction ratios of the vector a  4i  j  5 j
6. Find the direction cosine of the vector

APPLICATION OF DOT PRODUCT

(a) To verify cosine rule
Consider the vector diagram below

fig 2. 26

From the figure above BC  CA  BA

a  b  c , a  c - b.......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
Dot by a both sides equation (i)
a  a  a  c - b 
a  a  c - b   c - b 
a  a  c c -b c -b c  b b
a  c - 2b  c  b
2 2 2

a  b  c - 2b  c .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)

2 2 2

But a  a , b  b , c  c and b  c  b c cos A

2 2 2 2 2 2

a  b  c  2 b c cos A
2 2 2

a  b  c  2 b c cos A
2 2 2

Likewise,

b  a  c  2 a c cos B c  a  b  2 a b cosC
2 2 2 2 2 2
and

103
 (b) Projection of one vector into another vector
Projection of one vector into another is divided into two categories which are,

(i) Scalar projection

Consider the figure below which show projection of vector a onto vector b

fig 2. 27

a
Pr ojb
cos  , Pr ojb  a cos .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
a

a
a b
But from dot product a  b  a b cos ,  a cos .......... .......(ii )
b
Equate equation (i) and equation (ii)
a b
Pr ojb 
a

b
a b
Pr ojb 
a
Projection of vector a onto vector b ,
b
Hence or otherwise

a b
Pr oja 
b
Projection of vector b onto vector a ,
a

Example 29
Find the scalar projection of vector a  (2,3,1) in the direction of
vector b  (5,2,2) .
Solution

104
Given that a  2,3,2 and b  5,2,2
a b
From, Projb 
a
.......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
b
 2  5 
   
a  b   3     2   10  6  2  6.......... .......... ........( ii)
1  2 
   
b  33.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( iii)
Substitute equations (ii) and (iii) into equation (i)
6
 Projb 
a

33

(ii) Vector projection

 a  b  b 
Vector projection of a onto vector b is given by Proj b    
a
 
 b  b 

b  a  b  a 
Vector projection of b onto vector a is given by Proj a    
 a 
 a  

Example 30
Find the vector projection of vector a  (1,2,2) in the direction of
vector b  (5,2,2) .
Solution
Given that a  1,2,2 int the direction b  5,2,2
a  a  b  b 
Proj b    .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
 
 b  b 
 1   5 
   
a  b    2     2   13.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
 2   2 
   
b  33.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iii)

105
  13  5i  2 j  2k 
From, Proj b    
a

 33  33 
 Proj b 
a 13
5i  2 j  2k 
33

(c) To find the workdone

Consider the figure below

fig 2. 28

WorkdoneW .d   Force(F )  Displacement  d .......... .......... .(i)

F
cos  , F  f cos .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
f
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
W .d  f d cos by definition f d cos  f  d

Workdone f  d

Note:
(i) f  magnitude of force times unit vector towards its direction
(ii) d  Distance times unit vector towards its direction

Example 31
Find the work done on moving a particle from a  (0,1,2) to b  (1,3,2) in
the direction of f  (1,2,2) when applied force is 6 N .
Solution
Let f m  6 N
f  1,2,2
f  12  (2) 2  2 2  9  3

106
  f   i  2 j  2k 
F  f m    6   2i  2 j  2k 
f
   3 
F  2i  4 j  4k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
The distance from a  0,1,2  to b   1,3,2 
d  b  a   1,3,2   0,1,2    1,2,4 
d   1,2,4.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
From, Workdone  F  d
 2   1 
   
Workdone   - 4    2   2  8  16   26  26
 4    4
   
 Workdone  26Joules

Example 32
A force with magnitude 5 units parallel to 2i  2 j  k displaces a point from
(1,2,3) to (5,3,7) . Find the work done.
Solution
Let f m  5 units
f  2i  2 j  k
f  2 2  (2) 2  12  9  3
 f   2i  2 j  k  5
F  f m    5   2i  2 j  k 
 f   3  3

F  2i  2 j  k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )

5
3
The distance from 5,3,7  to 1,2,3
d  5,3,7   1,2,3  4,1,4 
d  4,1,4 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
From, Workdone  F  d
 2   4
5    5
Workdone   - 2    1   8  2  4  
50
3    3 3
 1   4
50
 Workdone  Joules
3

107
Example 33
Find the work done if the force of 2i  3 j  4k is pulling a load along a distance
of 2m in the direction a  3i  2 j  2k .
Solution
Let F  2i  3 j  k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
a m  2m
a  3i  2 j  2k
a  32  2 2  2 2  17
a  3i  2 j  2k 
d  am    2 
2
3i  2 j  2k 
a  17  17

d
2
3i  2 j  2k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
17
 3  2
2    
 Workdone  F  d   2  3 
2
14  28 Joules
17     17 17
 2  1

Example 34
Find the work done on moving a particle from ( 2,2,3) to (1,0,3) in the
direction of force of 3i  6 j  2k when the applied force is 7i  4 j  4k N .
Solution
Let f m  7i  4 j  4k  9units
f  3i  6 j  2k
f  3i  6 j  2k  7
 f   3i  6 j  2k  9
F  f m    9   3i  6 j  2k 
 f   7  7

F  3i  6 j  2k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )

9
7
The distance from 2,2,3 to 1,0,3
d  1,0,3  2,2,3   1,2,6 
d   1,2,6 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
 3    1
9    9  27
From, Workdone  F  d    6    2    3 
7    7 7
 2  6
27
 Workdone  Joules
7

108
 2.11 CROSS PRODUCT
Cross Product also known as the "vector product", a binary operation on two
vectors that results in another vector. The cross product of two vectors in 3-
space is defined as the vector perpendicular to the plane determined by the two
vectors whose magnitude is the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors
and the sine of the angle between the two vectors.
Cross product or vector product is denoted by  or 
By definition of cross product of vectors a and b is a  b  a b sin nˆ ……….(i)
where nˆ is a unit vector perpendicular to both vectors a and b , when cross vectors a and b
it leads to a vector which is perpendicular to both vectors then determine its unit vector
ab
as follow nˆ  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
ab
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
 ab 
a  b  a b sin  

 a  b 

Cross product formula a  b  a b sin 

Note:
If a  a1 i  b1 j  c1 k and b  a2 i  b2 j  c2 k the cross product of vectors a and
i j k
b is given by a  b  a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
The angle between two vectors by using cross product formula
 ab 
  sin 1  

 a b 

PROPERTIES OF CROSS PRODUCT

(a) Cross product is not commutative i.e. a  b  b  a but a  b  b  a 
(b) If a and b are parallel vectors then a b  0 since   0 
(c) If a and b are orthogonal vectors then a  b  a b since   90

109
Example 35
Find the angle between the vectors i  2 j  3k and 3i  2 j  k
Solution
Let a  i  2 j  3k , a  14
b  3i  2 j  k , b  14
From a  b  a b sin 
 a b 
  sin 1  .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
 ab 
 
i j k
a  b  1  2 3  4i  8 j  4k
3 2 1
a  b  4i  8 j  4k  96.......... .......... ........( ii)
ab   14  14   14.......... .......... .......... ....(iii)

96 
  sin 1    44 24

 14 
 The angle between ve ctors is 44 24

Alternative
Let a  i  2 j  3k , a  14
b  3i  2 j  k , b  14
From a  b  a b cos
 a b 
  cos1  .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
 ab 
 
 1   3 
   
a  b    2     2   10.......... .......... .......... .(ii)
 3   1 
   
ab   14  14   14.......... .......... .......... ..(iii)
 10 
  cos1    44 24
 14 
 The angle between ve ctors is 44 24

110
Example 36
    
If a  i  7 j  7 k and b  3i  2 j  2k find a  b and a  b .
Solution
a  i  7 j  7k and b  3i  2 j  2k
i j k
a  b  1  7 7  19 j  19k
3 2 2
 a  b  19 j  19k

a  b  19 j  19k  722
 a  b  722

Example 37
Find  and  if (2i  6 j  27k )  (i  j  k )  0
Solution
2i  6 j  27k  i  j  k   0
i j k
2 6 27  i 6  27   j 2  27  k 2  6  0
1  
Equate and solve for  and 
6  27  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
2  27  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
2  6  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)
27
   3 and  
2
Example 38
     
Show that (a  b )  (a  b )  2(a  b )
Solution
a  b  a  b   2a  b 
Consider L.H.S
a  b  a  b   a  a  a  b  b  a  b  b
But a  a  0, b  b  0 and  b  a  a  b
a  b  a  b   a  b  a  b
 a  b  a  b   2a  b 

111
Example 39
Find a vector and unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors
 
a  3i  2 j  2k and b  i  2 j  2k
Solution
Given that a  3i  2 j  2k and b  i  2 j  2k
When we cross vectors a and b the resulting vector is perpendicular to both vectors a and b
i j k
a  b  3 2 2  8i  8 j  4k
1 2 2
 Vector  8i  8 j  4k is perpendicular to both vectors a and b

Let c  8i  8 j  4k

cˆ    8i  8 j  4k    2i  2 j  k 
c 1 1
c 12 3

 The unit vector is

1
 2i  2 j  k 
3

Example 40
   
Find a vector and unit vector perpendicular to both vectors a  b and a  b

where a  3i  2 j  2k and b  i  2 j  2k
Solution
Given that a  3i  2 j  2k and b  i  2 j  2k
a  b  4i  4 j.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
a  b  2i  4k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( ii)
When we cross vectors a  b and a  b the resulting vector is perpendicular
to both vectors a  b and a  b
i j k
a  b  a  b   4 4 0  16i  16 j  8k
2 0 4
 Vector 16i  16 j  8k is perpendicular to both vectors a  b and a  b

16i  16 j  8k 16i  16 j  8k 1
The unit vector of 16i  16 j  8k is   2i  2 j  k 
16i  16 j  8k 24 3

 The unit vector is

1
2i  2 j  k 
3

112
APPLICATION OF CROSS PRODUCT

(a) To verify sine rule

Consider the vector diagram below

fig 2. 29

From the figure above BC  CA  BA, a  b  c.......... .......... ......( i )

Cross by a both sides of equation (i)
a  a  b   a  c
a  a  a  b  a  c but a  a  0 (parallel vectors   0  )
a  b  a  c.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
Also cross by b both sides of equation (i)
b  a  b   b  c
b  a  b  b  b  c but b  b  0 (parallel vectors   0  )
b  a  b  c .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......(iii)
From equation (iii) b  a  b  c since b  a  a  b 
 a  b   b  c , a  b  b  c 
a  b  c  b .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....(iv)
Equate equation (ii) and equation (iv)
ab  ac  cb
a  b  a  c  c  b but a  b  a b sin C , a  c  a c sin B, c  b  c b sin A
a b sin C  a c sin B  c b sin A divide by a b c to each term
a b sin C a c sin B c b sin A
 
abc abc abc
sin C sin B sin A
 
c b a

sin A sin B sin C

Sine Rule  
a b c
113
(b) To find area of a triangle
Consider the diagram below

fig 2. 30

Area  12 base height

Area  1
2 AB h.......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
h
sin  , h  AC sin .......... .......... ........( ii)
AC
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
Area  1
2 AB AC sin

1
Area  AB  AC where AB  OB - OA and AC  OC  OA
2

Example 41
Find the area of a triangle with vertices A(1,1,2) , B (2,3,5) and C (1,5,5)
Solution
Given that A1,1,2 , B2,3,5 and C 1,5,5
1
Area of triangle  AB  AC .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
2
AB  OB  OA  2,3,5  1,1,2   1,2,3.......... .......... (ii)
AC  OC  OA  1,5,5  1,1,2   0,4,3.......... .........( iii)
i j k
AB  AC  1 2 3  6i  3 j  4k .......... .......... .....( iv)
0 4 3
Substitute equation (iv) into equation (i)
1 1
Area of triangle   6i  3 j  4k  61
2 2
1
 Area of triangle  61 sq.units
2

114
(c) To find area of a parallelogram
Consider the figure below

fig 2. 31

Area  base  height

Area  AB h.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( i )
h
sin  , h  AD sin .......... .......... .......... ........( ii)
AD
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
Area  AB AD sin

Area  AB  AD

Area  AB  AD

Example 42
Find the area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides are 2i  4 j  5k and
i  2 j  3k .

Solution
Given that a  2i  4 j  5k and b  i  2 j  3k
Area of parallelogram  a  b .......... .......... .......... (i )
i j k
a  b  2  4 5  22i  11 j.......... .......... .......( ii)
1 2 3

115
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
Area of parallelogram  22i  11 j  222  112  605
 Area of parallelogram  605 sq.unit

2.12 COLLINEAR VECTORS

Collinear vectors are vectors which lie on the same line

fig 2. 32

a, b and c are collinear vectors since they lie on the same line

Condition for collinear vectors a  b  0 or a   b

Example 43
Show that vectors 2i  3 j  4k and  4i  6 j  8k are collinear.
Solution
a  2i  3 j  4k and b  4i  6 j  8k
If a and b are collinear b  a where   
a  2i  3 j  4k .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
b  4i  6 j  8k  22i  3 j  4k .......... .......... .......( ii)
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
b  2a where   2
 Vectors a and b are collinear

116
Alternative
a  2i  3 j  4k and b  4i  6 j  8k
If a and b are collinear a  b  0
i j k
a b  2  3 4  0
 4 6 8
a b  0
 Vectors a and b are collinear

Alternative
a  2i  3 j  4k , a  29
b  4i  6 j  8k , b  116
If a and b are collinear the angle between them is 0 or 180
From, a  b  a b cos
 a b 
  cos1  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
ab 
 
 2    4
   
a  b    3    6   58.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(ii)
 4    8
   
ab   29  116  58.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(iii)
Substitute equations (ii) and (iii) into equation (i)
  58 
  cos1  
 58 
  cos1  1  180
 The two given vect ors are collinear

117
2.13 LINEAR COMBINATION OF VECTORS
Suppose vectors a, b and c are three vectors with  ,  and  as scalars so as to
resolve the vectors, let d be linear combination of vectors a, b and c
i.e. d   a   b   c

Example 44
Express the vector r  10i  3 j  k as a linear combination of a , b and c such
that a  2i  j  3k , b  3i  2 j  4k and c  i  3 j  2k .
Solution
Given that r  10i  3 j  k , a  2i  j  3k , b  3i  2 j  4k and c  i  3 j  2k
From, r  a  b  c
10i  3 j  k   2i  j  3k    3i  2 j  4k     i  3 j  2k 
Equate
10  2  3  

 3    2  3
 1  3  4  2


Solve simulteneously
  1,   2 and   2
From r  a  2b  2c
r  a  2b  2c
 r  2i  j  3k   23i  2 j  4k   2 i  3 j  2k 

2.14 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT (BOX PRODUCT)

Consider vectors a  x1i  y1 j   z1k , b  x2 i  y 2 j   z 2 k , and c  x3i  y3 j   z3 k .

The vectors are said to be scalar triple product if and only if a  b  c or a  b  c
x1 y1 z1
Alternative way of computing triple product is x2 y2 z2
x3 y3 z3

118
Example 45
Find the scalar triple product of vectors i  2 j  3k ,  i  j  k and i  j  k .
Solution
a  i  2 j  3k , b  i  j  k and c  i  j  k
From a  b  c .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
i j k
b  c   1  1 1  2i  2 j.......... .......... .........( ii)
1 1 1
 1   2
   
a  b  c   2    2   2  4  0  2
 3  0 
   
 The scalar triple product is 2

Alternative
a  i  2 j  3k , b  i  j  k and c  i  j  k
From a  b  c .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
i j k
a b  1 2 3  5i  4 j  k .......... .......... .........( ii)
1 1 1
 5   1
   
a  b  c    4    1  5  4  1  2
 1   1
   
 The scalar triple product is 2

Alternative
a  i  2 j  3k , b  i  j  k and c  i  j  k
1 2 3
Scalar triple product  - 1 - 1 1  2
1 1 1
 The scalar triple product is 2

119
2.15 COPLANAR
Consider vectors a  x1i  y1 j   z1k , b  x2 i  y 2 j   z 2 k , and c  x3i  y3 j   z3 k .
The vectors are said to be coplanar if and only if a  b  c  0 or a  b  c  0
x1 y1 z1
Alternative way to find coplanar vector is x2 y2 z2  0
x3 y3 z3
Example 46
Find  if the vector i  j  2k , i  j  k and 3i  2 j  k are coplanar.
Solution
Let a  i  j  2k , b  i  j  k and c  3i  2 j  k
From a  b  c .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
ji k
b  c    1 1  3i     3 j   2  3k .......... .......... .........( ii)
3  2 1
1  3 
   
a  b  c   1      3   12  3  0
 2    2  3 
   
12  3  0
 The value of  is 4

Alternative
Let a  i  j  2k , b  i  j  k and c  3i  2 j  k
From a  b  c .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
i j k
a b  1 1 2  3i  1  2  j   1   k .......... .......... .........( ii)
 1 1
 3   3 
   
a  b  c    1  2     2   12  3  0
 1     1 
   
12  3  0
 The value of  is 4

120
Alternative
Let a  i  j  2k , b  i  j  k and c  3i  2 j  k
11 2
Coplanar   -1 1  12  3  0
3  2 1
12  3  0
 The value of  is 4

2.16 DERIVATIVE AND INTEGRATION OF VECTORS

Vectors can be integrated or differentiated with respect to its variable.

Example 47
If w  3t i  cos2t j , find;
2

dw
(a)
dt

dw
(b)
dt

d2w
(c)
dt 2
Solution
Given that w  3t 2 i  cos 2t j
dw
(a)  6t i  2 sin 2t j
dt
 6t    2 sin 2t   36t 2  4 sin 2 2t
dw 2 2
(b)
dt
d 2w
(c) 2  6i  4 cos 2t j
dt

121
Example 48
If r  3t i  2t j  t k , find;
2 3

dr
(a)
dt

d2r
(b)
dt 2
Solution
Given that r  3t i  2t 2 j  t 3 k
dr
(a)  3i  4tj  3t 2 k
dt
d 2r
(b) 2  4 j  6tk
dt

Example 49
t
Given B  te i  cost j , find;

dB
(a)
dt
d 2B
(b)
dt 2
Solution
Given that B  te t i  cost j

(a)
dB
dt
 
 e t  te t i  sin t j

d 2B
 
(b) 2  te t  2e t i  cost j
dt

Example 50
dr
If r  4t i  2t j  7k evaluate r and when t  1.
2

dt
Solution
122
Given that r  4t 2 i  2t j  7k
When t  1 the value of r  4i  2 j  7k
dr
 8t i  2 j
dt
dr
 When t  1 the value of  8i  2 j
dt

Example 51
Given r  sin t i  cost j , find;

(a) r
(b) r

(c) r

Solution
Given that r  sin t i  cost j
(a) r  cost i  sin t j
(b)r   sin t i  cost j
(c) r  sin t i  cost j  sin 2 t  cos2 t  1

Example 52
1
If r  3t i  t 2 j  (1  2t )k , evaluate  rdt
0

Solution
Given that r  3t i  t 2 j  (1  2t )k

 
1 1

 rdt   3t i  t j  (1  2t )k dt
2

0 0
1
3 2 1 3 
1

0 rdt   2 t i  3 t j  (t  t )k  0
2

1
3 1
  rdt  i  j  2k
0
2 3

123
Example 53

Given r  3sin t i  cost j  (2  t )k , evaluate 0
rdt

Solution
Given that r  3 sin t i  cost j  (2  t )k
 
    
 rdt   3sin t i  cost j  (2  t )k dt   3 cost i  sin t j  2t  12 t k
2 
0
0 0

 2 
  rdt  6i   2  k
0  2 

Example 54
Given v  i  3 j  k , evaluate;
1
(a)  vdt
0

2
(b)  vdt
0

Solution
Given that v  i  3 j  k

   
1 1
(a)  vdt   i  3 j  k dt  it  3 jt  kt 0  i  3 j  k
1

0 0

   
2 2
(b)  vdt   i  3 j  k dt  it  3 jt  kt 0  2i  6 j  2k
2

0 0

Example 55
A particle moves so that after time t its position vector r is given by
r (t )  (4t  1)i  t 2 j  (15  t 3 )k . Find the vector expression of its velocity and
acceleration at time t , find also speed and acceleration after 3 seconds.
Solution

124
Given that r (t )  (4t  1)i  t 2 j  (15  t 3 )k
The velocity and acceleration at time ' t '
dr
  4i  2tj  3t 2 k (velocity)
dt
d 2r
 2  2 j  6tk (acceleration)
dt

The speed and acceleration after 3 seconds

dr
  4i  6 j  27k (velocity)
dt
d 2r
 2  2 j  18k (acceleration)
dt

Exercise 2.3
dr
1. If r  t i  2t j  k evaluate when t  1.
2

dt
dr
2. If r  t i  t j evaluate r and when t  1.
2

dt
dr
3. If r  3t i  2t j  5k evaluate r and when t  0.
2

dt
1
4. Given v  i  j  k , evaluate  vdt
0

2
5. Given v  i  2 j  4k , evaluate  vdt
0

1
6. Given v  3t i  8t j  k , evaluate  vdt
2

125
2.17 REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS OF VECTORS
Mathematics provides a language for describing quantities and the relationships
between them. Vectors are used to describe an amount and a related direction.
Anything that involves an amount and an associated direction is a potential
application of vectors. The direction and speed of a car during a collision is a
good example; the direction and distance from your house to your school or
office “as the crow flies” is another. Vectors are very useful for describing a
wide variety of very ordinary things, many of which have to do with movement,
because everything moves in a direction for a distance and over an amount of
time.

Vectors is the basic topic which helps us to make other topics in physics easier.
Kinematics has a special topic named Vector Reversal method which is the
easiest way of solving those sums.
While talking in reference day to day life vectors is used in machines which are
used to calculate speed of cricket ball while bowled. This is a great example of
usage of vectors in which just by the speed of the ball and angle at which it is
bowled we can find where it will reach.

REVISION EXERCISE 2
1. Find the values of x and y so that the vector 2i  3 j and xi  yj are
equal.
2. Find the direction ratios and direction cosines of the vector a  3i  j  2k
     
3. Find a  b , if two vectors a and b are such that a  2 , b  3 and
 
a b  4
   
4. Evaluate (3a  5b )  (2a  7b )
5. Consider the points P and Q with position vectors OP  3i  2 j and
OQ  i  j . Find the position vector of a point R which divides line joining
the points P and Q in the ratio 2 :1 internally and externally respectively.
6. Show that points A(1,2,7) , B(2,6,3) and C (3,10,1) are collinear.

7. If a, b , c are unit vector such that a  b  c  0 then find

     
a b  b c  c a
  
8. If a unit vector a makes angle with i , with j and acute angle 
3 4

with k then find  and hence components of a
9. Find the area of a triangle with vertices A(1,1,2) , B (2,3,5) and C (1,5,5)
126
10. Find the area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides are 2i  4 j  5k and
i  2 j  3k . Also find unit vector parallel to its diagonal.
11. If w  3t i  t j and z  2t i  3 j , verify the results
2 2

d dz dw
(a) (w  z)  w   z
dt dt dt
d dz dw
(b) (w  z)  w   z
dt dt dt
and z  (2  t )i  t j  2k , find ;
2
12. If w  t 3 i  7t k
(a) w z
dw
(b)
dt
dz
(c)
dt
d dz dw
(d) Show that (w  z)  w   z
dt dt dt
13. Find the area of triangle ABC whose vertices are A(2,1,1) , B(3,2,1) and
C ( 2,4,1) .
14. Forces of magnitudes 5 and 3 units acting in the directions 6i  2 j  3k and
6i  2 j  6k respectively, act on particle which is displaced from the point
( 2, 2,1) to ( 4,3,1) . Find the work done by the forces.
15. A ball of mass 16 g moves along a curve defined by r  ai  bj  ck
where a  t 3  4t 2 , b  5t and c  2  t 4 . Find a force acting on the
body.
16. If the position vectors OA , OB and OC are defined by OA  2i  j  3k ,
OB  3i  2 j  4k and OC  i  3 j  2k .
(i) Find a unit vector perpendicular to both AB and BC .
(ii) Using cross product find the exact value of angle between AB and BC .
17. Find the projection of a into b such that a  i  2 j  3k and b  i  2 j  2k .
18. By using the concept of dot product, verify cosine rule’
19. Verify sine rule.
20. Consider a particle on which a constant force f acts. Let the particle be
given a displacement d

Show that the work done by the force is w  f .d

127
21. A force with magnitude 5 units parallel to 2i  2 j  k displaces a point from
(1,2,3) to (5,3,7) . Find the work done.
22. Find the work done on moving a particle from a  (0,1,2) to b  (1,3,2)
in the direction of F  (1,2,2) when applied force is 6 N .
23. Find the work done if the fore of 2i  3 j  4k is pulling a load along a
distance of 2m in the direction a  3i  2 j  2k .
24. Find the work done on moving a particle from ( 2,2,3) to (1,0,3) in the
direction of force of 3i  6 j  2k when the applied force is
7i  4 j  4k N .
25. If a  2i  6 j  3k and b  i  2 j  2k . Find the angle between a and b
using cross product.
26. Determine a unit vector perpendicular to a  2i  6 j  3k and
b  4i  3 j  k .
27. The position vectors of the points A , B and C are ( 2,4,3) , (6,3,4) and
(7,5.  5) respectively. Find the angle between AB and BC , hence find
the area of a triangle ABC
28. A particle moves so that at time t its velocity is given by
v  10ti  (3  6t 2 )k . Given that when t  1 the particle is at the point with
position vector j  k . Find the expression for its position vector r at time
t.
d 2r
29. A particle moves so that at any time t , 2  2i  tj . If r (t )  4i  7 j and
dt
dr
 2i  j when t  0 . Determine r (t ) and r (t ) when t  4.
dt
30. Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are 2i  j  3k
and i  2 j  k .
31. If the coordinates ( x, y , z ) of a particle that is moving in a space are
parametrically given by the equations x(t )  t 3  4t 2  2t , y (t )  t 2  4t and
z (t )  t 4  2 where t is time in seconds. Find the initial velocity of the
particle given that r (t )  x(t )i  y (t ) j  z (t )k , also find the acceleration of
the particle after a second.
32. If is  the angle between two point unit vectors a and b .
1  
Show that (a  b) cos  .
2 2
a
33. Two vectors and b have the same magnitude and angle between them is
1
60  . If their scalar product is . Find their magnitude.
2
128
34. Express the vector r  10i  3 j  k as a linear combination of a , b and c
such that a  2i  j  3k , b  3i  2 j  4k and c  i  3 j  2k .
35. Two forces of magnitude 11N and 8 N acting on a particle with an angle at
30  between them, what is the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force.
36. Given the position vectors of the points L , M and N are respectively
L  2i  3 j  4k , M  5i  j  2k and N  11i  j  14k . Find;
(a) The unit vector parallel to LM
(b) The value of  if L , M and N are collinear.
(c) The position vector on LM if LQ : QM  2 : 1
37. The position vector r of a particle at mass 5kg moving in space at any
 65 
time 't ' seconds is given by r (t )   2t 2  7t  i  4 j  3k .
 8
(a) Verify that the acceleration of a particle is constant.
(b) Calculate;
(i)The time and distance at the particle from the origin when it is
temporally at rest.
(ii) The momentum and force of the particle at t  5 seconds.
38. Under the action of forces F1  (2i  2 j  3k ) N and F2  (i  3 j ) N a body
dr
attains a velocity  (i  2tj  k )m / s . If at t  0 the body was at the origin.
dt
Find the work done by the resultant force at t  4 seconds.
39. At time t , the position vector of a particle is given by

r  (3 cos 2t )i  (4 sin 2t ) j . Find its velocity and acceleration when t  .
6
40. Find the direction ratios of r such that vector r is at right angles to both
3i _ 6 j  4k and  3i  2 j  2k
41. A body moves such that its position vector when at P is given by
OP  (3 sin 5t )i  (3 cos5t ) j where O is the origin and t is the time. Prove
that the velocity of the particle when at P is perpendicular to OP .
42. Two bodies A and B moves in a horizontal plane. A moves with
constant velocity 4i  4 j and B moves with constant acceleration of
2i  2 j . At t  0 , A is at point i  4 j while B is at point 4i  j and is
moving with a velocity 2 j .
(a) Find the position vectors of A and B at time and hence show
that AB  (t 2  4t  3)i  (t 2  2t  3) j .
(b) Show that A and B will collide and give the time when this collision
occurs.
129
43. A particle with 200g of mass moving along a curve with the velocity
1 7 1
i j k
4t t 1  2t
(i) Find the force applied to the particle at any time t .
(ii) Find the position vector at time t where the particle is heading.
44. At time t the displacement of a particle from the origin O is given by
s  (2 sint )i  (2 cost ) j m . Prove that the particle is always 2m from O
and find the velocity and speed of the particle when t  2 seconds.
45. Given that A  2i  4 j  k and B  i  2 j  7 k determine  such that;
(a) A and B are perpendicular.
(b) A and B are collinear.
46. Given that points A , B and C have position vectors a  i  2 j  2k ,
b  3i  k and c  i  j  4k . Prove that triangle ABC is isosceles.
47. A body of mass 5 units moves following the path
v  (2t 3  t )i  (3t 4  t 2  8) j  12t 2 k . Find the momentum and force vectors
at any time t .
48. Let (4,0,0) , (2,6,0) and (1,4,2) be position vectors of points A , B and
C respectively,
(i) Find the cosine of an angle between BA and BC .
(ii) Find the area of a triangle ABC .
49. Prove that a  b  a  b  4a  b
2 2

50. Two forces of magnitude 5 N and 7 N acting on a particle with an angle

of 90  between them, what is the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force.

130
 Chapter Three
NUMERICAL METHODS
Introduction;

Numerical method is a method used to find an approximate value of a physical

quantity.

Numerical solutions of any mathematical problem has four main stages, one
leading into the next as follows,

fig 3. 1

PROPERTIES OF NUMERICAL METHODS

Numerical methods are effective if they have the following properties;
(a) Accuracy –refer to how the values are close to the true value.
(b) Precision –refer to closeness of data themselves
(c) Convergence –a method should give a convergent solution (should
approach the true value).
(d) Efficiency – is a measure of computation of work.
(e) Stability – small error in data should give small error in solution.
131
WHY DO WE NEED NUMERICAL METHODS?

We need numerical methods because of the following reasons,

1. When analytical solution is difficult to express in simple form, eg

e
x2
dx
1
2. When analytical solution is difficult to evaluate, eg 5 x 7
dx

3. When analytical solution is not known, eg find f ( 2.1)

x 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

f ( x) 1.02 1.09 1.99 2.3 2.9

Numerical method is divided into three categories;

(i) Errors
(ii) Numerical Approximation
(iii)Numerical Integration

3.1 ERRORS
Error is the difference between exact/actual value and measured value,

Let E - error
x  actual/true value
x  measured value

E  x-x

132
TYPES OF ERRORS

There are two types of errors which are;

(a) Systematic errors is an error due to known cases such as reading a wrong
calibrated instrument or using wrong formula.
(b) Random errors is an error due to unknown cases such as environmental
condition i.e. temperature, winds, humidity etc.

FORMS OF ERRORS
There are three forms of errors which are;
(a) Absolute error i.e. x  x
xx
(b) Relative error i.e.
x
xx
(c) Percentage error i.e.  100%
x

SOURCES OF ERRORS

Some of sources of errors in numerical methods are;

(a) Initial source of errors is the primary source error where by extremely big
error result from use of wrong initial value/data.
(b) Truncation source of errors, this occurs when an infinite series or
successive steps of calculation is terminated.
(c) Rounding source of errors, this occurs when one fail to evaluate or compute
an exact arithmetic operation.

Example 1

An approximate value of  is given by 3.1428571 and its true value

is 3.1415926. Find the absolute and relative errors.

Solution

133
Let x  3.1415926(True value)
x  3.1428571 (Approximate value)
Absolute Error  x  x  3.1415926 3.1428571  0.0012645
xx 3.1415926 3.1428571 0.0012645
 Relative Error     0.0004025
x 3.1415926 3.1415926

Exercise 3.1

1. An approximate value of In 2 is given by 0.69313607 and its true value is

0.69314718. Find the absolute and relative errors.
2. An approximate value of sin 40 is given by 0.643777777 and its true
value is 0.642787609. Find the absolute and relative errors.
3. An approximate value of 3 is given by 1.729010134 and its true value is
1.732050808. Find the absolute and relative errors.

3.2 NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION

Numerical approximation consists of two parts which are;

(a) Newton’s Raphson method
(b) Secant method

(A) NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD

This is a numerical method of approximation in which f ( x )  0 given x 0 as
initial condition.
Newton’s Raphson Method involves iteration with one given initial condition.

134
Derivation of Newton’s Raphson Method
Consider the sketch below;

fig 3. 2

From the figure above, when point P converges to M, f(x n )  0

 n)
The slope of the curve f(x n ) is given as f (x
Δy f ( xn )  0
f (x n )  
Δx xn  xn1
f(x n ) f(x n ) f(x n )
f (x n )  , x n  xn1  , xn   xn1
xn  xn1  n)
f (x  n)
f (x

f ( xn )
Newton’s Raphson method xn1  xn 
f ( xn )

Example 2
Use the Newton’s Raphson method to approximate the positions root of
x 2  x  1  0 correct to 4 decimal places. (perform 3 iterations starting with
x0  2 )
Solution

135
Given that x 2  x  1  0 and x0  2
Express in function form f ( x)  x 2  x  1 while f ( x)  0
Re - write the function in general form then differentiate
f ( xn )  xn  xn  1
2

f ( xn )  2 xn  1
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson method xn 1  xn 
f ( xn )
xn  xn  1 xn  1
2 2
xn 1  xn  
2 xn  1 2 xn  1
xn  1
2
Now, xn 1 
2 xn  1
x0  1 (2) 2  1
2
When n  0, x1    1.6667
2 x0  1 2(2)  1
x  1 (1.6667) 2  1
2
When n  1, x2  1   1.6190
2 x1  1 2(1.6667)  1
x2  1 (1.6190) 2  1
2
When n  2, x3    1.6180
2 x2  1 2(1.6190)  1
 The approximat e root of the equation after performing three iteration
by using Newton' s Raphson method is 1.6180

Example 3
Verify that the equation x 2  2 x  1  0 has a root lying between x  2 and
x  3 . Apply the method of Newton-Raphson in four iterations to obtain an
approximation of the roots.
Solution
Given that x 2  2 x  1  0
Express in function form f ( x)  x 2  2 x  1 while f ( x)  0
Re - write the function in general form then differentiate
f ( xn )  xn  2 xn  1
2

136
If the given equation has root between the given initial values, the values must
satisfy location theorem f ( xn )  f ( xn1 )  0. Let xn  2, xn1  3
f ( xn )  xn  2 xn  1, f 2)  2 2  2(2)  1  1
2

f ( xn1 )  xn1  2 xn1  1, f (3)  32  2(3)  1  2

2

Therefore, f (2)  f (3)  1 2  2  0

Since f ( xn )  f ( xn1 )  0 , x 2  2 x  1  0 has a root lying between x  2 and x  3

By using Newton' s Raphson method determine the root of x 2  2 x  1  0

f ( xn )  xn  2 xn  1
2

f ( xn )  2 xn  2
When the initial values are two take either one, but for easier converging of roots
23
take the average of the given valu es, x0   2.5
2
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson method formula xn1  xn 
f ( xn )
x  2 x n  1 xn  1
2 2
xn 1  xn  n 
2 xn  2 2 xn  2
x 1
2
Now, xn 1  n
2 xn  2
x0  1 (2.5) 2  1
2
When n  0, x1    2.4167
2 x0  2 2(2.5)  2
x0  1 (2.4167) 2  1
2
When n  1, x2    2.4142
2 x0  2 2(2.4167)  2
x  1 (2.4142) 2  1
2
When n  2, x3  0   2.4142
2 x0  2 2(2.4142)  2
x0  1 (2.4142) 2  1
2
When n  3, x4    2.4142
2 x0  2 2(2.4142)  2
 The approximate root of the equation after performing 4 iteration
by using Newton' s Raphson method is 2.4142

137
Example 4
Show that the equation e x  3  x has a root in the interval 0,1 also find the
root correct to two decimal places in three iterations by using Newton’s
Raphson method.
Solution
Given that e x  3  x, e x  x  3  0, f ( x)  e x  x  3
Re - write the function in general form then differentiate
f ( xn )  e x n  x n  3
If the given equation has root between the given initial values, the values must
satisfy location theorem f ( xn )  f ( xn 1 )  0. Let xn  0, xn 1  1
f ( xn )  e xn  xn  3, f 0)  e 0  0  3  2
f ( xn 1 )  e xn1  xn 1  3, f 1)  e1  1  3  0.7183
Therefore, f (0)  f (1)  2  0.7183  1.4366  0
 Since f ( xn )  f ( xn 1 )  0 , e x  3  x has a root in the interval 0,1

By using Newton' s Raphson method determine the root of e x  x  3  0

f ( x n )  e xn  x n  3
f ( xn )  e xn  1
When the initial values are two take either one, but for easier converging of roots
0 1
take the average of the given valu es, x0   0.5
2
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson method formula xn1  xn 
f ( xn )
e xn  xn  3
Now, xn1  xn 
e xn  1

e x0  x0  3 e 0.5  0.5  3
When n  0, x1  x0   0.5   0.8214
e x0  1 e 0.5  1
e x1  x1  3 e 0.8214  0.8214  3
When n  1, x2  x1   0.8214   0.7924
e x1  1 e 0.8214  1
e x2  x 2  3 e 0.7924  0.7924  3
When n  2, x3  x2   x   0.7921
e x2  1 e 0.7924  1
0

 The approximat e root of the equation after performing 3 iteration

by using Newton' s Raphson method is 0.7921

138
Example 5

By using Newton’s Raphson formula with xo  , find the next approximation
2
of 10cos x  x  0 , (leave  as  )
Solution

Given that 10 cos x  x  0 and x0 
2
Express in function form f ( x)  10 cos x  x while f ( x)  0
Re - write the function in general form then differentiate
f ( xn )  10 cos xn  xn
f ( xn )  10 sin xn  1
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson method xn1  xn 
f ( xn )
10 cos xn  xn 10 cos xn  xn
xn1  xn   xn 
 10 sin xn  1 10 sin xn  1
10 cos xn  xn
Now, xn1  xn 
10 sin xn  1
   
10 cos   0
10 cos x0  x0  
2 2   2  5
When n  0, x1  x0   
10 sin x0  1 2   2 10  1 11
10 sin   1
2
5
 The next approximat ion is
11

Example 6
Use Newton’s method to estimates the point of intersection of y  e  x and
2

y  x using three iterations only, take x0  0.5

Solution
At point of intersection the curves share the same coordinates which means e  x  x
2

e  x  x  0, since f ( x)  0
2

f ( x)  e  x  x, in general f ( xn )  e  xn  xn and f ( xn )  2 xn e  xn  1
2 2 2

f ( xn )
By using Newton' s Raphson method xn 1  xn  where x0  0.5
f ( xn )
e  x n  xn
2

xn 1  xn 
 2 xn e  x n  1
2

139
 e  x0  x0
2
e  ( 0.5)  0.5
2

When n  0, x1  x0   0.5   0.6567

 2 x0 e  x0  1  2(0.5)e ( 0.5)  1
2 2

e  x1  x1
2
e ( 0.6567)  0.6567
2

When n  1, x2  x1   0.6567   0.6529

 2 x1e  x1  1  2(0.6567)e ( 0.6567)  1
2 2

e  x2  x 2
2
e  ( 0.6529)  0.6529
2

When n  2, x3  x2   0.6529   0.6529

 2 x 2 e  x2  1  2(0.6529)e ( 0.6529)  1
2 2

The approximat e value of x  0.6529 and y  e  x or y  x

2

since x  y  0.6529
 The approximat e point of intersection is ( x, y )  (0.6529,0.6529)

APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD

Newton’s Raphson Method is used to find;
(a) Square roots of a number ( N )
3
(b) Cube roots of a number ( N )
1
(c) Reciprocal of a number ( )
N
r
(d) r th roots of a number ( N )

(a) Square roots of a number ( N )

Newton' s Raphson Method is used to find square roots of a number

Let x  N
x2  N
x 2  N  0 But f(x)  0
f(x)  x 2  N write this in general f(xn )  xn  N .......... .......... ......( i )
2

Differentiate equation (i) f (x n )  2 xn .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)

f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson Method xn 1  xn 
f ( xn )

140
 xn  N
2
xn1  xn 
2 xn
2 xn  xn  N xn  N 1  N
2 2 2
xn1     xn  
2 xn 2 xn 2 xn 
1 N
Formula used to find square root of a number xn 1   xn  
2 xn 
Example 7

Find the square root of 7 given that x0  2 perform three iteration only.

Solution

Required 7
1 N
From xn1   xn  , N  7 and x0  2
2 xn 
1 7  1 7
When n  0, x1   x0     2    2.75
2 x0  2  2
1 7  1 7 
When n  1, x2   x1     2.75    2.6477
2 x1  2  2.75 
1 7  1 7 
When n  2, x3   x2     2.6477    2.6458
2 x2  2  2.6477 
 The approximat e square root of 7 is 2.6458

Example 8

Find the square root of 10 starting with x0  1 perform five iteration only.

Solution

Required 10
1 N
From xn 1   xn  , N  10 and x0  1
2 xn 
1 10  1  10 
When n  0, x1   x0    1    5.5
2 x0  2  1

141
 1 7  1 7 
When n  1, x2   x1     5.5    3.6591
2 x1  2  5.5 
1 7  1 7 
When n  2, x3   x2     3.6591   3.1960
2 x2  2  3.6591
1 7  1 7 
When n  3, x4   x3     3.1960    3.1625
2 x3  2  3.1960 
1 7  1 7 
When n  4, x5   x4     3.1625    3.1623
2 x4  2  3.1625 
 The approximate square root of 10 is 3.1623

3
(b) Cube roots of a number ( N )
Newton' s Raphson Method is used to find cube roots of a number
Let x  3 N
x3  N
x 3  N  0 But f(x)  0
f(x)  x 3  N write this in general f(x n )  x n  N .......... .......... ......( i )
3

f (x n )  3x n .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)

2
Differentiate equation (i)
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson Method x n 1  x n 
f ( x n )
xn  N
3

x n 1  x n  2
3x n
3x n  x n  N 2xn  N 1 
3 3 3
N
x n 1     2 xn  2 
3x n
2
3x n
2
3  xn 


1 N 
Formula used to find cube root of a number xn 1   2 xn  2 
3 xn 

142
Example 9

Find the cube root of 71 given that x0  3.6 perform three iteration only.

Solution

Required 3 71
1 N 
From xn1   2 xn  2 , N  71 and x0  3.6
3 xn 
1 71  1  71 
When n  0, x1   2 x0  2    2(3.6)    4.2261
3 x0  3  (3.6) 2 
1 71  1  71 
When n  1, x2   2 x1  2    2(4.2261)    4.1425
2 
3 x1  3  (4.2261) 
1 71  1  71 
When n  2, x3   2 x2  2    2(4.1425)    4.1408
2 
3 x2  3  (4.1425) 
 The approximate cube root of 71 is 4.1408

1
(c) Reciprocal of a number ( )
N
Newton' s Raphson Method is used to find reciprocalof a number
1 1
Let x  , N 
N x
1
N
x
1
 N  0 But f(x)  0
x
1 1
f(x)   N write this in general f(xn )   N .......... .......... ......( i )
x xn
1
Differentiate equation (i) f (x n )  2
.......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
xn
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson Method xn 1  xn 
f ( xn )
1
N
xn1  xn 
 
xn
1
xn 2

143
 2 1 
xn1  xn  xn   N 
 xn 
xn1  xn  xn  Nx n
2

xn1  2 xn  Nxn
2
Formula used to find reciprocal of a number

Example 10
Find the reciprocal of 3 starting with x0  0.28 `perform at least three iteration.
Solution
Required 31
From xn1  2 xn  Nx n , N  3 and x0  0.28
2

When n  0, x1  2 x0  3x0  2(0.28)  3(0.28) 2  0.3248

2

When n  1, x2  2 x1  3x1  2(0.3248)  3(0.3248) 2  0.3331

2

When n  2, x3  2 x2  3x2  2(0.3331)  3(0.3331) 2  0.3333

2

 The approximate reciprocalof 3 is 0.3333

(d) r th roots of a number ( r N )

Newton' s Raphson Method is used to find cube roots of a number
Let x  r N
xr  N
x r  N  0 But f(x)  0
f(x)  x r  N write this in general f(x n )  x n  N .......... .......... ......( i )
r

r 1
Differentiate equation (i) f (x n )  rxn .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
f ( xn )
From Newton' s Raphson Method x n 1  x n 
f ( x n )
xn  N
r

x n 1  x n  r 1
rxn
rxn  x n  N (r  1) x n  N
r r r

x n 1  r 1
 r 1
rxn rxn
(r  1) x n  N
r

Formula used to find r th roots of a number

x n 1  r 1
rxn

144
Example 11
Find the 5 th root of 99 starting with x0  2 perform at least 3 iteration.
Solution
5
Required 99
(r  1) xn  N
r
From xn 1  r 1
, N  99, r  5 and x0  2
rxn
(5  1) xn  99 4 xn  99
5 5
Now, xn1  51
 4
5 xn 5 xn
4 x0  99 4(2) 5  99
5
When n  0, x1  4
  2.8375
5 x0 5(2) 4
4 x  99 4(2.8375) 5  99
5
When n  1, x2  1 4   2.5754
5 x1 5(2.8375) 4
4 x  99 4(2.5754) 5  99
5
When n  2, x3  2 4   2.5104
5 x2 5(2.5754) 4
4 x3  99 4(2.5104) 5  99
5
When n  3, x4  4
  2.5069
5 x3 5(2.5104) 4
4 x  99 4(2.5069) 5  99
5
When n  4, x5  4 4   2.5068
5 x4 5(2.5069) 4
 The approximate 5 th root of 99 is 2.5068

ADVANTAGES OF NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD

(i) It require only one initial condition

(ii) It’s very strong method
(iii) It converges rapidly
(iv) It does not need to check whether the sequence is converging or diverging

DISADVANTAGES OF NEWTON’S RAPHSON METHOD

(i) It’s difficult when the gradient of the function is undefined
(ii) The slope of the curve should not be equal to zero
(iii) It’s single step method

145
 Exercise 3.2

1. The equation 5x  cos x has a root near x  0.5 , solve this equation by
Newton’s Raphson method perform 4 iteration giving your answer correct
to 3 significant figures.

2. Show that the Newton’s Raphson formula of finding the roots of the
(24xn  4) xn  4
2
equation 12 x  4 x  15x  4  0 is xn1
3 2
 and use this
(36xn  8) xn  15
formula to find the roots of 12 x 3  4 x 2  15x  4  0 correct to 3 decimal
places.

3. Use the Newton’s Raphson method to approximate the root of

e x (1  x )  2 correct to four decimal places by performing three iterations
only (Use x0  0.1 ).

4. Show that the Newton’s Raphson formula for approximating the roots of
xn  1
2
x 2  x  1  0 is xn 1  starting with x0  2 use the formula to find
2 xn  1
x1 , x 2 and x3 correct to four decimal places.

5. Newton’s Raphson method is an iteration method for showing equations

f ( x )  0 where f is differentiable, what are the limitations of using this
method.

146
(B) SECANT METHOD

This is a numerical method of approximation of f ( x )  0 given two initial

conditions. This is called multistep method because it involves two initial
conditions.

Consider the sketch below;

fig 3. 3

From the figure above, assume points P and N are two initial conditions converging to M
Here we have two possibilities either, slope NP  slope MP or slope NP  slope NM
consider slope NP  slope MP
f ( xn1 )  f ( xn ) f ( xn1 )  0

xn1  xn xn1  xn 2
xn1  xn2  f ( xn1 )  f ( xn )   xn1  xn  f ( xn1 )
x  x  n1 n
x  x  f ( xn1 )
n 1 n 2
f ( xn1 )  f ( xn )

Secant method formula  xn1  xn 

xn 2  xn1    f ( xn1 )
 f ( xn1 )  f ( xn ) 

147
Alternative Derivation

consider slope NP  slope NM

f ( xn1 )  f ( xn ) 0  f ( xn )

xn1  xn xn  2  xn
xn2  xn  f ( xn1 )  f ( xn )  xn1  xn  f ( xn )
x x 
xn1  xn  f ( x )
n 2
f ( xn1 )  f ( xn )
n n

 xn1  xn 
xn 2  xn    f ( xn )
 f ( xn1 )  f ( xn ) 

NB: All the above formula are applicable and all formula give the desired
approximate solutions.

Example 12

The equation x 3  3 x  20  0 has a single real root inside the interval

3,4 approximate the root in four iterations using the Secant formula obtained.
Solution

Given that x 3  3x  20  0 where x0  3 and x1  4

In general f ( xn )  xn  3 xn  20 and f ( xn 1 )  xn 1  3 xn 1  20
3 3

From Secant method xn  2  xn 1 

xn1  xn  f  xn 1 
f ( xn 1 )  f ( xn )

xn  2  xn 1 
xn1  xn  x 
 3 xn 1  20
x    20
3
Now, n 1
 3xn 1  20  xn  3 xn
3 3
n 1

When n  0, x2  x1 
x1  x0  x  3x1  20 
x    20
3

 3x1  20  x0  3x0
3 3 1
1

4  3
x2  4 
 (4) 
 3(4)  20  3.0588
3

(4) 3
 
 3(4)  20  (3) 3  3(3)  20

148
When n  1, x3  x2 
x2  x1  x  3x2  20 
x  20 x  3x  20
3

 3 x2
3 3 2
2 1 1

x3  3.0588 
3.0588 4(3.0588) 3  3(3.0588)  20
(3.0588) 3
 3(3.0588)  20  (4) 3  3(4)  20     3.0749
When n  2, x4  x3 
x3  x2  x  3x3  20 
x    20
3

 3x3  20  x2  3x2
3 3 3
3

x4  3.0749 
3.0749  3.0588(3.0749)3  3(3.0749)  20
(3.0749) 3
 
 3(3.0749)  20  (3.0588) 3  3(3.0588)  20   3.0809

When n  3, x5  x4 
x4  x3  x  3x4  20 
x    20
3

 3x4  20  x3  3x3
3 3 4
4

x5  3.0809 
3.0809  3.0749(3.0809)3  3(3.0809)  20
(3.0809) 3
 
 3(3.0809)  20  (3.0749) 3  3(3.0749)  20   3.0809
 The approximate root of the equation in the given interval is 3.0809

Alternative Method

Given that x 3  3 x  20  0 where x0  3 and x1  4

In general f ( xn )  xn  3 xn  20 and f ( xn 1 )  xn 1  3 xn 1  20
3 3

From Secant method xn  2  xn 

xn1  xn  f  xn 
f ( xn 1 )  f ( xn )

xn  2  xn 
xn1  xn  x  3 xn  20 
x    20
3
Now,
 3 xn 1  20  xn  3 xn
3 3 n
n 1

When n  0, x2  x0 
x1  x0  x  3 x0  20 
x    20
3

 3 x1  20  x0  3 x0
3 3 0
1

4  3
x2  3 
 (3)  3(3)  20  3.0588 
3

(4) 3
 
 3(4)  20  (3) 3  3(3)  20

When n  1, x3  x2 
x2  x1  x  3x2  20 
x  20  x  3x  20
3

 3 x2
3 3 2
2 1 1

x3  4 
3.0588 4(4)
 3(4)  20
 3.0749
3

 (3.0588)  3(3.0588)  20  (4) 3  3(4)  20
3
  
149
 x3  x2 
When n  2, x4  x3 
x    x  3x3  20 
3

 3x3  20  x2  3x2  20
3 3 3
3

x4  3.0588 
3.0749  3.0588(3.0588)3  3(3.0588)  20
(3.0749) 3
 
 3(3.0749)  20  (3.0588)3  3(3.0588)  20   3.0809

When n  3, x5  x4 
x4  x3  x 
 3x4  20
x  20  x  3x  20
3

 3 x4
3 3 4
4 3 3

x5  3.0749 
3.0809  3.0749(3.0749)3  3(3.0749)  20
(3.0809) 3
 
 3(3.0809)  20  (3.0749) 3  3(3.0749)  20   3.0809
 The approximate root of the equation in the given interval is 3.0809

Example 13
Use Newton’s Raphson formula to derived Secant method formula.

Solution
Consider the figure below;

150
 f  xn 
From Newton' s Raphson Formula xn2  xn  .......... ....( i )
f xn 
f xn1   f xn 
f xn   .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
xn1  xn
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
f xn xn1  xn 
xn  2  x n 
f xn1   f xn 
 xn1  xn 
 xn2  xn    f xn 
 f xn1   f xn  

ADVANTAGES OF SECANT METHOD

(i) It does not require differentiation of a function
(ii) It require only one function to evaluate per iteration

DISADVANTAGES OF SECANT METHOD

(i) It involves tedious formula
(ii) It may not converge if the initial points are not close to each other
(iii) It’s multistep method, i.e. it require two initial points.

CONDITION FOR A FUNCTION TO HAVE A ROOT BETWEEN TWO

GIVEN INITIAL ROOTS.
A function is said to have a root between the given two initial roots if and only
if the location theorem is satisfied.
Let x n and x n1 be two initial roots of a function, if there is a root between the given
roots/conditions then f ( x n ) f ( x n 1 )  0

151
3.3 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
Numerical integration are numerical methods which use the concepts defined
integral to find an approximate values of an integrand.

Numerical integration is divided into two parts

(a) Trapezium (Trapezoidal) rule/method.
(b) Simpson’s rule

(A) TRAPEZIUM (TRAPEZOIDAL) RULE/METHOD

Trapezium (Trapezoidal) rule/method is one of the numerical method used to

approximate the area of the curve.
Consider the sketch below to determine the Trapezoidal Rule,

fig 3. 4

b
From the sketch above, the area of a curve from " a" to " b" analytically is given by  f ( x)dx,
a

But numerically the area of a curve from " a" to " b" can be estimated by dividing the curve
from " a" to " b" into " n" trapeziums of the same height " h".
The area of the curve from " a" to " b" is equal to the sum of all areas of trapeziums
b
Area (A)   f ( x)dx 
h
 y0  y1   h  y1  y2   h  y2  y3   ...  h  yn2  yn1   h  yn1  yn 
a
2 2 2 2 2

Trapezoidal rule Area ( A) 

h
 y0  yn   2 y1  y2  y3  y4  ...  yn 1 
2

Shortly; Area( A) 
h
2

First  Last   2 middle terms 
ba
NOTE : h  , n  Number of strips  Number of ordinate 1
n
152
Example 13
Apply Trapezoidal rule with five ordinates to obtain an approximation for the
1
1
integral  1  x dx
0

Solution
b  a 1 0
h   0.25
n 4
x y
1 First  Last Middle
1 x
0 1 1
0.25 0.8000 0.8000
0.50 0.6667 0.6667
0.75 0.5714 0.5714
1 0.5 0.5
  1.5   2.0381

Area ( A) 
h
2

First  Last   2 Middle terms 
Area ( A) 
0.25
1.5  22.0381  0.697025
2
 The approximat e area is 0.697025 sq.units

Alternative method
b  a 1 0
h   0.25
n 4
1
y
x
1 x
0 1
0.25 0.8000
0.50 0.6667
0.75 0.5714
1 0.5

153
Area ( A) 
h
2

 y0  yn   2  y1  y2      yn1  
Area ( A) 
0.25
1  0.5  20.8  0.6667  0.5714  0.697025
2
 The approximat e area is 0.697025 sq.units

Example 14

Use Trapezoidal rule to find the approximating value of 
0
sin d given that

the number of strips is four.

Solution
ba  0 
h  
n 4 4
x y  sin x First  Last Middle
0 0 0

4 0.8409 0.8409

2 1 1
3
4 0.8409 0.8409
 0 0
 0   2.6818

Area ( A) 
h
2

First  Last   2 Middle terms 

Area ( A)  0  22.6818  2.1063
4

2
 The approximat e area is 2.1063 sq.units

Alternative method

ba  0 
h  
n 4 4

154
 x
y  sin x
0 0

4 0.8409

2 1
3
4 0.8409
 0

Area ( A) 
h
2
 
 y0  yn   2  y1  y2      yn1 

Area ( A)  0  0  20.8409  1  0.8409  2.1063
4

2
 The approximate area is 2.1063 sq.units

(B) SIMPSON’S RULE

Simpson’s rule/method is one of the numerical method used to approximate the
area of the curve.
Consider the sketch below to determine the Simpson’s Rule

fig 3. 5

155
From the figure above points A, B and C satisfiesthe function f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c
At point A(h, y 0 ) satisfies y  ax 2  bx  c
y 0  a (  h) 2  b(  h)  c
y 0  ah 2  bh  c  ah 2  y 0  bh  c.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )

At point B (0, y1 ) satisfies y  ax 2  bx  c

y1  c.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)

At point C (h, y 2 ) satisfies y  ax 2  bx  c

y 2  ah 2  bh  c
ah 2  y 2  bh  c.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iii)

Add equation (i) and equation (iii)

ah 2  y 0  bh  c
 2 2ah 2   y 0  y 2   2c.......... .......... .......... ....( iv)
ah  y 2  bh  c
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (iv)
2ah 2   y0  y 2   2 y1
2ah 2  y0  2 y1  y 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( v)

b
Area under the curve is given by  f ( x)dx
a
h

 1
 
h
1
Area   ax  bx  c dx   ax3  bx 2  cx 
2

h 3 2  h
1 1   1 1 
Area   ah3  bh 2  ch     ah3  bh 2  ch 
3 2   3 2 
2
Area  ah3  2ch
3
h

Area  2ah 2  6c but c  y1
3

h
 
Area  2ah 2  6 y1 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( vi)
3

156
 Substitute equation (v) into equation (vi)

Area   y0  2 y1  y 2  6 y1 
h
3
Area   y0  4 y1  y 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (vii)
h
3
NOTE : Equation (vii) represent the area of the curve by considering two strips,
consider all " n" strips from " a" to " b" ,

Area( A)   y0  4 y1  y 2    y 2  4 y3  y 4    y 4  4 y5  y6   ...   y n2  4 y n1  y n 

h h h h
3 3 3 3

Area( A) 
h
 y0  yn   4 y1  y2  y3  y5  ...  2 y2  y4  y6  ...
3

Shortly, Area( A) 
h
3

First  Last   4 Odd ordinates  2 Even ordinates 

ba
NOTE : h  , n  Number of strips  Number of ordinate 1
n

Example 15
Use the most accurate method of the numerical integration to evaluate the
3
Inx 2
integral using 5 ordinates 1 x dx
Solution
b  a 3 1
h   0 .5
n 4

x Inx 2 First  Last Odd Even

y
x
1 0 0
1.5 0.5406 0.5406
2.0 0.6931 0.6931
2.5 0.7330 0.7330
3 0.7324 0.7324
  0.7324   1.2736   0.6931

157
Area ( A) 
h
3

First  Last   4 Odd terms  2 Even terms 
Area ( A) 
0.5
0.7324  41.2736  20.6931  1.2022
3
 The approximat e area is 1.2022 sq.units

Alternative method

b  a 3 1
h   0 .5
n 4
x Inx 2
y
x
1 0
1.5 0.5406
2.0 0.6931
2.5 0.7330
3 0.7324

Area ( A) 
h
3
 
 y0  yn   4  y1  y3      yn1   2  y2  y4      yn2 

Area ( A) 
0.5
0  0.7324  40.5406  0.7330  20.6931  1.2022
3
 The approximate area is 1.2022 sq.units

Example 16
Use both Simpson’s and Trapezium rules with ten strips to evaluate
0 .5
approximately the value of 0
1  0.5 sin d correct to four decimal places.

Solution
b  a 0.5  0
h   0.05
n 10

158
 y  1 0.5sin First  Last Middle Odd Even
0 1 1
0.05 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874
0.1 0.9747 0.9747 0.9747
0.15 0.9619 0.9619 0.9619
0.2 0.9490 0.9490 0.9490
0.25 0.9361 0.9361 0.9361
0.3 0.9232 0.9232 0.9232
0.35 0.9102 0.9102 0.9102
0.4 0.8974 0.8974 0.8974
0.45 0.8846 0.8846 0.8846
0.5 0.8719 0.8719
  1.8719   8.4245   4.6802   3.7443

By using Simpson' s rule


Area ( A)  First  Last   4 Odd terms  2 Even terms
h
3

Area ( A) 
0.05
1.8719  44.6802  23.7443  0.4680
3
 The approximat e area is 0.4680 sq.units
By using Trapezoida l rule


Area ( A)  First  Last   2 Middle terms
h
2

Area ( A) 
0.05
1.8719  28.4245  0.4680
2
 The approximat e area is 0.4680 sq.units

159
 Alternative method
b  a 0.5  0
h   0.05
n 10

 y  1 0.5sin

0  0 y0  1

1  0.05 y1  0.9874
 2  0.1 y2  0.9747

 3  0.15 y3  0.9619
 4  0.2 y4  0.9490

 5  0.25 y5  0.9361
 6  0.3 y6  0.9232
 7  0.35 y7  0.9102
 8  0.4 y8  0.8974
 9  0.45 y9  0.8846
10  0.5 y10  0.8719

By using Simpson' s rule

Area ( A)   y0  y10   4 y1  y3  y5  y7  y9   2 y 2  y 4  y6  y8 
h
3
0.05 1  0.8719  40.9874  0.9619  0.9361 0.9102  0.8846
Area ( A)    0.4680
3  20.9747  0.9490  0.9232  0.8974 
 The approximate area is 0.4680 sq.units

By using Trapezoida l rule

Area ( A)   y0  y10   2 y1  y 2  y3  y 4  y5  y6  y7  y8  y9 
h
2
0.05   0.9874  0.9747  0.9619  0.9490  0.9361
Area ( A)  1  0.8719  2   0.4680
2    0.9232  0.9102  0.8974  0.8846 
 The approximate area is 0.4680 sq.units

160
Example 17
1

 xe
x2
Approximate dx with 6 ordinates. Use both rules Simpson’s and
0

Trapezoidal rules, hence evaluate and calculate the percentage error committed
for each case. Give comments.
Solution
b  a 1 0
h   0 .2
n 5

x y  xe x
2
First  Last Middle Odd Even
0 0 0
0.2 0.2082 0.2082 0.2082
0.4 0.4694 0.4694 0.4694
0.8600 0.8600 0.8600
0.6
0.8 1.5172 1.5172 1.5172
1 2.7183 2.7183

  2.7183   3.0548   1.0682   1.9866

By Simpson's rule


Area ( A)  First  Last   4 Odd  2 Even
h
3

Area ( A) 
0.2
2.7183  41.0682  21.9866  0.7310
3
 The approximate area is 0.7310
By using Trapezoida l rule


Area ( A)  First  Last   2 Middle terms
h
2

Area ( A) 
0.2
2.7183  23.0548  0.8828
2
 The approximate area is 0.8828

161
 1
The actual value/true value of  xe x dx  0.85914(By using Calculator)
2

x 0.85914 0.7310
Percentage error committedfor Simpson' s rule  100%  100%  14.91%
x 0.85914
x 0.85914 0.8828
Percentage error committedfor Trapezoida l rule  100%  100%  2.75%
x 0.85914
 Trapezoida l rule it has small percentage error compared to Simpson rule, thereforeTrapezoida l rule
give better approximat ion than Simpson' s rule in this problem.

Example 18
4 
1

x (1  x 2 ) 1 dx  hence by using Simpson’s rule find the value

2
Show that
0
4
of  correct to 4 decimal places.
Solution
   1 
   4 
1 1 1 1 1
1 x2 1
Consider  x 2 1  x 2 dx   dx   1  dx   dx  
1
2 
dx  x  tan 1 x 0  1  
0 0

1 x 2
 0
1 x  0 0
1 x 2
4 4
4 
 
1
1
  x 2 1  x 2 dx  shown
0
4

By Simpson' s rule we need to evaluate the value of 

b  a 1 0
h   0.1 (Take 10 strips)
n 10
x y  f (x ) First  Last Odd Even
0 0 0
0.1 0.0099 0.0099
0.2 0.0385 0.0385
0.3 0.0826 0.0826
0.4 0.1379 0.1379
0.5 0.2000 0.2000
0.6 0.2647 0.2647
0.7 0.3289 0.3289
0.8 0.3902 0.3902
0.9 0.4475 0.4475
1 0.5 0.5

  0.5   1.0689   0.8313

162
From Simpson' s rule, Area 
h
3

First  Last   4 Odd  2 Even 
Area 
0.1
0.5  41.0689  20.8313  0.214606667 0.21407
3
4 
Therefore,  x 1  x 
1
2 1
2
dx   0.21407
0
4
4 
Consider  0.21407
4
4    4(0.21407)
  4  4(0.21407)  3.14372
 The approximate value of  is 3.14372

Example 19
The velocity of a train which starts from rest is given by the following table, the
time being recorded in minutes from the start and speed in km / hour.
T(min) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
V(km/hr) 10 28.8 40 46.4 51.2 32.0 17.6 8 3.0 0

Using the Simpson’s rule to estimate the approximately total distance run in 20
minutes.
Solution
If a train started at rest T  0 ( min) and V  0 km hr
T(min) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
V(km/hr) 0 10 28.8 40 46.4 51.2 32.0 17.6 8 3.0 0

By using simpson's rule

 
Area  First  Last   4 Odd  2 Even but h  2 min  2 60 hr
h
3
0  0  410  40  51.2  17.6  3.0  228.8  46.4  32.0  8  7.973333333km
2
Area  60

3
 Total distance run in 20 minutes is approximate equal to 7.97km

163
 Exercise 3.3
1. Using the numerical integration methods where the interval 0,1 is divided
1
into 4 equal parts, evaluate  1 x 2
dx correct to four decimal places.

2. Using Simpson’s rule with nine ordinates to obtain the approximate value
1
1
of 
0 1 x2
dx .

3. Use trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule with eight strips to obtain the

x sin x
approximate value of  1  cos
0
2
x
dx .

4. Use Integral method, Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rules with eleven
2
ordinates to find the approximate values of  xe x dx round off your answer
0

into 5 significant figure.

4
5. Evaluate, correct to three decimal places the 
0
9  x 2 dx using;

(a) Trapezium rule with 4 strips.

(b) Simpson’s rule taking 5 ordinates.
(c) Analytical method.

3.4 APPLICATIONS OF NUMERICAL METHODS

Numerical methods are algorithms used for computing numeric data. They are
used to provide ‘approximate’ results for the problems being dealt with and
their necessity is felt when it becomes impossible or extremely difficult to solve
a given problem analytically.

It is important to recognize under what conditions a method can be followed

and what starting value(s) to choose from in order to ensure that the chosen
method shall work(converge).

Numerical methods can be used for-

 Computing integrals and derivatives

 Solving differential equations
164
 Building models based on data, be it through interpolation, Least
Square, or other methods
 Root finding and numerical optimization
 Estimating the solution to a set of linear and nonlinear equations
 Computational geometry
 Development and computation of optimal control algorithms
 Development of high fidelity simulations to model viscous flow around
a race car to see if the wing designs generate sufficient downforce
 Machine learning algorithms, like estimating optimal weights of
parametric models using only subsets of the full dataset (like stochastic
gradient descent)
 Photorealistic renderer
 Design optimization based on simulation and multi-objective
optimization formulations
 Game Engines
 Filtering of noisy data based on an approximately expected model of the
dynamics (Kalman Filter, Particle Filter, etc.)

There are many more uses for numerical methods out there, but this will
hopefully show a range of areas to prove its uses are broad.

REVISION EXERCISE 3
1
x2  1
1. Show that 0 (1  x 2 ) 2 dx  8  4 hence by using the Simpson’s rule find
the value of  correct to four decimal places.
2. Using Simpson’s rule find an approximate value of the length of the
x2
portion of the ellipse  y 2  1 that lies in the first quadrant between
4
x  0 and x  1 and has equal interval between the ordinates is 0.25
3. Use Simpson’s rule with 7 ordinates to find an approximate value of
6

 xe dx .
x

0
0 .8

e
x2
4. Find the value of dx with 5 ordinates, using
0

(a) Trapezium rule

(b) Simpson’s rule

165
5. Apply Simpson’s rule with n  4 to obtain an approximation for the
1
1
integral  1  x dx
0

1
6. By using analytical method show that  1  xdx  In3 from x  0 to

x  2.
x 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
f ( x) 1.0 0.833 0.714 0.625 0.5556 0.500 0.4545 0.4166

1.6 1.8 2.0

0.3846 0.3571 0.3333

From the table approximate In3 to 4 decimal places using;

(a) Trapezium rule
(b) Simpson’s rule
7. (a) Given the function f ( x)  x 3  2 x  4 , show that it has real roots
which lies between x  1 and x  1.5
(b) Using the function in (a) above and taking x0  1.2 as the first
approximation of its root use the Newton’s-Raphson method to find x1 ,
x 2 and x3 giving your answer to 4 decimal places.
(c) Give a reason why you think x3 is the mostly correct answer.
8. Show that the equation e x  3  x has a root in the interval 0,1 also find
this root correct to two decimal places in three iterations by using
Newton’s Raphson method.
9. Apply the Newton’s Raphson technique to establish the simple formula
for calculating the reciprocal of a positive real number A and use it to
1
approximate to six decimal places in three iterations starting from
13
x0  0.1

10. Use Simpson’s rule to find the approximating value of 
0
sin d

given that n  4 .
166
11. Apply both the Trapezium rule and Simpson’s rule with n  10 to obtain
1

e
 x2
an approximation for dx , (give your answer in six decimal
0

places).
12. (a) Explain with the aid of example why the two numerical methods,
Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule are useful in evaluating definite
integrals.

(b) Using Numerical integration methods mentioned in part (a) above

and where the interval 0,1 is divided into four equal parts evaluate
1

 (1  x
2 1
) dx correct to four decimal places.
0

13. (a) Use Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule with eleven ordinates to
1
1
find an approximate value of  2  2x
0
2
dx compare your results with the

exact values of the integral and hence state which rule is more correct
(Give your answer correct to four decimal places).
(b) (i) Derive Secant formula.
(ii)The equation x 3  3 x  20  0 has a single real root inside the
interval 3,4 approximate the root in four iterations using the Secant
formula obtained.

14. Use the Newton’s Raphson formula with three iteration to compute the
value of 3 7 correct to 5 significant figures (Use x0  2 ).

4

 cos
2
15. (a) Evaluate xdx by Simpson’s rule with five ordinates and write
0
your answer to 4 decimal places.

4

 cos
2
(b) Find the actual value of xdx and compare your answer with
0
part (a) above.
16. Point R(h, y1 ) , S (0, y2 ) T (h, y3 ) lies on the parabola
f ( x)  kx 2  lx  m which opens upward. The lines x  h , x  h and
y  0 and the parabola makes a region which is symmetrical to the line

167
 x  0 . Use the information given and the figure below to derive the
Simpson’s rule for approximation of area RSTUV .

17. The figure below has point P , Q and B on the quadratic curve
f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c . Derive the Simpson’s rule with n ordinatesto
approximate the area PQRST .

18. (a) (i) Write down four sources of error in numerical computations.
(ii) If xn 1 is a better approximation to a root of equation f ( xn )  0 .
Derive the Newton’s-Raphson for the function f ( x n )
(b) Use the Newton’s-Rahson method obtained in (a)(ii) to derive the
Secant formula and comment why would you want to use it instead of
the Newton’s Raphson method.
(c) Using the Secant method obtained in (b) with x1  2 and x2  3
perform three iterations to approximate the root x 2  2 x  1  0 and
hence compute the absolute error correct to four decimal places.

168
19. Show that the Newton’s Raphson formula of finding the roots of the
(24xn  4) xn  4
2
equation 12 x 3  4 x 2  15x  4  0 is xn1  and use
(36xn  8) xn  15
this formula to find the roots of 12 x 3  4 x 2  15x  4  0 correct to 3
decimal places.
1
20. (a) Approximate the area under the curve y  between x  3
x2
to x  5 with six ordinates by;
(i) Trapezoidal rule
(ii) Simpson’s rule
21. The velocity of a train which starts from rest is given by the following
table, the time being recorded in minutes from the start and speed in
km / hour.
T(min) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
V(km/hr) 10 28.8 40 46.4 51.2 32.0 17.6 8 3.0 0

Using the Simpson’s rule to estimate the approximately total distance

run in 20 minutes.
22. An experiment being performed produces oxygen at a continuous rate.
The rate of oxygen produced is measured each minute and the results
were recorded as shown below,
Time (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10


Rate of oxygen cm 3 / mm  0 14 18 22 30 42 41 36 29 20 12

Using the Trapezium rule, estimate the total volume of oxygen produced
in 10 minutes.
23. Using the Simpson’s rule with five ordinates, find an approximate value

of the integral 
0
sin d correct to five decimal places.

24. (a) The equation 5x  cos x has a root near x  0.5 , solve this equation
by Newton’s Raphson method perform 4 iteration giving your answer
correct to 3 significant figures.
(b) Use a secant method to find the value of 3 4 starting from x  1 to
x  2 perform three iteration and give your answer correct to three
decimal places.
169
25. (a) By using five ordinates apply both Trapezoidal and Simpson’s rules
3
1
to evaluate the integral  2x
1
2
 x 1
dx

3
1
(b) Use the normal integral method to evaluate  2x
1
2
 x 1
dx then

check the absolute error for each method done in (a) above.
26. The area in cm 2 of the cross section of a model boat 28cm long at
interval of 3.5cm as follows;
0 11.5 15.3 16.3 16.2 13.4 9.3 4.9 0

27. Find the area of a region of half a wave of sin from the axes (positive
axes) with 4 strips using;
(i) Trapezium rule
(ii) Simpson’s rule
(iii) Give a comment on your answer above.

28. The following table gives the values of x and f (x ) . Find the area
bounded by the curve y  f (x) the x  axis and the ordinate x  7.47
and x  7.52 using Trapezium rule.
x 7.47 7.48 7.49 7.50 7.51 7.52
f (x ) 1.93 1.95 1.98 2.01 2.03 2.06

170
 Chapter Four
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Introduction

Complex number is a number which can be expressed in the form of z  x  iy

where x , y are real number and i is imaginary unit or iota.

Complex number is divided into two parts which are;

(i) Real part, i.e. R ( z )  x

(ii) Imaginary part, i.e. Im( z )  y

The value of imaginary unit or iota is given by i   1  i 2  1

Properties of imaginary unit or iota i n

(a) If n is even number divisible by four i n  1

(b) If n is even number not divisible by four i n  1
(c) If n is odd number greater than or equal to three i n  i or i n  i

Example 1

Simplify the following

(a) i4 (e) i 3
(b) i 16 (f) i 5
(c) i6 (g) i 7
(d) i 10 (h) i 11

Solution

Consider the basic definition of imaginary unit i 2  1

(a) i 4  i 2     1
2 2
1
 i    1
2 8
1
8
(b) i 16
 i    1
2 3
 1
3
(c) i 6

171
     1
(d) i 10  i 2
5 5
 1
(e)  
i 3  i 2 i   1i  i

 
(f) i 5  i 2 i   1 i  i
2 2

 i  i   1 i  i
2 3 3
(g) i 7
 i  i   1 i  i
2 5 5
(h) i 11

Exercise 4.1

Simplify the following;

(a) i 32 (d) i 21
(b) i 60 (e) i 77
(c) i 70 (f) i 101

4.1 REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER ON THE ARGAND

DIAGRAM
A complex can be drawn (viewed) in the complex plane as shown below;
Consider the complex numbers z  x  iy , z   x  iy , z   x  iy and
z  x  iy

172
 fig 4. 1

Example 2
Draw the argand diagram of the following complex number
(a) z  3  i 2
(b) z  4  3i
(c) z  2  4i
(d) z  2  i 3
Solution

173
Exercise 4.2
Draw the argand diagram of the following complex numbers
(a) z  5  5i
(b) z  7  i
(c) z  3  6i
(d) z  4i
(e) z  8i
(f) z  5
(g) z  2

4.2 CONJUGATE OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

Conjugate of a complex number is the reflection of a complex number about the
real axis.
Conjugate of complex number is denoted by z
Consider the reflection of a complex number z  x  iy

fig 4. 2

The conjugate of a complex number z  x  iy is z  x  iy

Example 3
Determine the conjugate of the following complex numbers
(a) Z  3 2i
(b) Z  1 5i
(c) Z  4i
(d) Z  a  bi
(e) Z  x  iy
Solution
(a) Z  3 2i
(b) Z  1 5i
(c) Z  4i
(d) Z  a  bi
(e) Z  x  iy
174
4.3 MODULUS AND ARGUMENT OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

(i) Modulus of complex numbers

Modulus is the magnitude/length of complex numbers from the origin to its
point ( x, y ) . Modulus of complex numbers is denoted by z .
Consider a complex number z  x  iy to its argand diagram below,

fig 4. 3

Apply Pythagoras theorem to the triangle above

z  x2  y2
2

Modulus of complex numbers z  x2  y2

PROPERTIES OF MODULUS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

(a) z  zz
2

(b) z1 z 2  z1 z 2
z1 z1
(c) 
z2 z2

Note; Prove the above properties of modulus of complex numbers.

Example 4
Determine the modulus or magnitude of the following complex numbers
(a) Z 1  i
(b) Z  3 4i
(c) Z  2i
(d) Z  a  bi
Solution

175
 The modulus of complex number z  x  iy is given by z  x 2  y 2
(a) Z  1  i
Z  12  12  2
(b) Z  3  4i
Z  32  (4) 2  5
(c) Z  2i
Z  22  2
(d ) Z  a  ib
Z  a2  b2

(ii) Argument of a complex number

Argument of a complex number is the angle subtended by the complex number
from positive real axis.
The argument of a complex number is denoted by Arg z  or 
Consider the figure below which represent a complex number z  x  iy

fig 4. 4

y
tan  
x
 y  y
  tan 1   Arg z   tan 1  
x x

Example 5
Determine the argument of the following complex numbers
(a) Z  1  i 3 (f) Z  1
(b) Z  3  i (g) Z  2  3i
(c) Z  i
(d) Z  2i (h) Z 1  i
(e) Z  3 (i) Z  a  bi
176
 Solution

 y
The argument of complex number z  x  iy is given by   tan 1  
x
(a) Z  1  i 3
 y  3 
  tan 1    tan 1    60 

x  1  3
(b) Z  3  i
 y  1  
  tan 1    tan 1    30 
x  3 6
(c ) Z  i
 y 1 
  tan 1    tan 1    90 
x 0 2
(d ) Z  2i
 y 2 3
  tan 1    tan 1    270 


x  0  2
( e) Z  3
 y 0
  tan 1    tan 1    0 
x 3
( f ) Z  1
 y  0 
  tan 1    tan 1    180  


x 
 1
( g ) Z  2  3i
 y 3
  tan 1    tan 1    561835
x 2
( h) Z  1  i
 y  1  
  tan 1    tan 1    45  


x  1  4
(i ) Z  a  ib
 y b
  tan 1    tan 1  
x a

177
4.4 OPERATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Operation of complex number is the process of performing addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division of complex numbers.

There are four operation of complex numbers which are;

(a) Addition of complex numbers

Two or more complex numbers can be added by adding real and imaginary
parts respectively.
Let z1  x1  iy1 and z 2  x 2  iy 2 , z1 and z 2 can be added as follows
z1  z 2  x1  iy1   x 2  iy 2 

z1  z2  x1  x2   i y1  y2 

(b) Subtraction of complex numbers

Two or more complex numbers can be subtracted by subtracting real and
imaginary parts respectively.
Let z1  x1  iy1 and z 2  x 2  iy 2 , z1 and z 2 can be subtraced as follows
z1  z 2  x1  iy1   x 2  iy 2 

z1  z 2  x1  x2   i y1  y 2 

(c) Multiplication of complex numbers

Two or more complex numbers can be multiplied as follows,
Let z1  x1  iy1 and z 2  x 2  iy 2 be two complex numbers,
We can multiply z1 and z 2 as follows
z1 z 2  x1  iy1 x 2  iy 2 
z1 z 2  x1 x 2  ix1 y 2  iy1 x 2  i 2 y1 y 2 but i 2  1
z1 z 2  x1 x 2  ix1 y 2  iy1 x 2  y1 y 2

z1 z2  x1 x2  y1 y2   ix1 y2  x2 y1 

178
(d) Division of complex numbers
Two or more complex numbers can be divided as follows,
Let z1  x1  iy1 and z 2  x 2  iy 2 be two complex numbers,
We can divide z1 by z 2 as follows
z1 x  iy1
 1
z 2 x 2  iy 2
z1  x1  iy1  x2  iy2 
  
z 2  x2  iy2  x2  iy2 
z1 x1 x2  ix1 y2  iy1 x2  i 2 y1 y2
 but i 2  1
x2  y 2
2 2
z2
z1  x1 x2  y1 y2   i  x1 y2  y1 x2 

x2  y 2
2 2
z2

z1  x1 x2  y1 y2   x1 y2  y1 x2 
   i 
z2  x2 2  y2 2   x2 2  y2 2 

Example 6
Given that z1  4  2i and z 2  3  5i find the following;
(a) z1  z 2
(b) z1  z 2
(c) z1 z 2
z1
(d)
z2
(e) 5z1  3z 2
(f) z1  2z 2
2

Solution
(a) z1  z2  4  2i   3  5i   7  3i
(b) z1  z2  4  2i   3  5i   1  7i
(c) z1 z 2  4  2i 3  5i   12  20i  6i  10i 2  12  20i  6i  10  22  14i

(d) z1   4  2i    3  5i   12  20i  6i  10i  12  20i  6i 10  2  26i  2  26 i  1  13 i

2

z 2  3  5i   3  5i  32  5 2 i 2 9  25 34 34 34 17 17
(e) 5z1  3z2  54  2i   33  5i   20  10i  9 15i  29  5i
(f) z12  2z2  4  2i 2  23  5i   16  16i  4  6 10i   12  16i   6 10i   6  26i

179
4.5 REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Complex number can be expressed in three different form which are Cartesian,
Polar and Euler’s forms;

(a) Cartesian form of a complex number

Cartesian form of a complex number is the form in which a complex number is
expressed in polynomial form (i.e. z  x  iy where x, y   )
Consider the figure below;

fig 4. 5

Cartesian (polynomial) form of complex numbers z  x  iy

(b) Polar form of a complex number, (i.e. z  r cos  i sin  )

Polar form of a complex number is a complex number expressed in terms of
variable r and  .
Consider the sketch below;

fig 4. 6

180
From the figure above, express x and y interms of r and 
x
cos  , x  r cos .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
r
y
sin   , y  r sin  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(ii)
r
Apply Pythagoras theorem
r 2  x2  y2
r  x 2  y 2 but r  z .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( iii)
Substitute equation (i) and equation (ii) into cartesian equation z  x  iy,
z  r cos  ir sin   r (cos  i sin  )
Polar form of complex numbers z  r (cos  i sin  )

Example 7
Express the following complex numbers into polar form
(a) Z  1  i 3
(b) Z 1  i
(c) Z  5i
(d) Z  i
(e) Z  9
(f) Z  9
Solution

181
( e) z  9
 y 0
r  x 2  y 2  9 2  9 and   tan 1    tan 1    0 
x 9

From z  r cos  i sin   9 cos0   i sin 0  

 z  9 cos0  i sin 0
 

( f ) z  9
 y  0 
r  x2  y2   92
 9 and   tan 1    tan 1    180


x  9
 
From z  r cos  i sin   9 cos180  i sin180 or z  9cos  i sin  
 


 z  9 cos180  i sin180 

MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN POLAR FORM

Two or more complex numbers can be multiplied together as shown below;
Let z1  r1 (cos1  i sin 1 ) and z 2  r2 (cos 2  i sin  2 ) be two complex numbers,
We can multiply z1 and z 2 as follows
z1 z 2  r1 (cos1  i sin 1 )  r2 (cos 2  i sin  2 )
 
z1 z 2  r1 r2 cos1 cos 2  i cos1 sin  2  i sin 1 cos 2  i 2 sin 1 sin  2 but i 2  1
z1 z 2  r1 r2 cos1 cos 2  sin 1 sin  2   isin 1 cos 2  cos1 sin  2 
z1 z 2  r1r2 cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 )

182
DIVISION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN POLAR FORM
Two or more complex numbers can be as shown below;
Let z1  r1 (cos1  i sin 1 ) and z 2  r2 (cos 2  i sin  2 ) be two complex numbers,
Divide z1 by z 2
z1 r (cos1  i sin 1 )
 1
z 2 r2 (cos 2  i sin  2 )
z1 r1  cos1  i sin 1 cos 2  i sin  2 
   
z 2 r2  cos 2  i sin  2 cos 2  i sin  2 
z1 r1  cos1 cos 2  i cos1 sin  2  i sin 1 cos 2  i 2 sin 1 sin  2 
  
z 2 r2  cos2  2  i 2 sin 2  2 
z1 r1  cos1 cos 2  sin 1 sin  2   i sin 1 cos 2  cos1 sin  2  
  
z 2 r2  cos2  2  sin 2  2 

 cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 ) 
z1 r1
z2 r2

Example 8
Given that z1  12cos60  i sin 60  and z 2  3cos 45  i sin 45  , find
(a) z1 z 2
z1
(b)
z2
z
(c) 2
z1
Solution
  
Given that z1  12 cos60  i sin 60 and z 2  3 cos 45  i sin 45 
From z1 , r1  12, 1  60 and also from z 2 , r2  3,  2  45
 


(a) z1 z 2  r1r2 cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 )  36 cos105  i sin105 
z1  r1 
(b) 
  cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 )  4 cos15  i sin15
z 2  r2 

z r 
z1  r1 
1
4
 1
4
 
(c) 2   2 cos( 2  1 )  i sin( 2  1 )  cos(15 )  i sin(15 )  cos15  i sin15 

183
Example 9
Given that z1  2cos30  i sin 30  and z 2  3cos10  i sin10  , find
(a) z1 z 2
z1
(b)
z2
z2
(c)
z1
2
(d) z1
Solution
Given that z1  2cos30  i sin 30  and z1  3cos10  i sin10   3cos 10   i sin 10 
From z1 , r1  2, 1  30 and also z 2 , r2  3,  2  10
a z1 z 2  r1r2 cos1   2   i sin1   2   6cos20  i sin 20 
b  z1
z2

r1
r2

cos1   2   i sin1   2   23 cos40  i sin 40 
c  z 2  r2 cos 2  1   i sin 2  1   32 cos 40   i sin 40   32 cos40  i sin 40 
z1 r1
d z12  2cos30  i sin 30 2  4cos60  i sin 60 

(c) Exponential (Euler’s) form of a complex number, (i.e. z  re i )

Consider a polar complex number z  cos  i sin 
dz
  sin   i cos but i 2  1
d
dz 2
 i sin   i cos
d
dz
 i (cos  i sin  ) but z  cos  i sin 
d
dz
 iz (This is separable D.E)
d
dz
 id
z

184
 1
 z dz  i  d
In z  i  c let c  0
In z  i (Change into exponential)
z  e i but z  cos  i sin
 In general z  rei , z  r cos  i sin 

Euler’s form of a complex number

z  rei

Example 10
Express the following complex numbers into Euler’s form
(a) z  3  i
(b) z 1  i
(c) z  3 4i
(d) z  1 3i
(e) z  3  3i
(f) z  6i
Solution
 y
To express z  x  iy into the form z  rei where r  x 2  y 2 and   tan 1  
x

( a ) z  3  i, r 
2
   1 
3  12  2 and   tan 1    30 

 3 6

i
 z  rei  2e 6

1 
(b) z  1  i, r  12  12  2 and   tan 1    45 
1 4

i
 z  rei  2e 4

185
 4
(c) z  3  4i, r  32  4 2  5 and   tan 1    53 748
3
4
i tan 1  
 z  rei  5e 3

(d ) z  1  3i, r  12   3  
2  3
 2 and   tan 1    60  300 

5
 1  3
5
i
i
 z  re  2e 3

 32     1  4
2
(e) z  3  i 3 , r  3  2 3 and   tan 1    240 
 3 3
4
i
 z  rei  2 3e 3

6
( f ) z  6i, r  6 2  6 and   tan 1    90  
0
 z  rei  6e i

MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN EULER’S FORM

Two or more Euler’s complex numbers can be multiplied together as described
below,
Let z1  r1e i1 and z 2  r2 e i 2 be any two complex numbers in Euler's form,
z1 z 2  r1e i1  r2 e i 2

z1 z2  r1r2 ei (1  2 )

DIVISION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN EULER’S FORM

Two or more Euler’s complex numbers can be divided as shown below,
Let z1  r1e i1 and z 2  r2 e i2 be any two complex numbers in Euler's form,
z1 r1e i1

z 2 r2 e i2

z1 r1 i 1  2 
 e
z2 r2

186
Example 11
 
Given that z1  5ei 75 and z 2  4ei15 , find
z1 z2 2
(a) z1 z 2 (b) z (c) z (d) z1
2 1
Solution
5 
i i
i1 i 75 i 2 i15
From, z1  r1e  5e  5e 12
and z 2  r2 e  4e  4e 12


i
(a) z1 z 2  r1r2 e i (1  2 )  20e i 90  20e

2


z1 r1 i (1  2 ) 5 i 60 5 i 3
(b)  e  e  e
z 2 r2 4 4

z r 4 5 i
(c) 2  2 e i ( 2 1 )  e i 60  e 3


z1 r1 5 4

  4e 

2

(d ) z 2  r2 e i 2
2 i15
2
 16e i 30  16e
 i
6

Exercise 4.3
1. Express z  1  i 3 into polar form.
2. Express z  3  i 3 into polar form.
3. Express z  3  i 3 into polar form.
4. Express z  4  4i into polar form.
5. Express z  i into polar form.
6. Given that z1  2 cos10  sin10   
 and z 2  
 3 cos 5  sin 5 find z1 z 2
z1
7. Given that z1  6 cos 25  6 sin 25 and z2  3cos 4  sin 4  find
 
z2

8. Given that z1  5 cos 20  sin 20 and z2  3cos30  0.5 find z1 z 2
 

9. Express z  1  i into Euler’s form.
i
10. Given that z1  5e
i
and z1  4e 3 find z1 z 2
z1
i i
11. Given that z1  7e 2 and z1  3.5e 4 find
z2
i i z
12. Given that z1  7e and z1  3.5e find 2 2 4

z1

187
4.6 DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM
Demoivre’s theorem is a theorem used in simplification of complex number,
change angles from powered to multiple and multiple to powered angles.

Derivation of Demoivre’s theorem

Consider the expansion of polar form of a complex number
step1 : cos  i sin   cos  i sin .......... .......... .......... .........( i )
1

step 2 : cos  i sin   cos2   sin 2   2i sin cos

2

cos  i sin 2  cos2  i sin 2 .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)

step 3 : cos  i sin   cos3   3i cos2  sin  3i 2 cos sin 2   i 3 sin 3 
3

cos  i sin 3  cos3   3 cos sin 2   3i cos2  sin  i sin 3 

cos  i sin 3  cos3   3 cos 1  cos2    3i1  sin 2  sin  i sin 3 
cos  i sin 3  cos3   3 cos  3 cos3   i3sin  3sin 3   sin 3  
cos  i sin 3  4 cos3   3 cos  i3sin  4 sin 3  
cos  i sin 3  cos3  i sin 3
.
.
.
cos  i sin n  cosn  i sin n

Demoivre’s theorem cos  i sin n  cosn  i sin n

APPLICATION OF DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM

Demoivre’s theorem is used to,
(i) Change powered angles into multiple angles
(ii) Change multiple angles into powered angles
(iii) Simplify problems

188
(i) Change powered angles into multiple angles
Consider Demoivre's theorem
z n  cos  i sin   cos n  i sin n
n

z n  cos n  i sin n .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )

 cos  i sin   cos n  i sin n

1 1 n

z n
cos  i sin n

1
 cos n  i sin n .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
zn
Add equation (i) and equation (ii)
z n  cos n  i sin n .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
1
 cos n  i sin n .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
zn
1
z n  n  2 cos n .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)
z
Subtract equation (i) and equation (ii)
1
z n  n  2i sin n .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( iv)
z
where n  1,2,3,4,..., k
These identities are used to change powered angles to multiple angles for cosine
and sine respectively
1 1
z n  n  2 cos n z n  n  2i sin n
z z

Example 12
Change the following powered angles trigonometric functions into multiple
angles
(a) cos3 
(b) sin 3 
(c) sin 4 
(d) cos5 
(e) sin 7 
Solution

189
(a ) cos3 
1
From 2 cos  z 
z
3

2 cos 3   z  1 
 z
2 3
1 1 1
8 cos   z  3 z    3 z     
3 3 2

z z z

 1  1
8 cos3    z 3  3   3 z  
 z   z
8 cos3   2 cos3   32 cos 
1 3
 cos3   cos3  cos
4 4

(b) sin 3 
1
From 2i sin  z 
z
3
 1
2i sin  3
z 
 z
2 3
1 1 1
8i sin   z  3z    3z    
3
3 3 2

z z z

 1   1
8i sin 3    z 3  3   3 z  
3

 z   z
8i sin 3   2i sin 3   32i sin 
3

8i sin 3   2isin 3  3 sin 

3

4i sin 3   sin 3  3 sin but i 2  1

2

3 1
 sin 3   sin  sin 3
4 4

190
(c) sin 4 
1
From 2i sin  z 
z
4
 1
2i sin  4
z 
 z
2 3 4
1 1 1 1
16i sin 4   z 4  4 z 3    6 z 2    4 z     
4

z z z z

 1   1 
16 sin 4    z 4  4   4 z 2  2   6
 z   z 
16 sin   2 cos 4   42 cos 2   6
4

sin 4   2 cos 4  8 cos 2  6 

1
16
sin 4   cos 4  4 cos 2  3
1
8
 sin 4   3  cos 4  4 cos 2 
1
8

(d ) cos5 
1
From 2 cos  z 
z
5
 1
2 cos  5
z 
 z
1  1 1  1 1
32 cos5   z 5  5 z 4    10z 3  2   10z 2  3   5 z  4   5
z z  z  z  z
1 1 1
32 cos5   z 5  5 z 3  10z  10  5 3  5
z z z
 1  1  1
32 cos5    z 5  5   5 z 3  3   10 z  
 z   z   z
32 cos   2 cos5   52 cos3   102 cos 
5

 cos5  
1
cos5  5 cos3  10 cos 
16

191
(e) sin 7 
1
From 2i sin  z 
z
7

2i sin 7   z  1 
 z
1  1  1  1 1 1  1
128i sin 7   z 7  7 z 6    21z 5  2   35z 4  3   35z 3  4   21z 2  5   7 z  6    7 
7

z z  z  z  z  z  z 
1 1 1 1
128i sin 7   z 7  7 z 5  21z 3  35z  35  21 3  7 5  7
7

z z z z
 1  1  1  1
128i sin 7    z 7  7   7 z 5  5   21 z 3  3   35 z  
7

 z   z   z   z
128i sin 7   2i sin 7   72i sin 5   212i sin 3   352i sin 
7

sin 7  
2i
sin 7  7 sin 5  21sin 3  35sin 
128i 7
sin 7  
1
sin 7  7 sin 5  21sin 3  35sin  but i 6  1
64i 6
 sin 7    sin 7  7 sin 5  21sin 3  35sin 
1
64

(ii) Change multiple angles into powered angles

Demoivre’s theorem is used to change multiple angles to powered angles by

applying the theorem direct i.e. cos  i sin n  cosn  i sin n 
Example 13
Change the following multiple angles trigonometric functions into powered
angles
(a) z  cos3 and z  sin 3
(b) z  cos4 and z  sin 4
(c) z  cos5 and z  sin 5
Solution

192
In each case apply De Moivre's Theorem cos  i sin   cos n  i sin n
n

a  z  cos3 and z  sin 3

cos  i sin 3  cos3  i sin 3
cos3  i sin 3  cos  i sin 
3

cos3  i sin 3  cos3   3i cos2  sin  3i 2 cos sin 2   i 3 sin 3  but i 2  1, i 3  i
cos3  i sin 3  cos3   3i cos2  sin  3 cos sin 2   i sin 3 
   
cos3  i sin 3  cos3   3 cos sin 2   i 3 cos2  sin  sin 3  .......... .......... (i )
From equation (i) equate real part
cos3  cos3   3 cos sin 2 

cos3  cos3   3 cos 1  cos2  
cos3  cos3   3 cos  3 cos3 
 cos3  4 cos3   3 cos

From equation (i) equate imaginary part

sin 3  3 cos2  sin  sin 3 
 
sin 3  3 1  sin 2  sin  sin 3 
sin 3  3 sin  3 sin 3   sin 3 
 sin 3  3 sin  4 sin 3 

b  z  cos 4 and z  sin 4

cos  i sin 4  cos 4  i sin 4
cos 4  i sin 4  cos  i sin  
4

cos 4  i sin 4  cos4   4i cos3  sin  6i 2 cos2  sin2   4i 3 cos sin3   i 4 sin4 
cos 4  i sin 4  cos4   4i cos3  sin  6 cos2  sin2   4i cos sin3   sin4 

193
c  z  cos5 and z  sin 5
cos  i sin 5  cos5  i sin 5
cos5  i sin 5  cos  i sin 
5

cos5  i sin 5  cos5   5i cos4  sin  10i 2 cos3  sin 2   10i 3 cos2  sin 3   5i 4 cos sin 4   i 5 sin 5 
cos5  i sin 5  cos5   5i cos4  sin  10 cos3  sin 2   10i cos2  sin 3   5 cos sin 4   i sin 5 
  
cos5  i sin 5  cos5   10 cos3  sin 2   5 cos sin 4   i 5 cos4  sin  10 cos2  sin 3   sin 5  
From equation (i) equate real part
cos5  cos5   10 cos3  sin 2   5 cos sin 4 
cos5  cos5   10 cos3  sin 2   5 cos sin 2   
2

   
cos5  cos5   10 cos3  1  cos2   5 cos 1  cos2 
2

cos5  cos   10 cos   10 cos   5 cos 1  2 cos   cos  

5 3 5 2 4

cos5  cos5   10 cos3   10 cos5   5 cos  10 cos3   5 cos5 

 cos5  16 cos5   20 cos3   5 cos

From equation (i) equate imaginary part

sin 5  5 cos4  sin  10 cos2  sin 3   sin 5 
 
sin 5  5 sin cos2   10 sin 3  cos2   sin 5 
2

sin 5  5 sin 1  sin    10 sin  1  sin    sin 

2 2 3 2 5

sin 5  5 sin 1  2 sin   sin    10 sin  1  sin    sin 

2 4 3 2 5

sin 5  5 sin  10 sin 3   5 sin 5   10 sin 3   10 sin 5   sin 5 

 sin 5  16 sin 5   20 sin 3   5 sin

Example 14
By using the concepts of complex numbers show that,
3 sin  4 sin 3 
(a) tan 3 
4 cos3   3 cos
4 cos3  sin  4 cos sin 3 
(b) tan 4 
8 cos4   8 cos2   1

194
 16 sin 5   20 sin 3   5 sin
(c) tan 5 
16 cos5   20 cos3   5 cos
Solution
3 sin  4 sin 3 
a  Required to show that, tan 3 
4 cos3   3 cos
sin 3
Consider tan 3  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
cos3
First express z  cos3 and z  sin 3 into powered form
cos  i sin 3  cos3  i sin 3
cos3  i sin 3  cos  i sin 
3

cos3  i sin 3  cos3   3i cos2  sin  3i 2 cos sin 2   i 3 sin 3  but i 2  1, i 3  i
cos3  i sin 3  cos3   3i cos2  sin  3 cos sin 2   i sin 3 
cos3  i sin 3  cos3   3 cos sin 2    i 3 cos2  sin  sin 3  .......... .......... (ii)
From equation (ii) equate real part
cos3  cos3   3 cos sin 2 
cos3  cos3   3 cos 1  cos2  
cos3  cos3   3 cos  3 cos3 
cos3  4 cos3   3 cos .......... .......... .......... ......( iii)

From equation (ii) equate imaginary part

sin 3  3 cos2  sin  sin 3 
sin 3  31  sin 2  sin  sin 3 
sin 3  3 sin  3 sin 3   sin 3 
sin 3  3 sin  4 sin 3  .......... .......... .......... .........( iv)
Subsitute equations (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
sin 3 3 sin  4 sin 3 
tan 3  
cos3 4 cos3   3 cos
3 sin  4 sin 3 
 tan 3 
4 cos3   3 cos

195
 4 cos3  sin  4 cos sin 3 
b  Required to show that, tan 4 
8 cos4   8 cos2   1
sin 4
Consider tan 4  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......(i)
cos 4
Express z  cos 4 and z  sin 4 into multiple form
cos  i sin 4  cos 4  i sin 4
cos 4  i sin 4  cos  i sin 
4

cos 4  i sin 4  cos4   4i cos3  sin  6i 2 cos2  sin 2   4i 3 cos sin 3   i 4 sin 4 
cos 4  i sin 4  cos4   4i cos3  sin  6 cos2  sin 2   4i cos sin 3   sin 4 
  
cos 4  i sin 4  cos4   6 cos2  sin 2   sin 4   i 4 cos3  sin  4 cos sin 3  .....( ii) 
From equation (ii) equate real part
cos 4  cos4   6 cos2  sin 2   sin 2   2


cos 4  cos4   6 cos2  1  cos2   1  cos2    2

cos 4  cos4   6 cos2   6 cos4   1  2 cos2   cos4 

 cos 4  8 cos4   8 cos2   1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)

From equation (ii) equate imaginary part

sin 4  4 cos3  sin  4 cos sin 3  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iv)
Substitute equations (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
sin 4 4 cos3  sin  4 cos sin 3 
tan 4  
cos 4 8 cos4   8 cos2   1
4 cos3  sin  4 cos sin 3 
 tan 4 
8 cos4   8 cos2   1

196
c  Required to show that, tan 5  16 sin5   20 sin 3   5 sin
5 3

16 cos   20 cos   5 cos

sin 5
Consider tan 5  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
cos 5
Express z  cos 5 and z  sin 5 into multiple form
cos  i sin 5  cos5  i sin 5
cos 5  i sin 5  cos  i sin  
5

cos 5  i sin 5  cos5   5i cos4  sin   10i 2 cos3  sin 2   10i 3 cos2  sin3   5i 4 cos sin 4   i 5 sin5 
cos 5  i sin 5  cos5   5i cos4  sin   10 cos3  sin 2   10i cos2  sin3   5 cos sin 4   i sin5 
  
cos 5  i sin 5  cos5   10 cos3  sin 2   5 cos sin 4   i 5 cos4  sin   10 cos2  sin3   sin5  ......( ii) 
From equation (ii) equate real part
cos5  cos5   10 cos3  sin 2   5 cos sin 4 
cos5  cos5   10 cos3  sin 2   5 cos sin 2   
2

 
cos5  cos5   10 cos3  1  cos2   5 cos 1  cos2   2

cos5  cos   10 cos   10 cos   5 cos 1  2 cos   cos  

5 3 5 2 4

cos5  cos5   10 cos3   10 cos5   5 cos  10 cos3   5 cos5 

cos5  16 cos5   20 cos3   5 cos .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iii)

From equation (ii) equate imaginary part

sin 5  5 cos4  sin  10 cos2  sin 3   sin 5 

sin 5  5 sin cos2    10sin  cos   sin 
2 3 2 5

sin 5  5 sin 1  sin    10 sin  1  sin    sin 

2 2 3 2 5

sin 5  5 sin 1  2 sin   sin    10 sin  1  sin    sin

2 4 3 2 5

sin 5  5 sin  10 sin   5 sin   10 sin   10 sin   sin 
3 5 3 5 5

sin 5  16 sin 5   20 sin 3   5 sin .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iv)
Substitute equations (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
sin 5 16 sin 5   20 sin 3   5 sin
tan 5  
cos5 16 cos5   20 cos3   5 cos
16 sin 5   20 sin 3   5 sin
 tan 5 
16 cos5   20 cos3   5 cos
Example 15
3t  t 3
By using the concepts of complex numbers show that,(a) tan 3  where t  tan 
t  3t 2
4 tan   4 tan 3  t 5  10t 3  5t
(a) tan 4  tan 5  where t  tan 
tan 4   6 tan 2   1 (c) 5t 4  10t 2  1

197
 3t  t 3
a  Required to show that, tan 3 
1  3t 2
sin 3
Consider tan 3  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
cos3
First express z  cos3 and z  sin 3 into powered form
cos  i sin 3  cos3  i sin 3
cos3  i sin 3  cos  i sin 
3

cos3  i sin 3  cos3   3i cos2  sin  3i 2 cos sin 2   i 3 sin 3  but i 2  1, i 3  i
cos3  i sin 3  cos3   3i cos2  sin  3 cos sin 2   i sin 3 
   
cos3  i sin 3  cos3   3 cos sin 2   i 3 cos2  sin  sin 3  .......... .......... (ii)
From equation (ii) equate real part
cos3  cos3   3 cos sin 2 
cos3  cos3   3 cos 1  cos2   
cos3  cos   3 cos  3 cos 
3 3

cos3  4 cos3   3 cos .......... .......... .......... ......( iii)

From equation (ii) equate imaginary part

sin 3  3 cos2  sin  sin 3 
 
sin 3  3 1  sin 2  sin  sin 3 
sin 3  3 sin  3 sin 3   sin 3 
sin 3  3 sin  4 sin 3  .......... .......... .......... .........( iv)
Subsitute equations (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
sin 3 3 sin  4 sin 3 
tan 3  
cos3 4 cos3   3 cos
3 sin  4 sin 3 
tan 3 
4 cos3   3 cos
Divide by cos3  to each term on right hand side
3 tan  sec2   4 tan 3 
tan 3  but sec2   1  tan 2 
4  3 sec2 

tan 3 
 
3 tan  1  tan 2   4 tan 3  3 tan   3 tan 3   4 tan 3 


4  3 1  tan 2  4  3  3 tan 2 
3 tan   tan  3
tan 3  but tan   t
1  3 tan 2 
3t  t 3
 tan 3 
1  3t 2

198
 4 tan   4 tan 3 
b  Required to show that, tan 4  4
tan   6 tan 2   1
sin 4
Consider tan 4  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......(i)
cos 4
Express z  cos 4 and z  sin 4 into multiple form
cos  i sin 4  cos4  i sin 4
cos 4  i sin 4  cos  i sin 
4

cos 4  i sin 4  cos4   4i cos3  sin  6i 2 cos2  sin 2   4i 3 cos sin 3   i 4 sin 4 
cos 4  i sin 4  cos4   4i cos3  sin  6 cos2  sin 2   4i cos sin 3   sin 4 
cos 4  i sin 4  cos4   6 cos2  sin 2   sin 4    i 4 cos3  sin  4 cos sin 3  .....( ii)
From equation (ii) equate real part
cos 4  cos4   6 cos2  sin 2   sin 2  
2

cos 4  cos4   6 cos2  1  cos2    1  cos2  

2

cos 4  cos4   6 cos2   6 cos4   1  2 cos2   cos4 

 cos 4  8 cos4   8 cos2   1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)

From equation (ii) equate imaginary part

sin 4  4 cos3  sin  4 cos sin 3  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iv)
Substitute equations (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
sin 4 4 cos3  sin  4 cos sin 3 
tan 4  
cos 4 8 cos4   8 cos2   1
4 cos3  sin  4 cos sin 3 
tan 4 
8 cos4   8 cos2   1
Divide by cos4  to each term on right hand side
4 tan   4 tan 3  4 tan   4 tan 3  4 tan   4 tan 3 
tan 4   
8  8 sec2   sec4  8  8 sec2   sec2  2 8  81  tan 2    1  tan 2  2
4 tan   4 tan 3  4 tan   4 tan 3 
tan 4  
8  8  8 tan 2   1  2 tan 2   tan 4  tan 4   6 tan 2   1
4 tan   4 tan 3 
 tan 4 
tan 4   6 tan 2   1

199
 5
 10t 3  5t
c  Required to show that, tan 5  t where t  tan 
5t 4  10t 2  1
sin 5
Consider tan 5  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
cos 5
Express z  cos 5 and z  sin 5 into multiple form
cos  i sin  5  cos 5  i sin 5
cos 5  i sin 5  cos  i sin  
5

cos 5  i sin 5  cos5   5i cos4  sin   10i 2 cos3  sin 2   10i 3 cos2  sin 3   5i 4 cos sin 4   i 5 sin 5 
cos 5  i sin 5  cos5   5i cos4  sin   10 cos3  sin 2   10i cos2  sin 3   5 cos sin 4   i sin 5 
  
cos 5  i sin 5  cos5   10 cos3  sin 2   5 cos sin 4   i 5 cos4  sin   10 cos2  sin 3   sin 5  ......( ii) 
From equation (ii) equate real part
cos 5  cos5   10 cos3  sin 2   5 cos sin 4 
cos 5  cos5   10 cos3  sin 2   5 cos sin 2   
2

 

cos 5  cos5   10 cos3  1  cos2   5 cos 1  cos2   2

cos 5  cos   10 cos   10 cos   5 cos 1  2 cos   cos  

5 3 5 2 4

cos 5  cos5   10 cos3   10 cos5   5 cos  10 cos3   5 cos5 

cos 5  16 cos5   20 cos3   5 cos .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iii)

From equation (ii) equate imaginary part

sin 5  5 cos4  sin   10 cos2  sin3   sin5 

sin 5  5 sin  cos2    10 sin  cos   sin 
2 3 2 5

sin 5  5 sin  1  sin    10 sin  1  sin    sin 

2 2 3 2 5

sin 5  5 sin  1  2 sin   sin    10 sin  1  sin    sin 

2 4 3 2 5

sin 5  5 sin   10 sin3   5 sin5   10 sin3   10 sin5   sin 5 

sin 5  16 sin5   20 sin3   5 sin  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iv)
Substitute equations (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
sin 5 16 sin 5   20 sin 3   5 sin 
tan 5  
cos 5 16 cos5   20 cos3   5 cos
16 sin5   20 sin3   5 sin 
tan 5 
16 cos5   20 cos3   5 cos
Divide by cos5  to each term on RHS
16 tan 5   20 tan 3  sec2   5 tan  sec4 
tan 5 
16  20 sec2   5 sec4 
16 tan   20 tan 3  sec2   5 tan  sec2  
5 2

tan 5 
16  20 sec2   5sec2  
2

200
tan 5 
 
16 tan 5   20 tan 3  1  tan 2   5 tan  1  tan 2   
2


16  20 sec2   5 1  tan 2  
2

tan 5   10 tan 3   5 tan 

tan 5  where tan   t
5 tan 4   10 tan 2   1
t 5  10t 3  5t
 tan 5  4
5t  10t 2  1

Example 16
4t  4t 3
Show that tan 4  where t  tan  . Hence find the roots of the
t 4  6t 2  1
equations
(a) t 4  4t 3  6t 2  4t  1  0 correct to 4 decimal places
(b) t 4  4t 3  6t 2  4t  1  0
(c) t 4  2t 3  6t 2  2t  1  0
Solution
4 tan   4 tan 3 
Required to show that, tan 4 
tan 4   6 tan 2   1
sin 4
Consider tan 4  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......(i)
cos 4
Express z  cos 4 and z  sin 4 into multiple form
cos  i sin 4  cos4  i sin 4
cos 4  i sin 4  cos  i sin 
4

cos 4  i sin 4  cos4   4i cos3  sin  6i 2 cos2  sin 2   4i 3 cos sin 3   i 4 sin 4 
cos 4  i sin 4  cos4   4i cos3  sin  6 cos2  sin 2   4i cos sin 3   sin 4 
  
cos 4  i sin 4  cos4   6 cos2  sin 2   sin 4   i 4 cos3  sin  4 cos sin 3  .....( ii) 
From equation (ii) equate real part
cos 4  cos4   6 cos2  sin 2   sin 2   
2


cos 4  cos4   6 cos2  1  cos2   1  cos2     2

cos 4  cos4   6 cos2   6 cos4   1  2 cos2   cos4 

cos 4  8 cos4   8 cos2   1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)

201
From equation (ii) equate imaginary part
sin 4  4 cos3  sin   4 cos sin 3  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iv)
Substitute equations (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
sin 4 4 cos3  sin   4 cos sin3 
tan 4  
cos 4 8 cos4   8 cos2   1
4 cos3  sin   4 cos sin3 
tan 4 
8 cos4   8 cos2   1
Divide by cos4  to each term on right hand side

202
(b) t 4  4t 3  6t 2  4t  1  0
4t  4t 3  t 4  6t 2  1
4t  4t 3 4t  4t 3
 1 but  tan 4
t 4  6t 2  1 t 4  6t 2  1
tan 4  1
4  tan 1 (1)

4  45 , principle angle ( )  45  
4
From general angle formula for tangent of an angle,   n  

4  n 
4
n 
  where n  0,1,2,3.
4 16
  3 7 11
 , , ,
16 16 16 16
But t  tan 
  
t  tan   tan    0.0626
 16 
 3 
t  tan   tan    0.1897
 16 
 7 
t  tan   tan    0.4677
 16 
 11 
t  tan   tan    0.8211
 16 

203
(c) t 4  2t 3  6t 2  2t  1  0
t 4  6t 2  1  2t  2t 3
Multiply by 2 both sides
 
2 t 4  6t 2  1  4t  4t 3
4t  4t 3
4t  4t 3
2 4 but 4  tan 4
t  6t 2  1 t  6t 2  1
tan 4  2
4  tan 1 (2)
4  63 26, principle angle ( )  63 26
From general angle formula for tangent of an angle,   n  
4  180 n  63 26
  45 n  1551 where n  0,1,2,3.
  1551, 6051, 10551, 15051,
But t  tan 
t  tan   tan 15 51  0.2839
t  tan   tan 60 51  1.7930
t  tan   tan 105 51  3.5222
t  tan   tan 150 51  0.5577

(iii) Simplification of problems

Demoivre’s theorem is a theorem used to simplify problems by applying the
concepts of this theorem i.e. cos  i sin n  cosn  i sin n

Example 17
By using De Moivre’s theorem simplify the following;
(a) cos 4  i sin  4 cos 3  i sin  3 
(b) cos 2  i sin  2 cos 6  i sin  6 
(c) cos  i sin  5 cos  i sin 
1

(d) cos  i sin  cos  i sin 

1 1
2 3

cos 8  i sin  8
(e)
cos 6  i sin  6
(f) cos 2  i sin  2 cos 3  i sin  3 
cos 3  i sin  3

204
Solution
In each case express in the form cosn  i sin n  cos  i sin n
(a) cos 4  i sin  4 cos 3  i sin  3   cos  i sin   4 cos  i sin   3
1 1

cos 4  i sin  4 cos 3  i sin  3   cos  i sin   12  cos7 12  i sin 7 12

7

(b) cos 2  i sin  2 cos 6  i sin  6   cos  i sin   cos  i sin 

 12 1
6

 cos 2  i sin  2 cos 6  i sin  6   cos  i sin  

1
3
 cos 3  i sin  3

(c) cos  i sin   5 cos  i sin    cos  i sin   cos  i sin 1
1  15

 cos  i sin   5 cos  i sin    cos  i sin  

65
 cos6 5  i sin 6 5
1

(d ) cos  i sin   2 cos  i sin    cos  i sin   2 cos  i sin   3

1  13 1 1

cos  i sin   2 cos  i sin    cos  i sin   6  cos5 6  i sin 5 6

1  13 5

cos 8  i sin  8 cos  i sin   8

1

  cos  i sin   24  cos 7 24  i sin 7 24

7
( e)
cos 6  i sin 6 cos  i sin  
 
1
6

cos 8  i sin  8
  cos 7 24  i sin 7 24
cos 6  i sin  6

cos 2  i sin  2 cos 3  i sin  3  cos  i sin   cos  i sin  

 1 1

f 
2 3


cos 3  i sin  3 cos  i sin   1
3

cos 2  i sin  2 cos 3  i sin  3   cos  i sin    cos  i sin 

1
6

cos 3  i sin 3
6 6
 


cos 2  i sin  2 cos 3  i sin  3   cos  i sin 


cos 3  i sin  3
6 6

205
4.7 COMPLEX ROOTS
These are roots obtained when the discriminant is less than zero.
Consider the equation az 2  bz  c  0
 b  b 2  4ac
From general solution z 
2a
The above equation it has complex roots if and only if b 2  4ac  0
Note:
If z  a  ib is a root of a complex number then its conjugate z  a  ib is also a root.
Example 18
Solve the equation z 2  6 z  13  0
Solution
Consider z 2  6 z  13  0
By using Quadratic general formula
 6  6 2  4(13)  6   16  6  4  1
z    3  2i
2 2 2
 z  3  2i , z  3  2i

Example 19
If z  2  3i is a root of polynomial P( z )  z 4  4 z 3  12z 2  4 z  13 . Find the
other roots and hence factorize the polynomial completely.
Solution
Given that Pz   z 4  4 z 2  12z 2  4 z  13
Given root z  2  3i and its conjugate is a root z  2  3i
Multiply the given roots and it is conjugate to form a quadratic equation which is also a root of Pz 
z  2  3i z  2  3i   z  2  3i z  2  3i   z 2  4 z  13  0
Therefore z 2  4 z  13  0 is a factor of Pz   z 4  4 z 2  12z 2  4 z  13
Divide the given polynomial Pz  by z 2  4 z  13

z 2 1
z  4 z  13 z  4 z  12z  4 z  13
2 4 2 2

z 4  4 z 2  13z 2
 z 2  4 z  13
 z 2  4 z  13
After long division z 2  1  0 is a root which implies that z  1z  1  0
Other roots are z  2  3i, z  1 and z  1
 Factorization of Pz   z  2  3i z  2  3i z  1z  1

206
Example 20
If one root of the equation z 2  pz  q  0 is 2  3i . Find the value of p and q
Solution
Given that z 2  pz  q  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
Given z  2  3i is a root and its conjugate is also root z  2  3i
Multiply the given root and its conjugate
z  2  3i z  2  3i   z  2  3i z  2  3i 
z 2  4 z  13  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)
Equate equation (i) and (ii)
 The values of p  4 and q  13

4.8 ROOTS OF THE COMPLEX NUMBERS

Roots of a complex number are the solutions of a complex number,

Generally
  2k     2k   
1
zk 1  r n cos   i sin  where k  0,1,2...
  n   n 
Roots of complex numbers in polar form
  2k     2k   
1
zk 1  r cos
n
  i sin  where k  0,1,2...
  n   n 

Roots of complex numbers in exponential l(Euler’s) form

 2k  
i 
z k 1  r e  n 
1
n

207
Example 21
Solve for z if,
(a) z 4  1  i
(b) z 2  1  i 3
(c) z 3  3  3i
Solution
(a) z 4  1  i
 y 1 
n  4, r  x 2  y 2  12  12  2 ,   tan 1    tan 1    45 
x 1 4
1   2k     2k   
From z k 1  r n cos   i sin  where k  0,1,2,3
  n   n 

When k  0, z1   2  4
4   4 
cos 4   i sin 4   2 cos 16   i sin 16 
1
1
8  

     

When k  1, z2   
1
4 
2 cos
 2  4 

  i sin
 2   4 
  2 8 cos9 16   i sin9 16 
1

  4   4 

When k  2, z3   2 1
4   4   4 
 cos   i sin
 4   4 
   2 8 cos17 16   i sin17 16 
1

  4   4 

When k  3, z4   2 1
4   6   4   6   4 
cos 4   i sin 4   2 cos 16   i sin 16 
1
8 25 25

    
 The values of z are z  2 8 cos 16   i sin 16 , z  2 8 cos9 16   i sin9 16 
1 1

z  2 8 cos17 16   i sin17 16  and z  2 8 cos25 16   i sin25 16 

1 1

(b) z 2  1  i 3

n  2, r  x 2  y 2  12   3 2  y  3
 2,   tan 1    tan 1    60 


x  1  3
1   2k     2k   
From z k 1  r n cos   i sin  where k  0,1
  n   n 
1        3 1 
z1  2 2 cos 3   i sin 3   2 cos 6   i sin 6   2 
6 2
When k  0,  i    i
 2  2   2 2  2 2
1   2   3   2   3 
When k  1, z 2  2  2 cos   i sin   2 cos7 6   i sin7 6 
  2   2 

i, z  2 cos7 6   i sin7 6 
6 2
 The values of z are z  
2 2

208
(c) z 3  3  3i

n  3, r  x2  y2   3 2 2  y  3
  3  12,   tan 1    tan 1    60  

x  3 3
1   2k     2k   
From z k 1  r n cos   i sin  where k  0,1,2,3
  n   n 
1
3 
   
   
When k  0, z1  12 cos 3   i sin 3   12 6 cos 9   i sin 9 
1

  3   3  

When k  1, z 2  12 cos
1
3 
  2   3 
  i sin
 2   3 
  12 6 cos5 9   i sin5 9 
1

  3   3 

When k  2, z3   12 1
3   4   3   4   3 
cos 3   i sin 3   12 cos 9   i sin 9 
1
6 11 11

    
 z  12
1
6
cos 9   i sin 9 , z  12 cos5 9   i sin5 9  , z  12 cos11 9   i sin11 9 
1
6
1
6

Example 22
Solve the following complex numbers
(a) z 4  i  0
(b) z 3  8i  0
(c) z 3  1  i  0
(d) z 4  16  0
(e) z 3  27  0
Solution
(a) z 4  i  0, z 4  i
 y 1 
n  4, r  1,   tan 1    tan 1    90 
 
x  
0 2
1   2k     2k   
From z k 1  r n cos   i sin  where k  0,1,2,3
  n   n 
1   2k   2   2k   2 
z k 1  1 4 cos   i sin 
  4   4 
   
When k  0, z1  cos   i sin 
 
8 8
 5   5 
When k  1, z 2  cos   i sin 
 8   8 
 9   9 
When k  2, z3  cos   i sin 
 8  8 
 13   13 
When k  3, z 4  cos   i sin 
 8   8 
     5   5   9   9   13   13 
 z  cos   i sin , z  cos   i sin  , z  cos   i sin , z  cos   i sin 
8 8  8   8   8   8   8   8 

209
(b) z 3  8i  0, z 3  8i
 y  8 3
n  3, r  8,   tan 1    tan 1    270 
x  0  2
1   2k     2k   
From z k 1  r n cos   i sin  where k  0,1,2,3
  n   n 
1   2k  3 2   2k  3 2 
z k 1  8 3 cos   i sin 
  3   3 
     
When k  0, z1  2cos   i sin   20  i   2i
 2  2 
  7   7 
When k  1, z 2  2cos   i sin 
  6   6 
  11   11 
When k  2, z3  2cos   i sin 
  6   6 
        7   7    11   11 
 z  2cos   i sin  , z  2cos   i sin  , z  2cos   i sin 
 2  2    6   6    6   6 

(c) z 3  1  i  0, z 3  1  i
 y  1  5
n  3, r  2 ,   tan 1    tan 1    225 
x  1  4
1   2k     2k   
From z k 1  r n cos   i sin  where k  0,1,2,3
  n   n 
1   2k  5 4   2k  5 4 
z k 1  2 6 cos   i sin 
  3   3 
1   5   5 
When k  0, z1  2 6 cos   i sin 
  12   12 
1   13   13 
When k  1, z 2  2 6 cos   i sin 
  12   12 
1   7   7 
When k  2, z3  2 6 cos   i sin 
   4  4 
1   5   5  1   13   13  1   7   7 
 z  2 6 cos   i sin  , z  2 6 cos   i sin  , z  2 6 cos   i sin 
   12  
12   12   12     4  4 

210
(d ) z 4  16  0, z 4  16
 y 0
n  4, r  16,   tan 1    tan 1    0   0
x  16 
1   2k     2k   
From z k 1  r n cos   i sin  where k  0,1,2,3
  n   n 
1   2k   2k 
z k 1  16 4 cos   i sin 
  4   4 
When k  0, z1  2cos0  i sin 0  2
When k  1, z 2  2cos 2  i sin  2   2i
When k  2, z 3  2cos  i sin    2
When k  3, z 4  2cos 3 2  i sin 3 2   2i
 z  2, z  2i , z  2, z  2i
(e) z 3  27  0, z 3  27
 y  0 
n  3, r  27,   tan 1    tan 1    180  


 
x   27 
1   2k     2k   
From z k 1  r n cos   i sin  where k  0,1,2
  n   n 
1   2k     2k   
z k 1  27 3 cos   i sin 
  3   3 
1 3 3
When k  0, z1  3cos 3  i sin  3   3  i
3 3
  i
2 2  2 2
 
When k  1, z 2  3cos  i sin    3
 5 5  1 3 3 3 3
When k  2, z 3  3cos  i sin   3  i   i

 3 3  2 2  2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
z  i , z  3 , z   i
2 2 2 2

211
4.9 CUBE ROOTS OF A UNIT
Consider a cube root of a unit 3 1  
Let w  3 1
w3  1
Let the roots of the above equation be 1, w and w 2 .
But we need to prove that the sum of roots of the above equation
is equal to zero.
sn  1  w  w 2
This is geometricprogression (G.P)
G1 (1  r n )
sn  but G1  1, r  w and n  3
1 r
1(1  w3 )
sn  but w3  1
1 w
(1  1)
sn  0
1 w
1  w  w 2  0
Sum of roots of a unit is zero, 1  w  w2  0
Example 23
Find the cube root of one, hence show that the sum of roots is equal to zero.
Solution
Required 3
1, let z  3 1, z 3  1
Consider z 3  1, r  1,   tan 1 01   0   0
1   2k     2k   
From z k 1  r n cos   i sin 
  n   n 
1   2 k   2 k  
z k 1  1 3 cos   i sin 
  3   3 
When k  0, z1  cos 0  i sin 0  1
 2   2  1 3
When k  1, z 2  cos   i sin    i
 3   3  2 2
 4   4  1 3
When k  2, z 3  cos   i sin    i
 3   3  2 2
1 3 1 3
 z1  1, z 2   i , z3    i
2 2 2 2

Hence, we need to show that z1  z 2  z 3  0

 1 3  1 3
z1  z 2  z 3  1     i    i
 
0
 2 2   2 2 
 The sum of roots is equal to zero

212
Example 24
Find the cube root of 1, hence show that 1  w  w 2  0 .
Solution

Hence, we need to show that 1  w  w 2  0

1 3 1 3
Let 1  1, w   i , w2    i
2 2 2 2
 1 3  1 3
1  w  w 2  1     i    i
 
0
 2 2   2 2 
1  w  w 2  0 shown

nth ROOTS OF A UNIT n 1  

Let w  1n

wn  1
Let the roots of the above equations be 1, w, w,..., w n1
We need to prove that the sum of roots of a unit is zero
s n  1  w  w 2  w3  ...  w n1
This is geometric progression (G.P)
G1 (1  r n )
sn  but G1  1, r  w and n  n
1 r
1(1  w n )
sn  but w n  1
1 w
(1  1)
sn  0
1 w
1  w  w 2  w3  ...  w n 1  0
1  w  w 2  w3  ...  w n1  0

213
Example 25
Find z 4  1 and hence show that 1  w  w 2  w 3  0
Solution
Consider z 4  1, r  1,   tan 1 01   0   0
1   2k     2k   
From z k 1  r n cos   i sin 
  n   n 
1   2k   2k 
z k 1  1 4 cos   i sin 
  4   4 
When k  0, z1  cos0  i sin 0  1
   
When k  1, z 2  cos   i sin   i
2 2
When k  2, z3  cos   i sin   1
 3   3 
When k  3, z3  cos   i sin   i
 2   2 
 z1  1, z 2  i, z3  1, z 4  i

Hence, we need to show that 1  w  w 2  w3  0

1  w  w 2  w3  1  i  1  i  0
1  w  w 2  w3  0 shown

4.10 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS OF Z-PLANE AND W-PLANE

Z-plane is the plane represented by x and y i.e. z  x  iy, w-plane is a plane
represented by u and v i.e. w  u  iv .

Example 26
Solve for z and w in the following system of simultaneous equations.
3z  2iw  0
(a)
iz  w  i

iz  w  2i
(b)
iz  iw  1
Solution

214
(a) 3z  2iw  0
iz  w  i
By elimination method
1 3z  2iw  0
2i iz  w  i
 3z  2iw  0

 2 z  2iw  2
z  2

i 3z  2iw  0
3 iz  w  i
 3iz  2w  0

3iz  3w  3i
w  3i
 z  2, w  3i

215
4.11 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRIGONOMETRIC AND
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
We can deduce the relationship between trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
by using Euler’s formula,
cos x  i sin x  e ix .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
cos x  i sin x  e ix .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)
Add equation (i) and equation (ii)
2 cos x  e ix  e ix
e ix  e ix
cos x 
2
cos x  cosh(ix)
……………………… (iii)

Subtract equation (i) and equation (ii)

2i sin x  e ix  e ix
e ix  e ix  e ix  e ix 
sin x   i 
2i  2 

sin x  i sinh(ix) ……………………… (iv)

Divide equation (iv) by (iii)

sin x  i sinh(ix)

cos x cosh(ix)
tan x  i tanh( ix)
………………………… (v)

216
Example 27
Solve for z given that,
(a) cos z  3
(b) sin z  5
(c) tan z  3
Solution
(a ) cos z  3
But cos(z )  cosh(iz )
cosh(iz )  3
e iz  e iz
cosh(iz )  3
2
e iz  e iz  6, e 2 zi  6e iz  1  0
6  32 6  4 2
e iz    3 2 2
2 2
e iz  3  2 2

iz  In 3  2 2 

 z  iIn 3  2 2 
(b) sin z  5
But sin( z )  i sinh(iz )
 i sinh(iz )  3, sinh(iz )  3i
e iz  e iz
sinh(iz )   3i
2
e iz  e iz  6i, e 2iz  6ieiz  1  0
6i   32 6i  4i 2
e iz    3i  2i 2
2 2

iz  In 3i  2i 2 

 z  iIn 3i  2i 2 

217
c  tan z  3
But tan z  i tanh iz 
 i tanh iz   3, tanh iz   3i
e iz  e iz
tanh iz    3i
e iz  e iz
e iz  e iz  
 3i e iz  e iz
e iz  e iz  3ie iz  3ie iz
1  3i e iz  1  3i e iz  0
1  3i e 2iz  1  3i   0
1  3i
e 2iz 
1  3i
 1  3i  1  3i  4 3
e 2iz     i
 1  3i  1  3i  5 5
 4 3 
2iz  In   i 
 5 5 
1  4 3 
z  In    i 
2i  5 5 
i  4 3 
 z   In   i 
2  5 5 

4.12 LOCUS
Locus is the set of all points whose location is determined by stated conditions.

Loci of complex numbers are categorized into five forms,

(a) Locus described by modulus of a complex number

Example 28
Describe the locus of the following complex numbers;
(a) z  5
(b) z  4
(c) z  6
(d) 2 z 3

218
Solution
(a) z  5
Let z  x  iy, z  x 2  y 2
x 2  y 2  5, x 2  y 2  5 2
Sketch

 The locus is a circle x 2  y 2  52 with radius 5 and centre at origin

(b) z  4
Let z  x  iy, z  x 2  y 2
x 2  y 2  4, x 2  y 2  4 2
Sketch

 The locus is x 2  y 2  16

(c ) z  6
Let z  x  iy, z  x 2  y 2
x 2  y 2  6, x 2  y 2  6 2
Sketch

219
 The locus is x 2  y 2  36

(d ) 2  z  3
Let z  x  iy, z  x 2  y 2
2  x 2  y 2  3, 2 2  x 2  y 2  32
Sketch

 The locus is 4  x 2  y 2  9

Example 29
Describe the locus of the following complex numbers
(a) z  2i  1  3
(b) z  5i  4
(c) z  3  z  6i
(d) z  i  z  i
(e) z  i  z  1
Solution

220
(a) z  2i  1  3 but z  x  iy
x  iy  2i  1  3
x  1  i y  2  3
x  12   y  22  3
x  12   y  22  32
Sketching

The locus is a circlex 1   y  2  32 with centre 1,2 and radius 3

2 2

(b) z  5i  4 but z  x  iy
x  iy  5i  4
x  i  y  5  4

x 2   y  5  4
2

x 2   y  5  4 2
2

Sketching

 The locus is a circle x 2   y  5  4 2 with centre 0,5 and radius 4

2

221
(c) z  3  z  6i but z  x  iy
x  iy  3  x  iy  6i
x  3  iy  x  i y  6

x  32  y 2  x 2   y  62
x  32  y 2  x 2   y  62
x 2  y 2  6 x  9  x 2  y 2  12 y  36
6 x  12 y  27  0
2x  4 y  9  0
Sketching

 The locus is a line 2 x  4 y  9  0 with slope 1 2

(d ) z  i  z  i but z  x  iy
x  iy  i  x  iy  i
x  i  y  1  x  i  y  1

x 2   y  1  x 2   y  1
2 2

x 2   y  1  x 2   y  1
2 2

x2  y2  2 y 1  x2  y2  2 y 1
 4y  0
y0
Sketching

222
 The locus is y  0

(e) z  i  z  1 but z  x  iy
x  iy  i  x  iy  1
x  i  y  1   x  1  iy

x 2   y  1  x  12  y 2
2

x 2   y  1   x  1  y 2
2 2

x 2  y 2  2 y 1  x 2  y 2  2x 1
 2 y  2x  0
x y0
Sketching

 The locus is x  y  0

Example 30
Describe the locus of the following complex numbers
z i
(a) 2
z 1
z2
(b) 1
z 1
223
Solution
z i z i
(a)  2, 2
z 1 z 1
z  i  2 z  1 but z  x  iy
x  iy  i  2 x  iy  1
x  i  y  1  2 x  1  iy

x 2   y  1  2 x  12  y 2
2

x 2   y  1  4 x  1  y 2 
2 2

x 2  y 2  2 y  1  4x 2  y 2  2 x  1
x 2  y 2  2 y  1  4 x 2  4 y 2  8x  4
3x 2  3 y 2  8 x  2 y  3  0
8 2
x2  y2  x  y 1  0
3 3
Sketching

 The locus is a circle3x 2  3 y 2  8 x  2 y  3  0 with centre 4 3 , 1 3  and radius 2 2

3

224
 z2 z2
(b)  1, 1
z 1 z 1
z  2  z  1 but z  x  iy
x  iy  2  x  iy  1
x  2  iy  x  1  iy
x  22  y 2  x  12  y 2
x  22  y 2  x  12  y 2
x2  y 2  4x  4  x2  y 2  2x 1
 6x  3  0
2x 1  0
x  12
Sketching

The locus is a line 2 x 1  0

(b) Locus described by argument of a complex number

Example 31
Describe the loci of the following;

(a) Arg  z  
4
(b) Arg z  i   
 z 2 
(c) Arg 
 z  4
Solution

225
 
(a ) Arg  z   but z  x  iy
4

Arg  x  iy  
4
 y 
tan 1   
x 4
 y  
   tan  
x 4
y
1
x
yx
Sketching

 The locus is a line y  x

(b) Arg z  i    but z  x  iy

Arg x  iy  i   
Arg x  i  y  1  
 y 1
tan 1   
 x 
 y 1
   tan  
 x 
y 1
0
x
y  1
Sketching

226
 The locus is a line y  1

 z2 
(c) Arg    but z  x  iy
 z  4
 x  iy  2  
Arg   
 x  iy  4
 x  iy  2 x  iy  
Arg    
 x  iy x  iy  4
 x 2  y 2  2 x  2iy  
Arg   
 x 2
 y 2
 4
 x 2  y 2  2 x   2 y  
Arg    i 2  
2 
  x 2
 y 2
  x  y  4
  2y  
tan 1  2  
 x  y  2x  4
2

 2y  
 tan  
x  y  2x
2 2
4
 2y
1
x  y 2  2x
2

x2  y 2  2x  2 y  0
Sketching

 The locus is a circle x 2  y 2  2 x  2 y  0 with centre  1,1 and radius 2

227
 (c) Locus described by purely real and purely imaginary of a complex number
This is locus obtained when the complex number is purely real or purely
imaginary.

Example 32
z 1
Given a complex number where z  x  iy . Find the locus if the complex
z i
number is purely imaginary.
Solution
z 1
Given is purely imaginary
z i
z  1 x  iy  1 x  1  iy  x  1  iy  x  i y  1  x( x  1)  i ( x  1)( y  1)  ixy  y ( y  1)
    
z  i x  iy  i x  i y  1  x  i  y  1  x  i y  1  x 2   y  1
2

x( x  1)  y ( y  1) ( x  1)( y  1)  xy
 i
x 2   y  1 x 2   y  1
2 2

since the complex number is purely imaginary mean that the real part is equal to zero.
x( x  1)  y ( y  1)
0
x 2   y  1
2

x( x  1)  y ( y  1)  0
x2  y2  x  y  0

The locus is a circle x 2  y 2  x  y  0 with centre 1 2 , 1 2  and radius 1

2

Example 33
z 1
Given a complex number where z  x  iy . Find the locus if the complex
z i
number is purely real.
Solution

228
 z 1
Given is purely real
z i
z  1 x  iy  1 x  1  iy  x  1  iy  x  i y  1  x( x  1)  i ( x  1)( y  1)  ixy  y ( y  1)
    
z  i x  iy  i x  i y  1  x  i  y  1  x  i y  1  x 2   y  1
2

x( x  1)  y ( y  1) ( x  1)( y  1)  xy
 i
x 2   y  1 x 2   y  1
2 2

since the complex number is purely real mean that the imaginary part is equal to zero.
( x  1)( y  1)  xy
0
x 2   y  1
2

( x  1)( y  1)  xy  0
xy  x  y  1  xy  0
 x  y 1  0
y  x 1

 The locus is a line y  x  1

Example 34
z  2i
Given a complex number where z  x  iy . Find the locus if the complex
zi
number is purely real.
Solution
z  2i
Given is purely imaginary
z i
z  2i x  iy  2i x  i y  2  x  i y  2  x  i y  1  x 2  ( y  2)( y  1)  ix( y  2)  x( y  1)
    
z i x  iy  i x  i y  1  x  i y  1  x  i y  1  x 2   y  1
2

x 2  ( y  2)( y  1) x( y  2)  x( y  1)
 i
x 2   y  1 x 2   y  1
2 2

since the complex number is purely imaginary mean that the real part is equal to zero.
x 2  ( y  2)( y  1)
0
x 2   y  1
2

x 2  ( y  2)( y  1)  0
x2  y2  y  2  0

229
 The locus is a circle x 2  y 2  y  2  0 with centre 0, 1 2  and radius 1 2

(d) Locus described by mapping z-plane onto w-plane of the complex numbers
This is locus obtained by mapping one plane into another plane.

Example 35
Find the image of the circle z  3 under the transformation w  2 z
Solution
Given that z  3 but z  x  iy
x  iy  3
x2  y2  3
x 2  y 2  32
Sketch

Under transformation w  2 z but z  3 and w  u  iv

u  iv  2(3)
u2  v2  6
u 2  v 2  62

230
 The image is a circleu 2  v 2  6 2 with centre at origin and radius 6

(e) Locus described by greatest and least values of the complex numbers
The locus described by greatest and least values are loci obtained by computing
the distance between centres of the circles or shortest distance from the point to
the line.
i.e.

Note:
Greatest values occur when d  ve and the least value occur when d  ve .

GENERAL EXAMPLES
Example 36
If z  1  i 3 , find
(a) z 3
(b) z 4
(c) z10
231
Solution
Given that z  1  i 3 express in polar form z  r cos  i sin  
 3 
z  r  2, Arg  z   tan 1  
 3
 1 
  
Now, z  2 cos  i sin 
 3 3

a  z 3  23  cos  
3

 i sin 
 3 3
 3 3 
z 3  8 cos  i sin 
 3 3 
z 3  8cos  i sin  
 z 3  8

b  z  2  cos   i sin  
4
4 4

 3 3
 4 4 
z 4  16 cos  i sin 
 3 3 
 1 3
z 4  16   i 

 2 2 

 z 4  8 1  i 3 

c  z  2  cos   i sin  
10
10 10

 3 3
 10 10 
z10  210  cos  i sin 
 3 3 
 1 3
z10  210    i 

 2 2 
 z10  29 1  i 3 

232
Example 37
1
If z  1  i 3 , find z 3 and 4 z .
Solution
Given that z  1  i 3 express in polar form z  r cos  i sin  
 3 
z  r  2, Arg z   tan 1  
 3
 1 
  
Now, z  2 cos  i sin 
 3 3
1

a  z  2  cos   i sin  
1 1 3
3 3

 3 3
1
  
z 3  3 2  cos  i sin 
 9 9
1

 z 3  3 2 cos 20  i sin 20 
1

b  z  2  cos   i sin  
1 1 4
4 4

 3 3
   
4
z  4 2  cos  i sin 
 12 12 
 4

z  4 2 cos15  i sin 15 
Example 38
If z 3  1  i 3 , find z
Solution
Given that z 3  1  i 3 express in polar form
 3 
z  r  2, Arg  z   tan 1  
 3
 1 
  
Now, z 3  2 cos  i sin 
 3 3
1     2k     2k 
From z k 1  r n cos   i sin 
  n   n 

233
 1 
   2k    3  2k 
z k 1  2 3 cos 3   i sin 
  3   3 
    6k     6k 
z k 1  3 2 cos   i sin  where k  0,1,2
  9   9 
     
When k  0; z1  3 2 cos   i sin 
 9  9 
  7   7 
When k  1; z2  3 2 cos   i sin 
  9   9 
  13   13 
When k  2; z3  3 2 cos   i sin 
  9   9 

REVISION EXERCISE 4
1. Find the real parts of the following;
a) cos0.7  i sin 0.753
b) e 512i x

1 i
4
c) e
2. Factorize x 2  y 2 .

3. If x  iy  u  iv then show that

3 u v
  4 x2  y2
x y
 
4. If z  x  iy is a complex number and z 5  1 , show that
4 x( y 4  x 4 )  1 .
ci b 2c
5. If a  ib  show that a 2  b 2  1 and  2
ci a c 1

6. If
a  i 2  p  iq , show that p  q 2 2

a 12
.

2

2a  i 4a  1
2

a
7. Given that x  iy  , show that
b  sin   i cos
(b 2  1)( x 2  y 2 )  a 2  2abx .
8. Show that i i is always real.
9. Given that 1  i   x  iy , prove that
n
x 2  y 2  2n .

234
 
10. Prove that 1  i 3   1  i 3 
20 20
is always real.
1 i 
n

11. Find the smallest positive integer n for which

  1
1 i 
12. Express 3  i 11  9i 5  6i 3 in the form of a  ib .
13. If z is a complex number, find the locus in polar form represented by the
equation z  1  3 .
1  sin   i cos
14. By expressing B  in the form of a  ib , show that
1  sin   i cos
B  sin  i cos and hence deduce that
      
6 6

1  sin  i cos   1  sin  i cos 
 12 12   12 12 

15. Given that z1  sin 70  i cos 70 and z 2  i sin 60  2 cos2 30 ,find
z1 z 2
16. If z  2  3i is a root of polynomial pz   z 4  4 z 3 12z 2  4 z  13.
Find the other roots and hence factorize the polynomial completely.
17. If one root of the equation z 2  pz  q  0 is 2  3i , find the values of
p and q
18. Find the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ such that a  ib  i and hence solve the
2

equation x 2  2 x  1  i  0 .
19. If z  x  iy is a root of equation z 2  3  i z  4  3i   0 , show that it
leads to a pair of equation given by xx  3  y1  y   4  0
x2 y  1  31  y   0
sin 5  5 sin 3  10 sin
20. Show that tan 5   .
cos5  5 cos3  10 cos
4t  4t 3
21. Show that tan 4  where t  tan  . Hence find the root of
1  6t 2  t 4
the equation t 4  4t 3  6t 2  4t  1  0 correct to 3 significant figure.
5t  10t 3  t 5
22. Show that tan 5  , where t  tan  . Hence solve the
1  10t 2  5t 4
equation t 5  10t 4  10t 3  20t 2  5t  2  0 , correct to 3 significant
figure.

235
23. Simplify the following;
a)  cos   i sin   cos   i sin  
 3 3  6 6
3 3   2 2 
2 0.5
b) 
 cos  i sin   cos  i sin 
 7 7   7 7 
cos 2  i sin 2
c)
cos   i sin 
cos 4  i sin 4  cos 2  i sin 2 2
d)
cos8  i sin 8

24. Find the cube root of ;

a) 8i b)-8i
25. Find the fourth root of  16 .
26. Solve for z if z 4  16 .
27. Find the cube roots of 1 and hence show that 1  w  w 2  0 .
28. If 1, w, and w 2 are roots of unit and w 3  1 . Show that;
a) 1  w 2 12
1
b) w3  w 4   w5
c) 1  w  w2 1  w  w2   4
d) 1  w1  w2   3
e) a  b a  wb a  w2b   a 3  b3
29. If w is a complex cube root of unit and x  a  b , y  aw  bw , and
z  aw2  bw4 , show that x 2  y 2  z 2  6ab.
30. Find the relationship between;
a) cos and cosh
b) sin and sinh
c) tan and tanh
31. Solve for z , given that;
a) cos z  3
b) sin z  5
z 1
32. Given that  2 , find the Cartesian equation of the locus of ‘z’ and
z 1
represent on the Argand diagram.
33. Describe the locus of the complex numbers,
a) z  3

236
 b) z i  z i
c) z  3  z  3
34. Describe the locus of the complex numbers,

a) Arg  z  1 
4
 z 1 
b) Arg  
 z  1 4
 z  2i  
35. Find the values of z at which the circularly argument Arg 
 z2  4
z  2i
intersect the line  2.
z2
zi
36. Given that z  x  iy , show that if is purely imaginary, then the
z2
5
locus of the points Px, y  is the circle of radius .
2
z  2i
37. Find the least and greatest value of the complex number  2 if
z2
 z  2i  
Arg 
 z  2i  4
38. Solve for z and w in the following system of simultaneous equations;
iz  w  2i
a)
iz  iw  1

2 z  3iw  1  i
b)
iz  w  3  i

39. If P ( x, y ) is a point on the Argand diagram corresponding to z  x  iy

and Z  2  4 Z  2  3i , find the Cartesian equation of the locus of
P ( x, y ) .

40. If Z  x  iy and z is a conjugate of Z , find the value of ' x' and ' y '
1
 1
1
 
such that     2_   1 i.
z  
z

237
41. Prove that ;
   n 
(1  cos  i sin ) n  (1  cos  i sin ) n  2 n1 cosn   cos 
 
2  2 
 2
42. Given that, arg( z  1)  and arg( z  1)  , find the complex
6 3
number Z .
z
43. The complex number z satisfies  2  i . Find the real and
z2
imaginary parts of z , and modulus and argument of z .
44. Find the complex number z which satisfies the equation z.( z  1)  7  i
45. Solve the equation z 4  2  2 3i  0 , give your answer in the form rei
where r  0 and      
46. If n is an integer and z  cos  i sin ,
1
(a) show that z 
n
n
 2 cos n and z n  1n  2i sin n
z z
(b) Hence show that
1 1 1 1
cos4  sin 2    cos 2  cos 4  cos 6
16 32 16 32
47. The complex number satisfies the relationship
z

arg( z  2)  arg( z  2)  show on argand diagram that the locus of
4
z isa circular arch and state the coordinate of its centre and the length its
radius.
48. Prove that the solution of the equation
cos  i sin  cos2  i sin 2    cosn  i sin n   1 is
 4m   4m 
cos   i sin  where m is any integer.
 nn  1   nn  1 
49. If 3 x  iy  a  ib show that 4a 2  b 2   x  y .
a
b
1  iz a  ib
50. If a 2  b 2  c 2  1 , 1  a z  b  ic , prove that  .
1  iz 1  c
51. Express 3  i and 3  i in the form of rei , where r  0 and

 n    n hence show that  3  i   3  i  2

n n n 1  n 
cos  when
 6 
n is a positive integer?
52. Show that r cos  i sin n  r n e in .

238
 Chapter Five

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Introduction

The subject of differential equations constitutes a large and very important branch
of mathematics. Differential equations occur in connection with numerous
problems encountered in almost all branches of science and technology. Problems
whose mathematical formulations give rise to differential equations are those
involving rates of change of one or more quantities with respect to other quantities.
Rates of change are expressed by derivatives, and therefore the mathematical
formulations involve derivatives, hence the name “differential equations”. In
order to obtain useful information from a differential equation, one solves the
equation or one obtains information about the solution to the equation.

Many of the basic laws of the physical sciences and, more recently, of the
biological social sciences and engineering are formulated in terms differential
equations.

In this section, we define and show how some differential equations arise and how
their solutions are obtained.

Differential Equation is any equation which contains derivatives, either ordinary

derivatives or partial derivatives.

Differential equation is an equation involving depending variable and its

derivatives with respect to independent variable.

TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

(a) Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE)

ODE is an equation in which dependent variable depends on a single
variable.
(b) Partial Differential Equations (PDE)
PDE is an equation in which the dependent variables depends on more than
one variable.

239
ORDER OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

The order of a Differential Equation is the highest derivative that appears in the
equation.

The order of a differential equation is a non-negative integer n given by the

highest derivative in the equation.
eg Determine the order of the following D.E

dy
(i )  xy  0, This is 1st order D.E
dx
d2y dy
(ii) 2  4  6 y  0, This is 2 nd order D.E
dx dx
3
d2y  dy 
(iii) 2  7   2 y  0, This is 2 nd order D.E
dx  dx 

DEGREE OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

The degree of a differential equation is a positive integer n given by the
highest power of the highest derivative in the equations.

eg Determine the degree of the following D.E

2
 dy 
(i )   4 y  0 This D.E has 2 degrees
 dx 
3
d2y  dy 
(ii) 2  4   4 y  0 This D.E has 1 degree
dx  dx 
2
d2y
3
 dy 
(iii) 2   4   4 y  0 This D.E has 2 degrees
 dx   dx 

FORMULATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Differential equations can be formed by differentiating the given functions and
eliminating all constants.
Example 1
Form a differential equations from the following functions

240
 (a) y  Ax
(b) y  Ax 2  Bx
(c) y  Ae 2 x  Be 2 x
(d) y  A cos3x  B sin 3 x
(e) y   A cos x  B sin x e  x
(f) y  Ae x  Be 2 x  3
Solution
(a ) y  Ax.......... .......... ....( i )
dy
 A.......... .......... ........( ii)
dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
dy
yx
dx
dy y
 
dx x

(b) y  Ax 2  Bx.......... .......... .......... .....( i )

dy
 2 Ax  B.......... .......... .......... ........( ii)
dx
d2y
 2 A.......... .......... .......... .......... ..(iii)
dx2

241
 d2y dy
x2 2
 2x  2 y
dx dx
2
d y dy
 x 2 2  2x  2 y  0
dx dx

(c) y  Ae 2 x  Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )

y  2 Ae 2 x  2 Be  2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(ii)
y  4 Ae 2 x  4 Be  2 x
 
y  4 Ae 2 x  Be  2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .(iii)
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
 y  4 y

d  y  A cos3x  B sin 3x.......... .......... .......... ....( i)

y   3 A sin 3x  3B cos3 x.......... .......... .......... ...( ii)
y   9 A cos3x  9 B sin 3 x
y   9 A cos3x  B sin 3x .......... .......... .......... .(iii)
Substitute equation (i) into equation (iii)
y   9 y
 y   9 y  0

(e) y   A cos x  B sin x e  x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i)
y    A sin x  B cos x e  x   A cos x  B sin x e  x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( ii)

y    A cos x  B sin x e  x   A sin x  B cos x e  x   A sin x  B cos x e  x   A cos x  B sin x e  x 
y    A cos x  B sin x e   A sin x  B cos x e   A sin x  B cos x e   A cos x  B sin x e
x x x x

y    A cos x  B sin x e  x  2 A sin x  B cos x e  x   A cos x  B sin x e  x

y   2 A sin x  B cos x e  x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
y    A sin x  B cos x e  x  y
y   y   A sin x  B cos x e  x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iv)
Substitute equation (iv) into equation (iii)
y   2 y   y 
 y   2 y   2 y  0

242
( f ) y  Ae x  Be 2 x  3.......... .......... .........( i )
y   Ae x  2 Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
y   Ae x  4 Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... ......( iii)
Subtract equation (ii) from equaion (iii)
y   y   6 Be 2 x
y   y 
 Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... (iv)
6
Substitute equation (iv) into equation (ii)
 y   y  
y   Ae x  2 
 6 
y   y 
y   Ae x
3
y  2 y

 Ae x .......... .......... .......... .......... ..( v)
3
Substitute equation (iv) and (v ) into equation (i)
y   2 y  y   y 
y  3
3 6
6 y  2 y   2 y   y   y   18
 3 y   3 y   6 y  18

Example 2
Form a D.E whose solution is a function ( x  a)  y  a .
2 2 2

Solution

243
x  a 2  y 2  a 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i)
2x  a   2 y
dy
0
dx
dy
xa y 0
dx
dy
a  x  y .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
dx
2
  dy 
2
 dy 
 x   x  y dx   y   x  y dx 
2

    
2 2
 dy  dy  dy 
 y   y  x  2 xy   y 
2 2

 dx  dx  dx 
dy
y 2  x 2  2 xy
dx
dy y  x2 2
 
dx 2 xy

Alternative
( x  a) 2  y 2  a 2
x 2  2ax  a 2  y 2  a 2
x 2  2ax  y 2  0
x2  y2
 2a
x
Differentiate both sides
 dy 
x 2 x  2 y   x 2  y 2  
 dx 
0
x2
 dy 

x 2 x  2 y   x 2  y 2  0 
 dx 
dy
2 x 2  2 xy  x 2  y 2  0
dx
dy y  x 2
2
 
dx 2 xy

244
Example 3
Form a D.E whose solution is a function y  x 2  Ae 2 x  Be 3 x .
Solution
y  x 2  Ae 2 x  Be 3 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
y   2 x  2 Ae 2 x  3Be 3 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)
y   2  4 Ae 2 x  9 Be 3 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iii)
From equation (i)
y  x 2  Be 3 x  Ae 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iv)
Substitute equation (iv) into equation (ii)
y   2 x  2 y  x 2  Be 3 x   3Be 3 x
y   2 x  2 y  2 x 2  Be 3 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( v)
Substitute equation (iv) into equation (iii)
y   2  4 y  x 2  Be 3 x   9 Be 3 x
y   2  4 y  4 x 2  5 Be 3 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( vi)
Substitute equation (v) into equation (vi)
y   2  4 y  4 x 2  5 y   2 x  2 y  2 x 2 
 y   5 y   6 y  6 x 2  10x  2

Example 4
Show that x 2  y 2  64 is solution of a D.E xdx  ydy  0
Solution
x 2  y 2  64
dy
2x  2 y 0
dx
 xdx  ydy  0

Example 5
dy
Show that x 3  3 xy 2  1 is an implicit solution of the D.E 2 xy  x2  y2  0
dx
Solution
x 3  3xy 2  1
dy
3x 2  3 y 2  6 xy 0
dx
dy
 2 xy  x2  y2  0
dx

245
Example 6
Show that e x and e 2 x are independent solution of the D.E y   y   2 y  0 .
Solution
Let y1  Ae x and y 2  Be 2 x
General solution, y  y1  y 2  Ae x  Be 2 x
y  Ae x  Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
y   Ae x  2 Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( ii)
y   Ae x  4 Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( iii)
From equation (i)
y  Be 2 x  Ae x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( iv)
Substitute equation (iv) into equation (ii)
y   y  Be 2 x  2 Be 2 x
y  y   3Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (v)
Substitute equation (iv) into equation (iii)
y   y  Be 2 x  4 Be 2 x
y   y  3Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (vi)
Substitute equation (vi) into equation (v)
y   y  y  y 
 y   y   2 y  0

SOLUTIONS OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

A solution of a differential equation is any function having all the derivatives

that appear in the differential equation.

Solution of the Differential Equations are divided into two types,

(a) General solution is the solution which contains constants values eg

y  Ae 2 x  Be x
(b) Specific solution is the solution which does not contains constants values
eg y  4e 2 x  3e x the values of constants are determined from the given
initial conditions.

246
Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) is divided into two categories, which are;

a) First Order D.E

b) Second Order D.E

5.1 FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

First Order D.E are equations in which the highest number of derivative is one.
dy x  y  1
eg.
dy
 tan y ,  , ( x  3) dy  (1  y )dx etc.
dx dx x  y  1

Types of First Order D.E, which are;

a) Separable First Order D.E

An Equation of the form F ( x)dx  G ( y )dy  0 is called separable equation and
can be easily solved by regrouping the variables.

Example 7
Find the general solution of the following D.E
(i) x  3 dy  y  6
dx
dy
(ii)  tan y
dx
dy
(iii) x  y  xy
dx
dy
(iv)  y ( y  1)
dx

Solution

247
(i )  x  3
dy
 y6
dx
dy dx

y6 x3
Integrate both sides
1 1
 y  6 dy   x  3 dx
In  y  6   InA x  3
y  6  A x  3
 y  A x  3  6

dy
(ii)  tan y
dx
dy
 dx
tan y

 cot ydy   dx
 In sin y   x  c

dy
(iii) x  y  xy
dx
dy 1  x
 dx
y x
1 1 
 y dy    x  1dx
Iny  Inx  x  c
In y x   x  c
y
x  e  x c 
 y  xe x c 

248
 dy
(iv)  y ( y  1)
dx
1
 y ( y  1)
dy   dx

1
 y ( y  1)
dy   dx

1 A B
Partial  
y ( y  1) y y  1
1 A y  1  By

y ( y  1) y ( y  1)
1  A y  1  By
A  1, B  1
1 1 1
Therefore,  
y ( y  1) y  1 y
Now,
 1 1 
  y  1  y dy   dx

In  y  1  Iny  x  c
 y 1
In    x  c
 y 
y 1
 e xc
y
 y  ye x  c  1

Example 8
Find the general solution of the following D.E
dy
(i) x 2  y2  y
dx
dy x
(ii) 1  x 
2

dx y
Solution

249
 dy
(i ) x 2  y2  y
dx
dy dx
 2
y y x
2

Integrate both sides

1 1
 y 2  y dy   x 2 dx
1
 y y  1dy   x dx
2

Partialize then integrate

 1 1
  y  1  y dy   x
2
dx

In ( y  1)  Iny   x 1  c
 y 1 
 In    x 1  c
 y 

dy x
(ii) 1  x 2 
dx y
x
 ydy   1  x 2 dx
Integrate both sides
y2
 1 x2  B
2
y 2  2 1  x 2  2B
 y2  2 1 x2  C

Example 9
dy
A family of parabola has a differential equation  2 x  3 , find the equation
dx
of the member of the family which passes through ( 4,5)
Solution

250
dy
 2x  3
dx
 dy   2 x  3dx
y  x 2  3x  c
The equation pass through 4,5
5  4 2  3(4)  c
c 1
 y  x 2  3x  1

Example 10
dy
Show that all solutions of the D.E  y are of the form y  ce λx , where c is
dx
any constant.
Solution
dy
 y
dx
1
 y dy    dx
Iny  x  A
y  e x  A
y  e x e A let e A  c
 y  ce x

General cases of Separable First Order D.E

 ax  by
(I) Separable differential equations which involves substitutionzof

Example 11
Solve the following Differential Equations
dy
(i)  ( x  y) 2
dx
dy x  y  1
(ii) 
dx x  y  1
251
Solution
dy
(i )  ( x  y ) 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
dx
Let z  x  y.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
dz dy dy dz
 1 ,   1.......... .......... .......... ......( iii)
dx dx dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) and (iii) into equation (i)
dz
1  z 2
dx
dz
 z 2  1 (This is separable D.E)
dx
dz
 z 2  1   dx
Integrate both sides
tan 1 z  x  c
z  tan  x  c 
x  y  tan  x  c 
 y  tan  x  c   x

dy x  y  1
(ii)  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
dx x  y  1
Let z  x  y.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
dz dy dy dz
 1 ,   1.......... .......... .......... ......( iii)
dx dx dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) and (iii) into equation (i)
dz z 1
1 
dx z 1
dz z  1
 1
dx z  1
dz 2z

dx z  1
z 1
 2 z dz   dx
1  1
2 
1  dz   dx
z
1
z  Inz   x  B but z  x  y
2
x  y  In ( x  y )   2 x  2 B
  x  y  In ( x  y )   2 x  A

252
 2

(II) Separating the variable of the form a   b   c  0 or

dy dy
 dx   dx 
m n

In general a   b   c  0 where m, n   . Technique used to solve

dy dy
 dx   dx 
dy
differential equation of the form above let p  then solve as normal
dx
polynomial functions.

Example 12
Solve the following Differential Equations
2

(i)    5  6  0
dy dy
 dx  dx
2

(ii) 2  
dy dy
1  0
 dx  dx
Solution
2
 dy  dy
(i )    5  6  0
 dx  dx
dy
Let p 
dx
p 5p  6  0
2

p  3, p  2
dy
But p 
dx
Consider
dy
3
dx
 dy   3dx
y  3 x  c1
dy
Also, 2
dx
 dy   2dx
y  2 x  c2
 y  3 x  c1 , y  2 x  c2

253
 2
 dy  dy
(ii) 2    1  0
 dx  dx
dy
Let p 
dx
2 p  p 1  0
2

p  1, p   1 2
dy
But p 
dx
Consider
dy
1
dx
 dy   dx
y  x  c1
dy
Also,   12
dx
 dy    1
2 dx
y   1 2 x  c2
 y  x  c1 , y   1 2 x  c2

b) Homogeneous First Order D.E,

Homogeneous First Order D.E are equations which have the same dimensions,
(i.e. Dimension on L.H.S=Dimension on R.H.S). Homogeneous D.E can be
y
solved by taking or assuming y  ux or u  , then differentiate w.r.t x and
x
substitute the results to the given differential Equation.

NB:
How to check/determine if the D.E is Homogeneous
Approximate by using the following assumptions

x L
y L
dx dL
dy dL

254
Example 13
Solve the following Differential Equations
dy
(i) x 2  3 x 2  xy
dx
dy
(ii) xy  x2  y2
dx

Solution
dy
(i ) x 2  3 x 2  xy.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
dx
Let y  ux.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
dy du
 u  x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( iii)
dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) and equation (iii) into equation (i)
 du 
x 2  u  x   3 x 2  xux
 dx 
 du 
x 2  u  x   3 x 2  ux2
 dx 
du
ux  3u
dx
du
x 3
dx
1
 du  3 x dx
y
u  3Inx  c but u 
x
y
 3Inx  c
x
 y  3xInx  cx

255
 dy
(ii) xy  x 2  y 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
dx
Let y  ux.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
dy du
 u  x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( iii)
dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) and equation (iii) into equation (i)
 du 
ux 2  u  x   x 2  xux
 dx 
 du 
ux 2  u  x   x 2  u 2 x 2
 dx 
du
u 2  ux  1 u 2
dx
du
ux  1  2u 2
dx
u 1
 1  2u 2 du   x dx
Integrate both sides
1

 In 1  2u 2  InAx
4

 2y2 
In1  2   4 InAx
 x 
 2y2 
In1  2   In  Ax 
4

 x 
x2  2 y2 B
 4
x2 x

 x x  2y2  B
2 2

Example 14
Solve the following D.E
dy y 2
(a) x  y
dx x
dy
(b) x 3  x2 y  2 y3
dx
Solution

256
 dy y 2
(a) x   y.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
dx x
dy du
Let y  ux, ux .......... .......... .......... ...(ii)
dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
 du  u x 2 2
x u  x   ux
 dx  x
du u 2 x 2
ux  x 2   ux
dx x
1
 u du   x dx
2

 u 1  InAx
1
 y
    InAx
x
x
  InAx
y
x
y 
InAx

dy
(b) x 3  x 2 y  2 y 3 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
dx
dy du
Let y  ux,  u  x .......... .......... .......... ...( ii)
dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
 du 
x 3  u  x   ux3  2u 3 x 3
 dx 
du
ux  u  2u 3
dx
du
x  2u 3
dx
1
 u du  2 x dx
3

u 2
 2 InAx
2
u  2  4 InAx
2
 y
   4 InAx
x
257
 2
x
   4 InAx
 y
x2
 y2 
4 InAx

Example 15
dy
Solve ( x  y ) y
dx
Solution
dy
( x  y)  y
dx
dy y
 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
dx x  y
dy du
Let y  ux,  u  x .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( ii)
dx dx
du ux
ux 
dx x  ux
du u
ux 
dx 1  u
du  u 2
x 
dx 1  u
1 u 1
 u 2 du   x dx
 2 1  1
  u  u du   x dx
 u 1  Inu  InAx
1  Ax  y
  In   but u 
u  u  x
x  Ax 2 
  In 
y  y 
x  y 
  In  2 
y  Ax 

258
Example 16
dy x y
Solve  
dx y x
Solution
dy x y
  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
dx y x
dy du
Let y  ux,  u  x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( ii)
dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
du x ux
ux  
dx ux x
du 1
ux  u
dx u
du 1
x 
dx u
1
 udu   x dx
1 2
u  InAx
2
2
 y
   2 InAx
x
 y 2  2 x 2 In ( Ax )

Example 17
dy y  y
Solve   tan 
dx x  x
Solution

259
dy y  y
  tan  .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
dx x x
dy du
Let y  ux,  u  x .......... .......... ........( ii)
dx dx
du
ux  u  tan u
dx
du
x  tan u
dx
1 1
 tan u du   x dx
1
 cotudu   x dx
In sin u  InAx
sin u  Ax
 y
sin   Ax
x
 y  x sin 1 ( Ax )

c) Non Homogeneous First Order D.E ,

Non Homogeneous First Order D.E are differential equations of the form
dy ax  by  c a b
 where by  0.
dx dx  ey  f d e
Hints used to solve Non Homogeneous Differential Equations are;
 x  X h
 y Y h
dy dY
 
dx dX

Example 18
Solve the following Differential Equations
dy x  y  1
(i) 
dx x  y  1
(ii)  x  y 
dy
 x y2
dx

260
Solution
dy x  y  1
(i )  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
dx x  y  1
dy dY
Let x  X  h, y  Y  k and  .......... .......... .(ii)
dx dX
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
dY  X  h   Y  k   1

dX  X  h   Y  k   1
dY X  Y  h  k  1
 .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)
dX X  Y  h  k  1
Let and solve
h  k  1  0

h  k  1  0
h  1, k  0
Then equation (iii) change to
dY X  Y
 This is homogeneous D.E .......... .......( iv)
dX X  Y
dY dU
Let Y  UX , U  X .......... .......... .......... ...( v)
dX dX
Substitute equation (v) into equation (iv)
dU X  UX
UX 
dX X  UX
dU 1  U
UX 
dX 1U
dU 1  U
X  U
dX 1  U
dU 1  2U  U 2
X 
dX 1U
1U 1
 1  2U  U 2 dU   X dX
1

 In 1  2U  U 2  InAX
2

 
In 1  2U  U 2  2 InAX
 Y2 
In1  2  2   In  AX 
Y 2

 X X 
X  2 XY  Y 2
2
C
2
 2
X X
261
X 2  2 XY  Y 2  C.......... .......... .......... .......... ...( vi)
But X  x  h, Y  y  k and h  1, k  0
i.e. X  x  1, Y  y.......... .......... .......... .......... ..( vii)
Substitute equation (vii) into equation (vi)
  x  1  2 x  1 y  y 2  C
2

(ii) x  y 
dy
 x y2
dx
dy x  y  2
 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
dx xy
dy dY
Let x  X  h, y  Y  k and  .......... .......... .(ii)
dx dX
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
dY  X  h   Y  k   2

dX  X  h   Y  k 
dY X  Y  h  k  2
 .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)
dX X Y  h  k
Let and solve
h  k  2  0

h  k  0
h  1, k  1
Then equation (iii) change to
dY X  Y
 This is homogeneous D.E .......... .......( iv)
dX X  Y

262
 dY dU
Let Y  UX , U  X .......... .......... .......... ...( v)
dX dX
Substitute equation (v) into equation (iv)
dU X  UX
UX 
dX X  UX
dU 1  U
UX 
dX 1  U
dU 1  U
X  U
dX 1  U
dU 1  2U  U 2
X 
dX 1U
1U 1
 1  2U  U 2 dU   X dX
1

 In 1  2U  U 2  InAX
2

 
In 1  2U  U 2  2 InAX
 Y Y2 
In1  2  2   In  AX 
2

 X X 
X 2  2 XY  Y 2 C
2
 2
X X
X 2  2 XY  Y 2  C.......... .......... .......... .......... ...( vi)
But X  x  h, Y  y  k and h  1, k  1
i.e. X  x  1, Y  y  1.......... .......... .......... .......... ..( vii)
Substitute equation (vii) into equation (vi)
x  12  2x  1 y  1   y  12  C
 x 2  y 2  4 x  2 xy  2  C

Example 19
dy  2 x  y  1 
2

Solve  
dx  x  2 
Solution

263
dy  2 x  y  1 
2

  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )

dx  x  2 
dy dY
Let x  X  h, y  Y  k , 
dx dX
dY  2( X  h)  (Y  k )  1 
2

 
dX  X h2 
dY  2 X  Y  2h  k  1 
2

  .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)

dX  X h2 
2 h  k  1  0 
Let   h  2, k  3
h  2  0 
dY  2 X  Y 
2

  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(iii)

dX  X 
dY dU
Let Y  UX , U  X .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(iv)
dX dX
Substitute equation (iv) into equation (iii)
dU  2 X  UX 
2

UX  
dX  X 
 2  U 
dU
UX
2

dX
dU
UX  4  4U  U 2
dX
dU
X  U 2  3U  4
dX

264
 1 1
U  3U  4
2
dU   dX
X
1 1
 U  3 2  7 dU   X dX
2 4

1 1
4
7  1   U   dU   X dX .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( v)
2 3 2
7 2

Let 2
7
U  32   tan  , U  32  2
7
tan 
dU  2
7
sec2 d
1 1
4
7  1  tan 2

 2
7
sec2 d  
X
dX

1
2
7  d   X dX
2
7
  InX  c but   tan 1  2
7
U  32 
2
7
tan 1  2
7
U  32   InX  C but U 
Y
X
  Y 3 
2
tan 1  2
    InX  C but X  x  h  x  2, Y  y  k  y  3
7

7
 X 2 
  y  3 3 
 2
tan 1  2
    In ( x  2)  C
7

7
 x  2 2 

d) Integrating Factor First Order D.E,

dy
Integrating factor first order D.E are equations of the form  py  q where
dx
p and q are functions of x or constants.

Integrating factor first order Differential Equations are categorized into two
types,

(i) Exact Integrating Factor First Order D.E

This is a type of integrating factor first order Differential Equations which can
be solved by inspection.

265
Example 20
Solve the following D.E
dy
(a) x 2  2 xy  x
dx
dy
(b) cos x  y sin x  2 x  1
dx
dy
(c) tan x  y sec2 x  cos x
dx
1 dy y
(d) sin x   sec2 x
dx 1 x2
Solution
dy
(a) x 2  2 xy  x
dx
This is exact D.E
d 2
dx
 
x y x

 d x y    xdx
2

x2
x2 y  c
2
1 c
y   2
2 x

dy
(b) cos x  y sin x  2 x  1
dx
This is Exact D.E
d
 y cos x   2 x  1
dx
 d  y cos x    2 x  1dx
y cos x  x 2  x  c
x2  x  c
y 
cos x

266
 dy
(c) tan x  y sec2 x  cos x
dx
d
 y tan x   cos x
dx
 d  y tan x    cos xdx
y tan x  sin x  c
sin x  c
y 
tan x

dy y
(d ) sin 1 x   sec2 x
dx 1 x 2

d
dx
 
y sin 1 x  sec2 x

 d y sin x   sec
1 2
xdx
y sin 1 x  tan x  c
tan x  c
y 
sin 1 x

Example 21
 x  dy 1
Solve In( y  1)    
 y  1  dx x( x  1)
Solution
 x  dy 1
In ( y  1)     .......... .......... (i )
 y  1  dx x( x  1)
 x  dy 1
   In ( y  1) 
 y  1  dx x( x  1)
d
xIn( y  1)   1
dx x( x  1)

 d xIn( y  1)   x( x  1) dx
1

267
 1
xIn( y  1)   dx.......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
x( x  1)
1
Consider  dx then partialize
x( x  1)
1 A B
 
x( x  1) x x  1
1  A( x  1)  Bx
A  1, B  1
1 1 1 
 x( x  1) dx    x  x  1 dx
1
 x( x  1) dx  Inx  In ( x  1)  c let c  InA

1  x 
 x( x  1) dx  InA x  1 .......... .......... ......( iii)
Substitute equation (iii) into equation (ii)
 x 
xIn( y  1)  InA 
 x 1
 x 
In ( y  1) x  InA 
 x 1
Ax
 ( y  1) x 
x 1

Example 22
x dy
Solve Iny   sec x tan x
y dx
Solution
x dy
Iny   sec x tan x
y dx
x dy
 Iny  sec x tan x
y dx
d
xIny  sec x tan x
dx
 d xIny   sec x tan xdx
 xIny  sec x  c

268
(ii) Inexact Integrating Factor First Order D.E

This is a type of integrating factor D.E which can’t be solved by inspection

instead they need an Integrating Factor (I.F) to make them exact.

Consider the standard format of integrating factor D.E

dy
 py  q( x)......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
dx
Let h( x) be an integrating factor (I.F) which make inexact D.E to be exact D.E
Multiply equation (i) by h( x) throughout
dy
h( x)  h( x) py  h( x)q ( x)......... .......... .......... ...( ii)
dx
d
 yh( x)   q( x)
dx
dy
h( x)  yh( x)  h( x)q ( x)......... .......... .......... ...( iii)
dx
Equate equations (ii) and (iii)
ph( x)  h( x)
h( x)
p
h( x )
Integrate both sides w.r.t x
h( x)
 pdx   h( x) dx
 pdx  Inh( x)  c let c  0

 pdx  Inh( x)

e  pdx  h( x) but h( x)  I .F
I .F  e  pdx

Integrating Factor (I.F) is given by I.F  e  pdx

269
Example 23

Solve the following D.E

dy y e x
(a)  
dx x x
dy
(b) (1  x 2 )  y  tan 1 x
dx

Solution

dy y e x
(a)   .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
dx x x
This is an Integrating Factor D.E
1
 dx
I .F  e   e x  e Inx  x
Pdx

Multiply equation (i) by Integrating Factor

dy
x  y  e x .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( ii)
dx
d
xy  e x
dx
 d xy   e dx
x

 xy  e x  c

270
 dy
(b) (1  x 2 )  y  tan 1 x
dx
tan 1 x
dy

y
 This is an integrating factor D.E .......... ......( i)
dx 1  x 2 1  x 2
I .F  e   e  1 x  e tan x
1
Pdx 2
dx 1

1
I .F  e tan x
Multiply equation (i) by Integrating Factor (I.F)

e tan 1 x dy ye tan x
 
1
tan 1 x e tan   1
x

dx 1  x 2 1 x2

    1
d tan 1 x tan 1 x e tan x
ye 
dx 1 x2

 d ye    tan1 xxe dx

1 tan 1 x
tan 1 x
2

ye tan 1 x

tan x e dx.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(ii)
1 tan 1 x

1 x2

Consider 
tan x e
dx
1 tan 1 x

1 x2
Let u  tan 1 x, du  11x 2 dx, dx  (1  x 2 )du
tan x e 1 tan 1 x
ueu
(1  x 2 )du   ueu du Apply Integration by Part 
 1 x2
dx  
1 x2
tan x e 1 tan 1 x
 
dx   ueu du  u  1e u  tan 1 x  1 e tan x .......... .......... ...( iii)

1

1 x 2

Substitute equation (iii) into equation (ii)

ye tan
1
x

 tan 1 x  1 e tan  1
x
c

 y  tan 1 x  1  ce  tan  1
x

Example 24

Solve the differential equation  x  1  y  e x 1  x 

dy 2

dx

Solution

271
x  1 dy  y  e x 1  x 2
dx
 e x 1  x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( i )
dy y

dx 1  x
1
  dx
I .F  e   e 1 x  e  In (1 x )  e In (1 x )  (1  x) 1 
Pdx 1 1
.......... .........( ii)
1 x
Multiply equation (i) by Integrating factor (IF)
1 dy y
  ex
1  x dx 1  x 2
d  y  x
 e
dx  1  x 
 y 
 d  1  x    e dx
x

y
 ex  C
1 x

 y   x  1 e x  C 

e) Bernoulli’s principle First Order D.E,

Bernoulli’s principle First Order D.E are D.E of the form
dy
 py  q ( x) y n where n  , n  0,1 . We can solve Bernoulli’s principle D.E
dx
by taking z  y 1 n .

Example 25
Solve the following D.E
dy
(a)  2 y  xy 2
dx
dy 3 y
(b) 3   2x4 y 4
dx x
Solution

272
 dy
(a)  2 y  xy 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
dx
dz dy dy dz
Let z  y1 2 , z  y 1 ,   y 2 ,   y 2 .......... .....( ii)
dx dx dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
dz
 y2  2 y  xy 2
dx
dz
 2 y 1   x but z  y 1
dx
 2 z   x This is an Integrating Factor D.E .......... .......... .......( iii)
dz
dx
I .F  e   e 
Pdx  2 dx
 e 2 x
Multiply equation (iii) by I.F
dz
e  2 x  2 ze 2 x   xe 2 x
dx
d
dx
 
ze2 x   xe2 x

 d ze     xe
2 x 2 x
dx
1 2 x 1 2 x
ze2 x  xe  e  c
2 4
1 1
z  x   ce 2 x
2 4
1 1
 y 1  x   ce 2 x
2 4

273
 dy 3 y
(b) 3   2 x 4 y 4 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
dx x
dz dy dy y 4 dz
Let z  y1 4 , z  y 3 ,  3 y  4 ,  .......... .....( ii)
dx dx dx 3 dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
y 4 dz 3 y
   2x4 y4
3 dx x
dz 9 y 3
  6 x 4 but z  y 3
dx x
 6 x 4 This is an Integrating Factor D.E .......... .......... .......( iii)
dz 9 z

dx x
I .F  e   e  x  e 9 Inx  9
Pdx  9 dx 1
x

Multiply equation (iii) by I.F

1 dz 9 z 6
9
 10   5
x dx x x
d  z  5
   6 x
dx  x 9 
 z 
 d  x 9   6 x dx
5

z 3 4
 x C
x9 2
3
z  x 5  Cx 9
2
3
 y 3  x 5  Cx 9
2

Example 26
dy
Solve the differential equation x 3  x 2 y  x 2 y 2 Inx .
dx
Solution

274
 dy
x3  x 2 y  x 2 y 2 Inx
dx
dy y y 2 Inx
  This is Bernoulli's D.E .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( i)
dx x x
dz dy dy dz
Let z  y1 n , z  y1 2 , z  y 1 ,   y 2 ,   y 2 .......... .....( ii)
dx dx dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
dz y y 2 Inx
 y2  
dx x x
1
dz y Inx
  but z  y 1
dx x x
dz z
 
Inx
This is an integrating factor D.E .......... .......... .......... ......( iii)
dx x x
I .F  e   e  x  e  Inx  e Inx  1
Pdx  1 dx 1

Multiply equation (iii) by I.F throughout

1 dz z Inx
 2  2
x dx x x
d z Inx
  2
dx  x  x
z Inx
 d  x    x2
dx

z Inx
   2 dx.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( iv)
x x
Inx 1
Consider  2
dx, let   Inx, e  x, d  dx, dx  xd
x x
  
dx   2  xd    d    d   e  d Integration by part 
Inx
 x 2
x x e

275
e

d  e   e   1   e   1  Inx  1x

dx  1  Inx  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( v)
Inx 1
x 2
x
Substitute equation (v) into equation (iv)

 1  Inx 
z 1
x x
z  1  Inx but z  y 1
y 1  1  Inx
1
y  c
1  Inx

5.2 SECOND ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Second Order D.E are equations in which the highest number of derivative is
two.
d2y dy d2y dy d 2 y dy
eg.  5  6 y  0 , 2  4  0 , 2   20 y  cos x etc.
dx 2 dx dx dx dx dx

Second Order D.E is categorized into three forms, which are;

a) Second Order D.E reduced to First Order Equations
n
d2y  dy 
These are differential equations of the form a  b   0 where
 dx 
2
dx
a and b are functions of x or y or constants. We solve these D.E by taking
dy
p
dx

Example 27
Solve the following D.E
d2y dy
(i) x 2
 2x  0
2

dx dx
2
d2y  dy 
(ii)  2 
 dx 
2
dx
Solution

276
 d2y dy
(i ) x 2 2
 2x 0
dx dx
dy dp d 2 y
Let p  , 
dx dx dx 2
dp
x2  2 xp  0
dx
 p  0 This is separable D.E 
dp 2
dx x
dp 2
 p
dx x
1 1
 p dp  2 x dx
Inp  2 InAx
Inp  In  Ax 
2

p   Ax 
2

dy
 Bx 2
dx
 dy  B  x
2
dx
B 3
y  x c
3
2
d2y  dy 
(ii)  2 
 dx 
2
dx
dy dp d 2 y
Let p  , 
dx dx dx 2
 2 p 2 This is separable D.E 
dp
dx
1
 p 2 dp  2 dx
p dp  2  dx
2

 p 1  2 x  c
1
 2x  c
p
1
p
2x  c
dy 1
 
dx 2 x  c

277
Example 28
d2y dy
Given that (1  x 2 ) 2
 2 x  0 , show that y  tan 1 x  c
dx dx
Solution
d2y dy
(1  x 2 ) 2  2 x 0
dx dx
dy dp d 2 y
Let p  , 
dx dx dx 2
dp
(1  x 2 )  2 px  0
dx
dp
(1  x 2 )  2 px
dx
1 2x
 p dp    1  x 2 dx

InP   In 1  x 2 

InP  In 1  x 2 
1

1
p
1 x2
dy 1

dx 1  x 2
1
 dy   1  x 2 dx
 y  tan 1 x  c

Example 29 (i)
3
dy 2  dy 
Solve the equation  y   0
 dx 
2
dx
Solution

278
 3
dy 2  dy 
 y   0
 dx 
2
dx
dy dp dy 2
Let p  , 
dx dx dx 2
dp
 yp3  0
dx
dp dp dp dy
  yp3 but  .
dx dx dy dx
dp dy
.   yp3
dy dx
dp
p   yp3
dy
dp
  yp 2
dy

p dp    ydy
2

 p 1   12 y 2  C
1 1 2
 y C
p 2
1
p
2 y C
1 2

1 dy

1
2 y  C dx
2

 dx    1
2 
y 2  C dy
1 3
x y  Cy  D
6
 6 x  y 3  6Cy  6 D

Example (29) (ii)

d2y dy
Solve the equation  2 0
dx 2 dx
Solution

279
 d2y dy
Consider  2 0
dx 2 dx
dy dp d 2 y
Let p  , 
dx dx dx 2
dp
Then  2p  0
dx
dp
 2p
dx
dp
 2dx
p
1
 p dp  2  dx
Inp  2 x  c
p  e  2xc 

 e 
dy 2xc

dx
 dx
 dy   e
2xc

1  2xc D
y  e
2

Exercise 5.1
Find the general solution of the following D.E
d2y dy
1. 2
4 0
dx dx
d 2 y 1 dy
2.  0
dx 2 5 dx
d2y dy
3. 2
 7 0
dx dx
dy
4.  y ( y  1)
dx
dy
5. x2  y2  y
dx

280
 dy x
6. x 2 1 
dx y
dy
7. e  x  y 2 1
dx
dy
8. cos ecx  3 x  e x cos ecx
dx
d
9. 2 sin  cos  sin
dr
dx
10. et  sin t
dt
dy
11. ex  y2  4  0
dx
y dy
12.  Inx
x dx
dy  dy 
13. x  3  2 y  
dx  dx 
14. x 2 1
dy
y
dx
dx
15. Inx 1
dy

d2y dy
b) Second Order D.E of the form a 2
 b  cy  0
dx dx
d2y dy
Consider the D.E a 2
 b  cy  0
dx dx
Express the above equation into Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
am2  bm  c  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..( A.Q.E )
By using general formula, determine the general solution of the above equation
 b  b 2  4ac
m
2a
NATURE OF ROOTS
(a) If b 2  4ac  0 or b 2  4ac condition for equations to have two distinct roots
(b) If b 2  4ac  0 or b 2  4ac condition for equations to have two identical/equal roots
(c) If b 2  4ac  0 or b 2  4ac condition for equations to have two complex roots

281
(A) GENERAL SOLUTION OF A.Q.E WITH TWO DISTINCT ROOTS
d2y dy
Consider a D.E a  b  cy  0
dx 2 dx
d y  b  dy  c 
2
      y  0.......... .......... .......... .......... ........( i )
dx 2  a  dx  a 
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
am 2  bm  c  0
Let  and  be two distinct roots of A.Q.E
b
Sum of roots     .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
c b
c
  
Product of roots   .......... .......... .......... ..........
a ........( iii)
a
Substitute equations (ii) and (iii) into equation (i)
d2y
        y  0
dy
2
dx dx
2
d y dy dy
2
   y  0
dx dx dx
d  dy   dy 
  y      y   0.......... .......... .......... ........( iv)
dx  dx   dx 
dy
Let u   y .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(v)
dx
d
(u )  u  0
dx
du
 u  0 (This is separable D.E)
dx
1
 u du   dx
Inu  x  C
u  e x C
u  e x e C let e C  D
u  De x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (vi)
Substitute equation (vi) into equation (v)
dy
De x   y
dx
dy
 y  De x (This is an Integrating factor D.E)
dx
From I .F  e  , I .F  e 
dx
 e x , I .F  e x
pdx

282
 dy
Multiply by I.F  e αx to the D.E  αy  De βx
dx
dy
e αx  αyeαx  De βx e αx
dx
d
dx
 
yeαx  De βxαx

 
d yeαx  De βxαx dx
Integrate both sides w.r.t x

 d ye    De
αx βx αx
dx
1 1
yeαx  e βxαx  A let B
   
yeαx  Be βx e αx  A
Be βx e αx  A
y
e αx
A
y  Be βx  αx
e
y  Ae  Be βx
αx

The general solution of A.Q.E with two distinct roots y  Ae αx  Be βx

Example 30
Find the general solution of the following;
d 2 y dy
(i)   6y  0
dx 2 dx
d 2 y dy
(ii)  3  2y  0
dx 2 dx
d 2 y dy
(iii) 2 2  y0
dx dx
d 2 y dy
(iv) 6   2y  0
dx 2 dx
Solution

283
 d 2 y dy
(i )   6y  0
dx 2 dx
Write the Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m2  m  6  0
m  3, m  2
Let   3,   2
From general solution of a D.E with two distinct roots
y  Ae x  Be x
 y  Ae 3 x  Be 2 x

d2y dy
(ii) 2
3  2y  0
dx dx
Write the Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  3m  2  0
m  1, m  2
Let   1,   2
From general solution of a D.E with two distinct roots
y  Ae x  Be x
 y  Ae  x  Be 2 x
d 2 y dy
(iii) 2  y0
dx 2 dx
Write the Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
2m 2  m  1  0
m  1, m   1 2
Let   1,    1 2
From general solution of a D.E with two distinct roots
y  Ae x  Be x
 y  Ae x  Be 0.5 x

d 2 y dy
(iv) 6   2y  0
dx 2 dx
Write the Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
6m 2  m  2  0
m  12 , m   2 3
Let   1 2 ,    2 3
From general solution of a D.E with two distinct roots
y  Ae x  Be x
 y  Ae  Be 
1 2
2x 3x

284
(B) GENERAL SOLUTION OF A.Q.E WITH TWO EQUAL ROOTS
d2y dy
Consider a D.E a 2  b  cy  0
dx dx
d y  b  dy  c 
2
      y  0.......... .......... .......... .......... ........( i )
dx 2  a  dx  a 
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
am2  bm  c  0
Let  and  be two equal roots of A.Q.E (i.e     p)
b
Sum of roots     .......... .......... ..........b .......... .......( ii)
c   
a
c
Product of roots   .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iii)
a
Substitute equations (ii) and (iii) into equation (i)
d2y
        y  0
dy
2
dx dx
2
d y dy dy
2
   y  0
dx dx dx
d  dy   dy 
  y      y   0 but     p
dx  dx   dx 
d  dy   dy 
  py   p  py   0.......... .......... .......... ........( iv)
dx  dx   dx 
dy
Let u   py .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(v)
dx
d
(u )  pu  0
dx
du
 pu  0 (This is separable D.E)
dx
1
 u du   pdx
Inu  px  C
u  e pxC
u  e px e C let e C  A
u  Ae px .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (vi)
Substitute equation (vi) into equation (v)
dy
Ae px   py
dx
285
dy
 py  Ae px (This is an Integrating factor D.E)
dx
From I .F  e  , I .F  e 
pdx  pdx
 e  px , I .F  e  px
dy
Multiply by I.F  e  px to the D.E  py  Ae px
dx
dy
e  px  pye px  Ae px e  px
dx
d
dx

ye px  A 

d ye px  Adx
Integrate both sides w.r.t x

 d ye    Adx
 px

Ax  B
y
e  px
y   Ax  B e px
The general solution of A.Q.E with two identical roots y   Ax  B e px

Example 31
Find the general solution of the following differential equations;
d2y dy
(i) 2
 4  4y  0
dx dx
d2y dy
(ii) 2
 10  25 y  0
dx dx
d2y dy
(iii) 9 2
6  y  0
dx dx
Solution

286
 d2y dy
(i ) 2
 4  4y  0
dx dx
Write the Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  4m  4  0
m2
Let p  2
From general solution of a D.E with two identical roots
y   Ax  B e px
 y   Ax  B e 2 x

d2y dy
(ii) 2
 10  25 y  0
dx dx
Write the Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  10m  25  0
m  5
Let p  5
From general solution of a D.E with two identical roots
y   Ax  B e px
 y   Ax  B e 5 x

d2y dy
(iii) 9 2
6  y  0
dx dx
Write the Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
9m 2  6m  1  0
m  13
Let p  1 3
From general solution of a D.E with two identical roots
y   Ax  B e px
 y   Ax  B e
1
3x

287
 Exercise 5.2
d2y
1. Find the general solution of the 4 1  0
dx 2
d2y
2. Find the general solution of the 3 2  2  0
dx
d2y dy
3. Find the general solution of the 2 2  7  3  0
dx dx
d 2 y dy
4. Find the general solution of the 2   15  0
dx2 dx
d2y dy
5. Find the general solution of the 2
 18  81  0
dx dx
d2y dy
6. Find the general solution of the 2
2 3 30
dx dx
d2y dy
7. Find the general solution of the 2
 0.2  0.01  0
dx dx
d 2 y 1 dy 1
8. Find the general solution of the   0
dx2 2 dx 16

288
(C) GENERAL SOLUTION OF A.Q.E WITH COMPLEX ROOTS
d2y dy
Consider a D.E a 2
 b  cy  0
dx dx
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
am2  bm  c  0
If the A.Q.E has complex roots, m  p  iq
Let  and  be two equal roots of A.Q.E
Then   m1  p  iq and   m2  p  iq
From general solution for two distinct roots y  Cex  De x
y  Ce  p iq  x  De  p iq  x
y  Ce px e iqx  De px e iqx

y  Ce iqx  De iqx e px 
But from Euler's form e iqx  cos qx  i sin qx and e iqx  cos qx  i sin qx
y  C cos qx  iC sin qx  D cos qx  iD sin qxe px
Combine like terms
y  (C  D) cos qx  (iC  iD) sin qxe px let C  D  A and iC  iD  B
y   A cos qx  B sin qxe px
The general solution of A.Q.E with complex roots y   A cos qx  B sin qxe px

Example 32
Solve the following D.E
2
(i) d 2y  2 dy  4 y  0
dx dx
2
(ii) d 2y  2 dy  2 y  0
dx dx
2
(iii) 2 d 2y  3 dy  5 y  0
dx dx
Solution

289
 d2y dy
(i ) 2
 2  4y  0
dx dx
Write the Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  2m  4  0
2   12 2  2i 3
m   1 i 3
2 2
Let p  1, q  3
From general solution of a D.E with complex roots
y   A cos qx  B sin qxe px

 y  y  A cos 3 x  B sin 3 x e x 
d2y dy
(ii) 2
 2  2y  0
dx dx
Write the Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  2m  2  0
 2   8  2  2i
m   1  i
2 2
Let p  1, q  1
From general solution of a D.E with complex roots
y   A cos qx  B sin qxe px
 y  y   A cos x  B sin x e  x

d2y dy
(iii) 2 2
 3  5y  0
dx dx
Write the Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
2m 2  3m  5  0
 3   31  3  i 31 3 31
m    i
4 4 4 4
3 31
Let p   , q 
4 4
From general solution of a D.E with complex roots
y   A cos qx  B sin qxe px
 
 31    4 x 
3
31
 y  y   A cos x  B sin x e
 4 4 

290
 2
c) Second Order D.E of the form, a d 2y  b dy  cy  g ( x)
dx dx
2
The second order D.E of the form a d 2y  b dy  cy  g ( x) it has two parts
dx dx
which are complimentary part and particular integral part (The L.H.S part is
called complimentary part and the R.H.S is called Particular integral part)
These type of D.E is solved by separating the complimentary part and particular
2
part (i.e. a d 2y  b dy  cy  0 and let y  kg ( x) )
dx dx
The solution obtained from complimentary part is called Complimentary
function and solution obtained from particular integral part is called Particular
Integral function

NB: How to let the particular integral part from different functions

GIVEN P.I PARTS HOW TO LET THE GIVEN

P.I
1 Constant number yk
. eg g ( x)  6
2 Linear function g ( x )  Ax  B
eg g ( x)  4 x  7
3 Quadratic functions g ( x)  Ax 2  Bx  C
eg g ( x)  3x 2  2 x  5
4 Exponential functions, eg g ( x)  keax
g ( x)  peax where p , a are given constants
5 (i ) p sin(mx) y  A cos(mx )  B sin(mx )
(ii) p cos(mx)
(iii) p sin(mx)  q cos(mx)
6 (i ) p sinh( mx) y  A cosh(mx)  B sinh( mx)
(ii) p cosh(mx)
(iii) p sinh( mx)  q cosh(mx)
7 (i ) pe ax sin(mx ) y  Ae ax cos(mx)  Be ax sin(mx)
(ii) pe ax cos(mx )
(iii) pe ax sin(mx )  qe ax cos(mx )
8 (i ) peax sinh( mx ) y  Ae ax cosh(mx)  Be ax sinh( mx)
(ii) peax cosh(mx)
(iii) peax sinh( mx )  qeax cosh(mx)

291
9 (i ) pxeax (i ) y  kxeax
(ii) px 2 e ax (ii) y  kx 2 e ax
 
(...) px n e ax (...) y  kx n e ax

NOTE; If the particular integral part is contained in the complimentary part

solution, keep on multiplying by x to make it uncontained.

Example 33
Find the general solution of the following D.E
(a) y   3 y   2 y  x  1 (b) y   2 y   y  x  2 (c) y   2 y   2 y  e
2 x

Solution
(a) y   3 y   2 y  x  1.......... .......... .......... ......( i )
Consider complimentary part
y   3 y   2 y  0
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  3m  2  0
m  1, m  2
Let   1,   2
From general solution of D.E with two distinct roots
y  Aex  Be x
 yc. f  Ae x  Be 2 x Complimentary solution
Also consider Particular Integral Part
y  Cx  D.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
y   C.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( iii)
y   0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iv)
Substitute equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
0  3C  2Cx  D   x  1
Equate L.H.S and R.H.S to obtain the values of C and D
C  1 2 and D  1 4
 y P.I  1 2 x  1 4  Particular Integral Solution
Therefore, y  yc. f  y P.I General Solution
 y  Ae x  Be 2 x  1 2 x  1 4

292
(b) y  2 y  y  x 2  2.......... .......... .......... ......( i )
Consider complimentary part
y  2 y  y  0
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  2m  1  0
m 1
Let     p  1
From general solution of D.E with two equal roots
y   Ax  B e px
 yc. f   Ax  B e x Complimentary solution
Also consider Particular Integral Part
y  Cx 2  Dx  H .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
y  2Cx  D.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iii)
y  2C.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iv)
Substitute equations (ii),(iii) and (iv) into equaton (i)

2C  22Cx  D   Cx 2  Dx  H  x 2  2 
Equate L.H.S and R.H.S
C  1, D  4 and H  8
 y P. I  x 2  4 x  8
Therefore; y  yC .F  y P.I
 y   Ax  B e x  x 2  4 x  8

293
(c) y   2 y   2 y  e  x .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
Consider complimentary part
y   2 y   2 y  0
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  2m  2  0
2  4  8 2   4 2  2i
m    1 i
2 2 2
Let p  1, q  1
From general solution of D.E with complex roots
y   A cos qx  B sin qxe px
 yc. f   A cos x  B sin x e x Complimentary solution
Also consider Particular Integral Part
y  ke x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
y   ke x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( iii)
y   ke x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iv)
Substitute equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
ke x  2ke x  2ke x  e  x
Equate L.H.S and R.H.S to obtain the value k
k  15
 Particular Integral Solution
 y P.I  1 5 e  x
Therefore, y  yc. f  y P.I General Solution
 y   A cos x  B sin x e x  1 5 e  x

Example 34
Solve the following D.E
(a) y   3 y   10 y  cos x
(b) y   y   20 y  sinh x
(c) y   4 y  cos x  sin x
Solution

294
(a) y   3 y   10 y  cos x.......... .......... .......... ......( i )
Consider complimentary part
y   3 y   10 y  0
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  3m  10  0
m  5, m  2
Let   5,   2
From general solution of D.E with two distinct roots
y  Aex  Be x
 yc. f  Ae 5 x  Be 2 x Complimentary solution
Also consider Particular Integral Part
y  C cos x  D sin x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
y   C sin x  D cos x.......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iii)
y   C cos x  D sin x.......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iv)
Substitute equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
 C cos x  D sin x   3 C sin x  D cos x   10C cos x  D sin x   cos x
 11C  3D cos x   3C  11D sin x  cos x
Equate L.H.S and R.H.S to obtain the values of C and D
 11C  3D  1

 3C  11D  0
C   11130 and D  3130
 y P.I   130
11
cos x  130
3
sin x  Particular Integral Solution
Therefore, y  yc. f  y P.I General Solution
 y  Ae 5 x  Be 2 x  130
11
cos x  130
3
sin x

295
(b) y  y  20 y  sinh x.......... .......... .......... ......( i )
Consider complimentary part
y  y  20 y  0
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  m  20  0
m  5, m  4
Let   5,   4
From general solution of D.E with two distinct roots
y  Aex  Be x
 yc. f  Ae 5 x  Be 4 x Complimentary solution
Also consider Particular Integral Part
y  C sinh x  D cosh x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
y   C sinh x  D cosh x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iii)
y   C sinh x  D cosh x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (iv)
Substitute equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
C sinh x  D cosh x   C sinh x  D cosh x   20C sinh x  D cosh x   sinh x
 18C sinh x  18D cosh x  sinh x
Equate L.H.S and R.H.S to obtain the values of C and D
 18C  1

 18D  0
C   181 and D  0
 y P.I   181 sinh x  Particular Integral Solution
Therefore, y  yc. f  y P.I General Solution
 y  Ae 5 x  Be 4 x  181 sinh x

296
(c) y   4 y  cos x  sin x.......... .......... .......... ......( i )
Consider complimentary part
y   4 y  0
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m2  4  0
m  2, m  2
Let   2,   2
From general solution of D.E with two distinct roots
y  Ae x  Be x
 y c. f  Ae  2 x  Be 2 x Complimentary solution
Also consider Particular Integral Part
y  C cos x  D sin x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
y   C sin x  D cos x.......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iii)
y   C cos x  D sin x.......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iv)
Substitute equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
 C cos x  D sin x   4C cos x  D sin x   cos x  sin x
 5C cos x  5 D sin x  cos x  sin x
Equate L.H.S and R.H.S to obtain the values of C and D
 5C  1

 5 D  1
C   15 and D   15
 y P. I   15 cos x  15 sin x  Particular Integral Solution
Therefore, y  y c. f  y P. I General Solution
 y  Ae  2 x  Be 2 x  15 cos x  15 sin x

Example 35
Find the general solution of the following D.E
(a) y   y  e
x

(b) y   2 y   y  6e x
(c) y   2 y   2 y  cos x
Solution

297
(a) y   y  e x .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
Consider complimentary part
y   y  0
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m2 1  0
m  1, m  1
Let   1,   1
From general solution of D.E with two distinct roots
y  Aex  Be x
 yc. f  Ae  x  Be x Complimentary solution
Also consider Particular Integral Part, since e x is contained then,
y  kxex .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
y   kxex  ke x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( iii)
y   kxex  2ke x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iv)
Substitute equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
kxex  2ke x  kxex  e x
2ke x  e x
Equate L.H.S and R.H.S to obtain the value k
k 1
2

 Particular Integral Solution

 y P.I  12 xe x
Therefore, y  yc. f  y P.I General Solution
 y  Ae  x  Be x  12 xe x

298
(b) y   2 y   y  6e x .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
Consider complimentary part
y   2 y   y  0
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  2m  1  0
m 1
Let     p  1
From general solution of D.E with two distinct roots
y   Ax  B e px
 yc. f   Ax  B e x Complimentary solution
Also consider Particular Integral Part, since e x and xe x is contained then,
y  kx 2 e x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)
y   kx 2 e x  2kxex .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( iii)
y   kx 2 e x  4kxex  2ke x .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iv)
Substitute equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
kx e
2 x
 
 4kxex  2ke x  2 kx 2 e x  2kxex  kx 2 e x  6e x 
2ke x  6e x
Equate L.H.S and R.H.S to obtain the value k
k 3
 y P.I  3 x 2 e x  Particular Integral Solution
Therefore, y  yc. f  y P.I General Solution
 y   Ax  B e x  3 x 2 e x

299
(c) y  2 y  2 y  cos x.......... .......... .......... ......( i )
Consider complimentary part
y  2 y  2 y  0
Write its Auxilliary Quadratic Equation (A.Q.E)
m 2  2m  2  0
 2  4  8  2   4  2  2i
m    1  i
2 2 2
Let p  1, q  1
From general solution of D.E with complex roots
y   A cos qx  B sin qxe px
 yc. f   A cos x  B sin x e  x Complimentary solution
Also consider Particular Integral Part
y  A cos x  B sin x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
y    A sin x  B cos x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( iii)
y    A cos x  B sin x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iv)
Substitute equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) into equation (i)
 A cos x  B sin x   2 A sin x  B cos x   2 A cos x  B sin x   cos x
 A  2 B cos x   2 A  B sin x  cos x
Equate L.H.S and R.H.S to obtain the values of A and B
 A  2B  1

 2 A  B  0
 A  15 , B  2
5

y P. I  15 cos x  52 sin x  Particular Integral Solution

Therefore, y  y c. f  y P. I General Solution
 y   A cos x  B sin x e  x  15 cos x  52 sin x

300
Example 36
2
Solve d 2y  3 dy  2 y  cosh 4 x  sinh 4 x
dx dx
Solution
d2y dy
 3  2 y  cosh 4 x  sinh 4 x.......... .......... ....( i )
dx 2 dx
Consider the Complimentary Function Part
d2y dy
3  2y  0
dx 2 dx
Write the A.Q.E
m 2  3m  2  0
m  1, m  2
  1,   2
From, y  Aex  Be x
 yc. f  Ae x  Be 2 x
Consider the Particular Integral Part
y  A cosh 4 x  B sinh 4 x
y   4 A sinh 4 x  4 B cosh 4 x
y   16 A cosh 4 x  16B sinh 4 x
Substitute y, y  and y  into equation (i)
16 A cosh 4 x  16B sinh 4 x  34 A sinh 4 x  4 B cosh 4 x   2 A cosh 4 x  B sinh 4 x   cosh 4 x  sinh 4 x
Equate L.H.S and R.H.S
18 A  12B  1

 12 A  18B  1
A  16 , B  16
y P.I  16 cosh 4 x  16 sinh 4 x
The general solution, y  yc. f  y P.I
 y  Ae x  Be 2 x  16 cosh 4 x  16 sinh 4 x

Example 37
Find the solution of d2y
7
dy
 10 y  40 x  2  0 , given that x  0 ,
dx 2 dx
y  6  0 and dy  13 .
dx
Solution

301
d2y dy
2
 7  10 y  40x  2  0
dx dx
d2y dy
 7  10 y  40x  2.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
dx 2 dx
Consider Complimentary Part
d2y dy
 7  10 y  0
dx 2 dx
Write its A.Q.E
m 2  7m  10  0
m  5, m  2
Let   5,   2
From general solution with two distinct roots, y  Aex  Be x
 yc. f  Ae 5 x  Be 2 x
Consider Particular Integral Part
y  Cx  D
y  C
y   0
Substitute y, y  and y  into equation (i)
0  7C  10Cx  D   40x  2
Equate then solve
10C  40

 7C  10D  2
C  4, D  3
 y P. I  4 x  3
Therefore the general solution is given as, y  yc. f  y P.I
 y  Ae 5 x  Be 2 x  4 x  3.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( ii)
But given initial condition x  0, y  6  0 and dy
dx  13
6  A B 3
A  B  3.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)
dy
 5 Ae 5 x  2 Be 2 x  4
dx
13  5 A  2 B  4
5 A  2 B  9.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( iv)
Solve equation (iii) and (iv) simulteneously
A  B  3

5 A  2 B  9
A  1, B  2
Substitute the values of A and B into equation (ii)
 y  e 5 x  2e 2 x  4 x  3

302
Example 38
d2y dy
Solve the differential equation 2
 3  2 y  e2x
dx dx
Solution
d2y dy
2
 3  2 y  e 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( i )
dx dx
Consider the Complimentary Part
d2y dy
2
3  2y  0
dx dx
Write its A.Q.E
m 2  3m  2  0
m  2, m  1
From, y  Aex  Be x
 yc. f  Ae x  Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( ii)
Consider the Particular Integral Part, in which e 2 x is contained
y  kxe2 x
y   2kxe2 x  ke2 x
y   4kxe2 x  4ke2 x
Substitute y, y  and y  into equation (i)
4kxe 2x
 4ke2 x   32kxe2 x  ke2 x   2kxe2 x  e 2 x
4kxe 2x
 4ke2 x   6kxe2 x  3ke2 x   2kxe2 x  e 2 x
ke2 x  e 2 x
k 1
 y P.I  xe2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iii)
General solution y  yc. f  y P.I  Ae x  Be 2 x  xe2 x
 y  Ae x  Be 2 x  xe2 x

303
5.3 SUPERPOSITION DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
d2y dy
Are Differential Equation of the form a 2
 b  cy  f ( x)  g ( x) where
dx dx
f ( x) and g ( x) are different functions or same functions of different size.

Procedures

d2y dy
Consider the Differential Equation a 2
 b  cy  f ( x)  g ( x) subdivide
dx dx
the particular integral part as follows;

d2y dy
(a) a 2
 b  cy  f ( x)......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
dx dx
2
d y dy
(b) a 2  b  cy  g ( x)......... .......... .......... .......... ...(ii)
dx dx

Solve equation (i) and equation (ii) and then combine the solutions together

i.e. y  yC.F  yP.I where yP.I  yP.I1  yP.I2

Example 39

(a) y   8 y   16 y  8 sin 2 x  3e 4 x
(b) y   4 y  8 x 2  2e 3 x
(c) y   4 y  sin 2 x  3 cos3 x
(d) y   y   2 y  x  e x

Solution

304
( a ) y   8 y   16 y  8 sin 2 x  3e 4 x .......... .......... .......... .(i )
Consider complimentary part
y   8 y   16 y  0
Write its A.Q.E
m 2  8m  16  0
m4 p
From, y  ( Ax  B )e Px
 y c. f  ( Ax  B )e 4 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
Consider particular part
y P. I  8 sin 2 x  3e 4 x
By superposition method
y   8 y   16 y  8 sin 2 x.......... .......... .......... .......... .(iii)
y   8 y   16 y  3e 4 x .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( iv)
Consider equation (iii), y   8 y   16 y  8 sin 2 x
Its particular part
y1  A sin 2 x  B cos 2 x
y1  2 A cos 2 x  2 B sin 2 x
y1  4 A sin 2 x  4 B cos 2 x
Substitute y1 , y1 and y1 into equation (iii)
  4 A sin 2 x  4 B cos 2 x   82 A cos 2 x  2 B sin 2 x   16 A sin 2 x  B cos 2 x   8 sin 2 x
Equate the coefficients of sin 2 x and cos 2 x
12 A
12  16
A16 BB 8 8

16 A
16  12
A12 BB0
A   76 , B  8
7

 y1  87 cos 2 x  76 sin 2 x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..( v)

Also consider equation (iv), y   8 y   16 y  3e 4 x
Since e 4 x and xe4 x is contained in a complimentary function solution, let
y 2  kx 2 e 4 x
y 2  4kx 2 e 4 x  2kxe4 x
y 2  16kx 2 e 4 x  16kxe4 x  2ke4 x
Substitute y 2 , y 2 and y 2 into equation (iv)
 
16kx 2 e 4 x  16kxe4 x  2ke4 x  8 4kx 2 e 4 x  2kxe4 x  16kx 2 e 4 x  3e 4 x
2ke 4x
 3e 4x

k 3
2

 y 2  32 x 2 e 4 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( vi)

General particular integral, y P. I  y1  y 2  87 cos 2 x  76 sin 2 x  32 x 2 e 4 x
General solution, y  y c. f  y P. I  ( Ax  B )e 4 x  87 cos 2 x  76 sin 2 x  32 x 2 e 4 x
 y  ( Ax  B )e 4 x  87 cos 2 x  76 sin 2 x  32 x 2 e 4 x
305
(b) y   4 y  8 x 2  2e 3 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
Consider complimentary part
y   4 y  0
Write its A.Q.E
m2  4  0
m  2, m  2
 y c. f  Ae  2 x  Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( ii)
Consider particular part
y P. I  8 x 2  2e 3 x
By superposition method
y   4 y  8 x 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( iii)
y   4 y  2e 3 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( iv)
Consider equation (iii), y   4 y  8 x 2
Its particular part
y1  ax 2  bx  c
y1  2ax  b
y1  2a
Substitute y1 , y1 and y1 into equation (iii)
2a  4(ax 2  bx  c)  8 x 2
Equate the coefficients
44aa88

44bb00
2 a  4 a  0
 2a  4c  0
a  2, b  0, c  1
 y1  2 x 2  1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( v)
Also consider equation (iv), y   4 y  2e 3 x
Its particular integral part
y 2  ke3 x
y 2  3ke3 x
y 2  9ke3 x
Substitute y 2 , y 2 and y 2 into equation (iv)
9ke3 x  4ke3 x  2e 3 x
k 2
5

 y 2  52 e 3 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..( vi)
General particular integral, y P. I  y1  y 2  2 x 2  1  52 e 3 x
General solution, y  y c. f  y P. I  Ae  2 x  Be 2 x  2 x 2  1  52 e 3 x
 y  Ae  2 x  Be 2 x  2 x 2  1  52 e 3 x
306
5.4 EXACTNESS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Are differential equations of the form Mdx  Ndy  0 where M and N are
f ( x, y )

How to check Exactness of D.E

M N
Exactness D.E are equations which satisfy 
y x

How to solve Exactness D.E

From Mdx  Ndy  0 apply integral both sides

 Mdx   Ndy  0 use the hints below to solve this D.E

 Partial integral of M w.r.t x
 Integrate terms which does not contain x

Example 40
Solve the following D.E,
(a) ( y 3  6 xy 2 )dx  (3xy 2  6 x 2 y )dy  0
dy  2 xy 3  2
(b) 
dx 3x 2 y 2  e y
(c) (2 y 2  ye xy )dx  (4 xy  xe xy  2 y )dy  0
dy
(d) y  e x  x 0
dx
dy
(e) (cos y )e x cos y  ( x sin y )e x cos y 0
dx

Solution

307
(a ) ( y 3  6 xy 2 )dx  (3xy 2  6 x 2 y )dy  0
The given equation is in the form of Mdx  Ndy  0
M N
If its an Exactness D.E must satisfy 
y x
M
Let M  y 3  6 xy 2 ,  3 y 2  12xy
y
N
N  3 xy 2  6 x 2 y  3 y 2  12xy
x
M N
Since   3 y 2  12xy its an exactness D.
y x

Then integrate  Mdx   Ndy  0

(y  6 xy 2 ) dx   0dy  0
3

 xy 3  3 x 2 y 2  c  0

dy  2 xy3  2
(b) 
dx 3x 2 y 2  e y
2 xy  
 2 dx  3x 2 y 2  e y dy  0
3

The given equation is in the form of Mdx  Ndy  0
M N
If its an Exactness D.E must satisfy 
y x
M
Let M  2 xy3  2,  6 xy 2
y

N
N  3x 2 y 2  e y  6 xy 2
x
M N
Since   6 xy 2 its an exactness D.E
y x
Then integrate  Mdx   Ndy  0

 (2 xy  2) dx   e y dy  0
3

 x2 y3  2x  e y  c

308
(c) (2 y 2  ye xy )dx  (4 xy  xe xy  2 y )dy  0
The given equation is in the form of Mdx  Ndy  0
M N
If its an Exactness D.E must satisfy 
y x
M
Let M  2 y 2  ye xy ,  4 y  xyexy  e xy
y
N
N  4 xy  xe xy  2 y,  4 y  xyexy  e xy
x
M N
Since   4 y  xyexy  e xy its an exactness D.E
y x
Then integrate  Mdx   Ndy  0

 (2 y  ye xy )dx   2 ydy  0
2


 y 2 2 x  e xy  1  c 
dy
(d ) y  e x  x 0
dx
 
y  e x dx  xdy  0
The given equation is in the form of Mdx  Ndy  0
M N
If its an Exactness D.E must satisfy 
y x
M
Let M  y  e x , 1
y
N
N  x, 1
x
M N
Since   1 its an exactness D.E
y x
Then integrate  Mdx   Ndy  0

(y  e )dx   ody  0

x

 xy  e x  c

309
(e) cos y e x cos y  x sin y e x cos y
dy
0
dx
   
cos y e x cos y dx  x sin y e x cos y dy  0
The given equation is in the form of Mdx  Ndy  0
M N
If its an Exactness D.E must satisfy 
y x
M
Let M  cos y e x cos y ,  sin y e x cos y  x cos y sin y e x cos y
y
N
N  x sin y e x cos y ,  sin y e x cos y  x cos y sin y e x cos y
x
M N
Since   sin y e x cos y  x cos y sin y e x cos y its an exactness D.E
y x
Then integrate  Mdx   Ndy  0

 cos y e dx   ody  0

x cos y

 
 cos2 y e x cos y  c  0

Example 41

Find the value of  for which the differential ( xy 2  x 2 y )dx  ( x  y ) x 2 dy  0

is exact, then solve the equation for this value of  when y ( 2)  1 .

Solution

310
( xy 2  x 2 y )dx  ( x  y ) x 2 dy  0.......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
M N
Let the equation be Mdx  Ndy  0 if its exact 
y x
M
M  xy 2  x 2 y,  2 xy  x 2
y
N
N  ( x  y) x 2  x 3  x 2 y  3x 2  2 xy
x
M N
But 
y x
2 xy  x 2  3x 2  2 xy
  3
Substitute the value  in equation (i) then solve
( xy 2  3x 2 y )dx  ( x  y ) x 2 dy  0

 ( xy  3x 2 y )dx   (0dy  0
2

1 2 2
x y  x 3 y  C  0 but y (2)  1
2
1 2
(2) (1) 2  (2) 3 (1)  C  0, C  6
2
1 2 2
x y  x3 y  6  0
2
 x 2 y 2  2 x 3 y  12  0

5.5 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Consider the sketch below,

311
The equation which connects the above data is given by x  A sin(wt   )
where x  Angula displacement, A  Amplitude, w  Angula velocity and   Phase difference
Consider x  A sin(wt   )
dx
 Aw cos(wt   )......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
dt
d 2x
  w 2 A sin(wt   )......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
dt 2
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
d 2x
 w2 x
dt 2
d 2x
 w2 x  0
dt 2

Simple harmonic motion D.E d 2x

2
 w2 x  0
dt

NOTE:

From x  A sin(wt   )
dx
 wA cos(wt   )
dt
dx
 wA 1  sin 2 ( wt   )
dt
dx
dt

 w A 2 1  sin 2 ( wt   )
dx
 w A 2  A 2 sin 2 ( wt   )
dt

312
dx
 w A 2  x 2 This is separable D.E
dt
1
 A2  x 2 dx   wdt
-1
 dx  w dt
A  x2
2

x
 cos   wt  
 A
 cos ( wt   )
x
A
x  A cos(wt   )

The general solutions of simple harmonic motion D.E are;

x  A sin(wt   ) x  A cos(wt   )

Example 42

d 2x
Solve the differential equation  36x  0 .
dt 2
Solution

d 2x d 2x
Consider 2  36x  0 compare with 2
 w2 x  0
dt dt
w  36
2

w  6
w6
From x  A sinwt    or x  A coswt   
 x  A sin6t    or x  A cos6t   

313
Alternatively

d 2x
 36x  0
dt 2
m 2  36  0
m 2  36
m  6i
p  0, q  6
From x  e p cos qt  sin qt 
 x  cos 6t  sin 6t

5.6 APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Differential Equations have a remarkable ability to predict the world around us.
They are used in a wide variety of disciplines, from biology, economics,
physics, chemistry and engineering. They can describe exponential growth and
decay, the population growth of species or the change in investment return over
time.
One of the most basic application of differential equation is law of population
growth, this shows how the population changes with respect to time.

Some other uses of differential equations includes

 In Medicine for modelling cancer growth or the spread of disease.
 In Engineering for describing the movement of electricity.
 In Chemistry for modelling chemical reactions and to compute radioactive
half-life.
 In Economics to find optimum investment strategies.
 In Physics to describes the motion of waves, pendulums or chaotic systems.
It is also used in physics with Newton’s Second Law of Motion and the Law
of Cooling.
In Hooke’s Law for modelling the motion of a spring or in representing
models for population growth and money circulation.

314
 (A) RATE OF GROWTH/DECAY
“The rate of population is directly proportional to the number of inhabitants
present per time (t)”
Let N  Number of inhabitant present at the given time .
N 0  Initial population
t  Time taken
dN
 N0
dt
 kN 0 This is separable D.E 
dN
dt
dN
 kdt
N0
Integrate from t 0  0 to t and also N 0 to N
N t
1
N N 0 dN  k t dt
0 0

InN 0 NN  kttt

0 0

InN  InN 0  k t  t 0  but t 0  0

In N N 0   kt
N
N0  e kt

N  N0ekt Or P  P0 e kt where N  P and N 0  P0

Example 43
At the start of an experiment, there are 10 bacteria. If the bacteria follow an
exponential growth pattern with rate k  0.02 , what will be the population after
5 hours?
Solution

315
Initial population P0   10
Growth rate k   0.02
Required population P  after 5 hours
From, P  P0 e kt
P  10e ( 0.025)  11.05  11
 The population of bacteria after 5 hours are 11

Example 44
Suppose that the population of a colony of bacteria increases exponentially. At
the start of an experiment, there 600 bacteria, and one hour later, the population
has increased to 640 . How long will it take for the population to reach 1000?
Solution
Data given
Initial population P0   600
Population after t  1 is 640
From, P  P0 e kt
640  600e k
 16 
k  In 
 15 
Required time t  ?, for population to reach P  1000
P  P0 e kt
 16 
tIn  
1000  600e  15 
In 1000 600 
t  7.915
In 1615 
 The population will reach 1000 after 7.915 hours

316
 (B) NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
The law state that “The rate of change of the temperature of an object is directly
proportional to the difference between its own temperature and surrounding
(ambient) temperature”
Newton’s Law makes a statement about an instantaneous rate of change of the
temperature. We will see that when we translate this verbal statement into a
differential equation, we arrive at a differential equation. The solution to this
equation will then be a function that tracks the complete records of the
temperature over time.
Let   Temperature of hot body
 R  Room temperature
d
    R 
dt
d
 k    R  This is separable D.E 
dt
2 t
1
    R d  k 0 dt
1

In    R  12  kt t0
In  2   R   In 1   R   kt
   
In 2 R   kt
 1   R 
 2   R  1   R e  kt

Example 45
The brewing pot temperature of coffee is 180 C and the room temperature is
70 C . After 5 minutes, the temperature of the coffee is 160 C .
(a) Find an exponential equation to represent this situation.
(b) How long will it take for the coffee to reach a serving temperature of
150 C ?
Solution

317
(a) From, 2   R  1   R e  kt
Initial temperature,1  180
Room temperature, R  70
After t  5 min,  2  160
Now,  2   R  1   R e kt
 2  70  110 e kt
160  70  110 e 5 k
k   15 In 119   0.04
 2  70  110 e 0.04t

(b)How long will it take to reach  2  150

 2  70  110 e 0.04t
150  70  110 e 0.04t
t  7.96
 After 7.96 minutes the coffee temperature reach 150

Example 46
A body initially at 80 c cools to 64 c in 5 min and 52 c in 10 min , what
will be the temperature after 15min and what is the temperature of the
surrounding?
Solution

318
 2   R  1   R e  kt
 2  64 C , 1  80 C in 5 min 2   R  1   R e kt
64   R  80   R e 5 k
64   R
 e 5 k .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
80   R
 2  52 C , 1  80 C in 10 min
52   R  80   R e 10 k
52   R  80   R e 10 k
52   R
80   R
 2

 e 5 k .......... .......... .......... .(ii)

Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)

80   R 52   R   64   R 2
16  4 R
 R  16 C
 The room temperature is 16 C

The temperature after 15 min

64   R
From,  e 5 k
80   R
1  64  16  1 3
k   In    In   0.0575
5  80  16  5 4
Therefore, 2   R  1   R e kt
 1  3 
15  In   
 2  16  64e  5  4 

 34 
 2  16  64e
3 In

 2  43 C
 The temperature after 15 min is 43 C

Example 47
The temperature ' y ' degree of a body, t minutes after being placed in a certain
d 2 y dy
room satisfy the differential equation 6   0 by using substitution
dt 2 dt
dy
z . Find ' y ' in terms of t given that y  63 when t  0 and y  36 when
dt
319
t  6In 4 . Find after how many minutes the rate of cooling of the body will
have fallen below one degree per minute, give your answer correct to the
nearest minute.
Solution
d 2 y dy
6 2   0.......... .......... .....( i )
dt dt
dy dz d 2 y
z , 
dt dt dt 2
6  z  0 This separable D.E 
dz
dt
1
6  dz    dt
z
6 Inz  t  A
t
Inz    B
6
 t   t  t
  B     
ze  6 
e  6
e  Ce
B  6

 t
dy  
 Ce  6
dt
 t
 

 dy  C  e 
6
dt
 t
 
y  6Ce D
 6

When y  63, t  0
63  6C  D.......... .......... .......... ......( i )
When y  36, t  6 In 4
72  3C  2 D.......... .......... .......... ......( ii)
Solve equation (i) and equation (ii) simulteneously
63  6C  D

72  3C  2 D
C  6, D  27
 t
 
Then from y  6Ce  6
D
 t
 
 y  36e  6
 27

320
  t
 
y  36e  6
 27
 t
dy   dy
 6e  6  but is rate of cooling must be negative
dt dt
 t
dy   dy
 6e  6  given that 1
dt dt
 t
  dy
6e  6
 1
dt
 t
 
6e  6
1
1
t  6 In  
6
t  10.75
 The rate of cooling of the body will have fallen below
one degree per minute after 10 minutes

Example 48
According to Newton’s law of cooling, the rate at which the temperature of a
body falls is proportional to the amount by which its temperature exceeds that
of its surrounding, suppose the temperature of an object falls from 200 C to
100 C in 4 minutes in surrounding temperature of 10 C . Prove that, after 't '
minutes the temperature 'T ' degree of the body is given by T  10  190e  kt .
Solution
d
    R 
dt
d
  k    R 
dt
2 t
1
    R d   0 kdt
1

In    R  1
2
  k t 0
t

  R 
In  2    kt
 1   R 
1  200 C  2  100 C in t  4 min and  R  10 C
 100  10 
In    4k
 200  10 
1  9 
k   In  
4  19 

321
Required  2  T after time t
 T  10 
In   kt
 200  10 
T  10  190e kt

Example 49
For a postmortem, a doctor requires to know approximately the time of death of
the diseased. He recorded the first temperature at 10 : 00 a.m to be 93.4  F .
After 2 hours, he finds the temperature to be 91.4  F . If the room temperature
(which is constant) is 72 F . Estimate the time of death, assuming normal
temperature of human body to be 98.04 F
Solution
The first temperature at 10 : 00 a.m 1  93.4  F
After 2 hours, the temperature  2  91.4  F
If room temperature, R  72 F
  R 
From Newton' s Law of Cooling, In 2   kt
 
 1 R 
1   R  1  91.4  72 
k   In 2    In   0.049
t  1   R  2  93.4  72 
Estimate the time of death when  2  98.04 F
1   R  1  98.04  72 
t   In 2    In   4hrs
k  1   R  0.049  93.4  72 
t  4hrs
The time of death  10 : 00 a.m  (4hrs)  6 : 00 a.m
 The approximate time of death is 6 : 00 a.m

Example 50
Just before midday the body on an apparent homicide victim is found in a room
that is kept at a constant temperature of 70 F . At 12 : 00 noon the temperature
of a body is 80 F and at 1 : 00 pm it is 75 F . Assume that the temperature of
the body at the time of death was 98.6  F and that it has cooled in accordance
with Newton’s law of cooling. What was the time of death?
Solution
322
Room temperature R   70 F
At 12 : 00 noon the temperature of a body is 1  80 F
At 1 : 00 pm the temperature of a body is  2  75 F
Time taken for a body to cool from 80 F to 75 F is one hour
  R 
From, In  2   kt
 1   R 
 75  70 
In   k 1
 80  70 
k   In  1 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( i )
We need time when  3  98.6  F
   
From, In 3 R   kt
 1   R 
 98.6  70 
In    In 12 t
 80  70 
t  1.516  1.5 hrs death time was 1 : 30hrs before noon
Time required  12 : 00 a.m  1 : 30  10 : 30a.m
 The time of death was 10 : 30a.m

Example 51
Suppose the initial temperature of the body was Q1 and after time, 't ' the
temperature of the body is Q2 . Prove that T  A  Be  kt , where T is the
temperature of the body after time 't ' , A is the temperature of the surrounding
(constant) and B is the temperature difference between the body and the
surrounding.
Solution
From Newton' s law of cooling;
d
    R 
dt
d
 k    R 
dt
2 t
1
    R d  0 kdt
1

323
 In   R   ktt0
2
1

In  2   R   In 1   R   kt
  R 
In 2   kt
 1   R 
2  R
 e kt
1   R
 2   R  1   R e kt
 2   R  1   R e kt
But  2  T temperature after time ' t '
 R  A surrounding temperature
1   R  B temperature difference
 T  A  Be kt

(C) BRINE SOLUTION

Brine solution is a solution which contains solute (salt) and solvent (water).
Consider the figure below which contains x amount of salt present in the
volume (V) at time 't '.
Consider the sketch below which show brine solution experiment

324
Let x be amount of solute (salt) present
dx
 rate amount of solute (salt) present
dt
x
 amount of solute (salt) present in a given volu me
v
dx x

dt v
dx x
a
dt v
x2 t
1 a
x xdx   v 0 dt
1

x  a
In 2    t
 x1  v
a
  t
 x2  x1e v
a
  t
x2  x1e v

Brine solution formula

where x1  initial amout of solute
x2  amout solute present after time" t"

Example 52
There 100 litres of brine in a tank containing 70kg of dissolved salt. Fresh
water runs in the tank at a rate of 3 litres per minute , the mixture is kept
uniform and runs out at the same rate. How many kilogram of salt are there in
the tank at the end of one hour. Find time for the amount of salt to reduce to
10kg .
Solution

325
Let x be amount of solute (salt) present
dx
 rate amount of solute (salt) present
dt
v  100 litres
x1  70kg
dx
 a  3litres / min
dt
x2  ? after 1hr  60 min
x  a
From In 2    t
 x1  v
a  3 
  t   60
x2  x1e v
 70e  1000 
 58.47kg
 58.47kg are there in the tank at the end of 1hr.

t  ? when x2  10kg
 3 
 t
10  70e  1000 
t  10.8hrs
 The amount of salt will reduce to 10kg after 10.8hrs

Example 53
There 10 litres of brine in a tank containing 7 kg of dissolved salt. Fresh water
runs in the tank at a rate of 3 litres per minute , the mixture is kept uniform and
runs out at the same rate. How many kilogram of salt are there in the tank at the
end of one hour
Solution
Let x be amount of salt present
dx
 rate of salt present
dt
v  100 litres, x1  7 kg
x2  ? after 1hr  60 min
x  a
From In  2    t
 x1  v
a  3 
  t   60
x2  x1e v
 7e  100 
 1.157
1.157kg of salt remain after one hour.

326
 (D) RATE OF CHANGE
A rate of change is a rate that describes how one quantity changes in relation to
another quantity.
To measure a reaction rate, we usually monitor either a product or a reactant for
its change. Any physical characteristic related to the quantity or concentration
of a product or reactant can be monitored.

Example 54
The volume of solid cube increases uniformly at k 3 m 3 / sec . Find an expression
for the rate of increase of its surface area when the area of the face is b 2 square
meters.
Solution
 dV 
Rate of volume    k m sec
3 3

 dt 
Face area  b 2 m 2
 dA 
Required rate of area  
 dt 
Let b  Length  width  height of a cube
From, Volume V   b 3
dV db dV
 3b 2  k 3 m sec
3
but
dt dt dt
db
k 3  3b 2
dt
3
db k m
 sec .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
dt 3b 2
Total cube faces area  A  6b 2
dA db
 12b .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
dt dt
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
dA  k3 
 12b 2 
dt  3b 
dA 4k 3
  m2
sec
dt b

327
GENERAL EXAMPLES
Example 55

d2y
Solve  8x  3
dx 2

Solution

d2y
 8x  3
dx 2
d  dy 
   8x  3
dx  dx 
 dy 
d   8 x  3dx
 dx 
 dy 
 d  dx    8 x  3dx
dy
 4 x 2  3x  A
dx
 dy   4 x  3 x  A dx 
2

4 3 3 2
y  x  x  Ax  B
3 2

Example 56

Solve ydy  (1  y 2  x 2 )dx  0

Solution

ydy  (1  y 2  x 2 )dx  0
dy
dx
 
 y  1  x 2 y 1 This is Bernoulli's D.E .......... .......... .......( i )

dz dy dy 1 dz
Let z  y1 n , z  y 2 ,  2y ,  .......... .......... .(ii)
dx dx dx 2 y dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
1 dz
2 y dx

 y  1  x 2 y 1 
dz
dx
 2 y2  2 1 x2  
dz
dx
 
 2 z  2 1  x 2 This is Integrating Factor D.E .......... ........( iii)

328
I .F  e   e
Pdx 2 dx
 e2x

e2x
dz
dx

 2 ze 2 x  2 1  x 2 e 2 x  This is an Exact D.E 
d
dx
   
ze 2 x  2 1  x 2 e 2 x

 d ze   2 1  x e
2x 2 2x
dx

ze 2 x  2  e 2 x dx   x 2 e 2 x dx 
ze 2 x  2e 2 x  x 2 e 2 x  xe2 x  2C
z  2  x 2  x  2Ce  2 x
 y 2  2  x 2  x  2Ce 2 x

Example 57

Given that dy 3 x 2  4 x  4 at y (1)  3 , show that


dx 2y  4
y ( x)  2  x3  2x 2  4x  2

Solution
dy 3 x 2  4 x  4
 This is separable D.E 
dx 2y  4

 2 y  4dy   3x  4 x  4 dx

2

y  4 y  x  2x  4x  C
2 3 2

At y (1)  3 this implies that x  1, y  3

3 2  4(3)  13  2(1) 2  4(1)  C
C  2
y 2  4 y  x3  2x2  4x  2
 y  2 2  4  x 3  2 x 2  4 x  2
 y  2 2  x 3  2 x 2  4 x  2
y2 x3  2x 2  4x  2
 y ( x)  2  x3  2x 2  4x  2

Example 58
2
Show that the general solution of equation 9 d 2x  6 dx  x  50 sin t can be
dt dt
1
 t 4
expressed in form x  ( At  B)e 3
 5 cos(t   ) where tan   .
3
Solution

329
 d 2x dx
9 2
6  x  50 sin t.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( i )
dt dt
Consider complimentary part
d 2x dx
9 2
6 x0
dt dt
Write its A.Q.E
9m 2  6m  1  0
1
m  p
3
From, x   At  B e pt
xc. f   At  B e
 13 t
.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
Consider Particular Integral Part
x  A cost  B sin t
x   A sin t  B cost
x   A cost  B sin t
Substitute x, x and x into equation (i)
9 A cost  B sin t   6 A sin t  B cost   A cost  B sin t  50 sin t
Equate coeficientof cost and sin t
4 A  3B  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iii)
3 A  4 B  25.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( iv)
Solve equations (iii) and (iv) simulteneously
4 A  3 B  0

3 A  4 B  25
A  3, B  4
 x P. I  3 cost  4 sin t.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( v)
Consider equation (v) express x P. I  3 cost  4 sin t in the form R cost   
3 cost  4 sin t  R cost   
3 cost  4 sin t  R cost cos  R sin t sin 
Equate coefficient of cost and sin t
4  R sin  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( vi)
3  R cos .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( vii)
Divide equation (vi) by equation (vii)
4
tan  
3
Square equation (vi) and (vii) then add

25  R 2 sin 2   cos2  
R  25
2

R5
330
Therefore, x P. I  3 cost  4 sin t  5 cost    where tan  
4
3
 The general solution is x   At  B e  5 cost    where tan  
 13 t 4
3

Example 59
Solve the D.E, x dy  y  4 xy , given that y (e)  9e .
dx
Solution
dy
x  y  4 xy , y (e)  9e (This is homogeneous D.E)...... .......... .....(i)
dx
dy du
Let y  ux, ux .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
 du 
x u  x   ux  4 ux
2

 dx 
 du 
x u  x   ux  4 x u
 dx 
du
ux u4 u
dx
du
x 4 u
dx
1 4
du  dx
u x
1 1
 u 2 du  4 x dx
2 u  4 InAx
   2 InAx
y
x

y  4 xInAx 
2

y  4 xInA  Inx  but y (e)  9e

2

9e  4eInA  Ine
2

 InA  Ine
9 2

4
3
 InA  Ine
2
3
 InA  1
2
1
InA 
2
2
1 
 y  4 x   Inx 
 2 

331
Example 60
Given that x  B cos(wt   ) , form a D.E in which w is a parameter not to be
eliminated.
Solution
x  B cos(wt   )
dx
  Bw sin( wt   )
dt
d 2x
  Bw 2 cos(wt   )
dt 2
d 2x
  w 2 B cos(wt   )
dt 2
d 2x
 w2 x
dt 2
d 2x
 2  w2 x  0
dt

Example 61
Solve y   3 y   2 y  60e 2 x cos3x
Solution
y   3 y   2 y  60e 2 x cos3x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
Consider complimentary part
y   3 y   2 y  0
Write its A.Q.E
m 2 -3m  2  0
m  1, m  2
 yc. f  Ae x  Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)
Consider Particular Integral
y  Ae 2 x cos3x  Be 2 x sin 3x
y   2 Ae 2 x cos3x  3 Ae 2 x sin 3x  2 Be 2 x sin 3x  3Be 2 x cos3x
y    5 A  12B e 2 x cos3x  12 A  5B e 2 x sin 3x
Substitute y, y  and y  into equation (i)
 5 A  12B e 2 x cos3x  12 A  5B e 2 x sin 3x  32 Ae 2 x cos3x  3 Ae 2 x sin 3x  2 Be 2 x sin 3x  3Be 2 x cos3x 
 2Ae 2 x cos3x  Be 2 x sin 3x   60e 2 x cos3x
Equate coefficients of e 2 x cos3x and e 2 x sin 3x
 3 A  B  20

7 A  3B  0
A  30, B  70
 y P. I  30e 2 x cos3x  70e 2 x sin 3x.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(iii)
General solution, y  yc. f  y P.I  Ae x  Be 2 x  30e 2 x cos3x  70e 2 x sin 3x
 y  Ae x  Be 2 x  30e 2 x cos3x  70e 2 x sin 3x

332
Example 62
Solve the differential equation dy  x  y  1x  y 1dx .
Solution
Given that dy  x  y  1 x  y  1dx

  x  y  1x  y  1.......... .......... .......... .......( i )

dy
dx
dz dy dy dz
Let z  x  y,  1 ,   1.......... ....( ii)
dx dx dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)

 1   z  1 z  1
dz
dx
dz
1  z 2 1
dx
dz dz
 z 2 , 2  dx
dx z

z dz   dx
2

 z 1  x  c
1
z but z  x  y
xc
1
x y 
xc
  x  y x  c   1  0

Example 63
Determine the differential equations whose set of independent solutions is
e , xe , x e  .
x x 2 x

Solution

333
Let
y1  e x
y2  xe x
y3  x 2 e x
Now, y  y1  y2  y3  e x  xe x  x 2 e x
y  ae x  bxex  bx2 e x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
y  a  b e x  b  2c xe x  cx 2 e x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
y  a  2b  2c e x  b  4c xe x  cx 2 e x .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iii)
y  a  3b  6c e x  b  6c xe x  cx 2 e x .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iv)
Subtract equation (ii) from equation (iii)
y  y  b  2c e x  2cxe x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( v)
Multiply equation (v) then subtract from equation (iv)
y  3 y  y  ae x  bxex  cx 2 e x but ae x  bxex  cx 2 e x  y
y  3 y  y  y
 y  3 y  3 y  y  0

Example 64
dy y 1
Find the general solution of the D.E Inx   .
dx x  x  1 x  2 
Solution
dy y 1
Inx  
dx x  x  1 x  2 
d
 yInx  1
dx x  1x  2
d  yInx 
1
dx
x  1x  2
 d  yInx   x  1x  2 dx Express in partial fractions then integrate
1

1 1
yInx   dx   dx
x 1 x2
yInx  In x  1  In  x  2   c
 x 1 
 yInx  In  c
 x 2

334
Example 65
Form a D.E which represent the family of the curve x 2  y 2   2 xy
dy
0
dx
Solution

x 2
 y 2   2 xy
dy
dx
0

dy  y 2  x 2  1  y x
    .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
dx  2 xy  2  x y 
y dy du
Let y  ux, u  ,  u  x .......... .......... ..(ii)
x dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
du 1  1
ux  u  
dx 2  u
du u 1  u 2 1
x     
dx 2 2u  2 u 
2u 1
u 1
du    dx
2
x
In u  1   In  Ax 
2

In u 2  1  In  Ax 
1

1 y
u 2 1  but u 
Ax x
2
 y 1
  1 
x Ax
2
y 1
2
1 
x Ax
x
 y2  x2 
A

Example 66
Form a D.E which represent the family of the curve x 2  y 2   2 xy
dy
0
dx
Solution

335
x 2

 y 2  2 xy
dy
dx
0

x 2
 y2 dx  2 xydy  0 compare with Mdx  Ndy  0
M N
If its exact D.E then 
y x
M
M  x2  y2 ,  2y
y
N
N  2 xy,  2y
x
M N
Since  the D.E is exact
y x

 x 
 y 2 dx  0
2

x3
 y2x  c  0
3
 x 3  3 y 2 x  3c  0

Alternative
x 2 dy

 y 2  2 xy
dx
0

dy  x2  y2  1 x y
       .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
dx  2 xy  2 y x
y dy du
Let y  ux, u  , ux .......... .......... ..(ii)
x dx dx
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
du 11  1 u
ux    u   
dx 2u  2u 2
du 3u 1  3u 2  1 
x     
dx 2 2u  2u 
2u 1
 3u 2  1 du    x dx
1
3
 
In u 2  1   In  Ax 

In 3
u
 1  In  Ax 
2 1

3
u  1  Ax
2 1
but u 
y
x
336
 2 3
 y  1 
  1   
x  Ax 
y2 1
2
1  3
x Bx
 y x  x3  D
2

Example 67
Determine whether the equation cos y  y cos x dx  sin x  x sin y dy  0 is
exact. If it is, solve the equation.
Solution
cos y  y cos x dx  sin x  x sin y dy  0 compare with Mdx  Ndy  0
M N
If its exact D.E then 
y x
M
M  cos y  y cos x,  cos x  sin y
y
N
N  sin x  x sin y,  cos x  sin y
x
M N
Since  the D.E is exact
y x

 cos y  y cos x dx   sin xdy  0

 x cos y  y sin x  y sin x  c

REVISION EXERCISE 5:1

1. Solve the following D.E;
a) xdy  ydx
b) cos(x  y )dx  sin ydy  cos(x  y )dx
dy 1 y2
c) 
dx 1 x2
 x  y 
dy 2
d)
dx
dy
e)  tan 2 ( x  y )
dx
dy
f)  tan( y  x)  1
dx

337
 dy x  y  1
g) 
dx x  y  1
2
 dy   dy 
h)    5   6  0
 dx   dx 
2
 dy   dy 
i) x 2    3xy   2 y 2  0
 dx   dx 
2. Solve the following D.E;
dy
a) xy  x2  y2
dx
dy x  y
b) 
dx x  y
dy
c) x  y x2  y2
dx
d) xdy  ydx  x 2  y 2 dx
dy
e) x  y ( Iny  Inx  1)
dx
dy
f) x 2  xy  y 2
dx
dy
g) ( x 2  y 2 )  2 xy
dx
dy
h) y  2 x  y
dx
dy
i) x 2  x2  y2
dx

3. Solve the following D.E;

dy x  y  1
a) 
dx x  y  1
dy x  y  2
b) 
dx x y
dy x  y  2
c) 
dx x  y  4

4. Solve the following D.E;

dy
a) x 2  2 xy  cos x
dx

338
 dy y
b)   x sec2 x
dx x
dy 1
c) y 2  2 xy  2
dx x
dy
d) x  2 y  x 2
dx

5. Solve the following D.E;

dy
a)  2y  ex
dx
dy
b) sin x  y  sin 2 x
dx
dy
c)  2 y cot x  cos ec 2 x
dx
dy 2
d) xInx  y  Inx
dx x
dy
e)  y tan x  2 x  x 2 tan x
dx
f) ydx  ( x  2 y 2 )dy  0

6. Solve the following D.E;

dy
a)  2 y  xy 2
dx
dy
b)  y  xy 3
dx
c) ( x  y 3 )dy  ydx  0

7. Solve the following D.E;

d2y dy
a) x
2
2
 2x  0
dx dx
2
d2y  dy 
b)  2 
 dx 
2
dx
2
d 2 y  dy 
c) y 2     0
dx  dx 

8. Solve the following D.E;

d2y dy
a) 2
 3  2y  0
dx dx
339
 b) y   2 y   15 y  0
d 2 x dx
c)  5  6x  0
dt 2 dt

9. Solve the following D.E;

a) y   4 y   4 y  0
b) y   2 y   y  0
c) y   2 y   y  0

10. Solve the following D.E;

a) y   6 y   10 y  0
b) y   9 y  0
c) y   2 y   2 y  0
d) y   4 y   13 y  0

11. Solve the following D.E;

a) y   4 y   4 y  5
b) y   3 y   2 y  2 x  3
c) y   4 y   4 y  5 x  10
d) y   3 y   4 y  x 2
e) y   2 y   y  5 sin 2 x
f) y   2 y   y  2 sinh x
g) y   3 y   2 y  3 cosh 2 x
h) y   3 y   2 y  e 4 x
i) y   3 y   2 y  e 2 x
j) y   4 y   4 y  e 3 x
k) y   4 y   4 y  e 2 x
l) y   4 y   4 y  xe2 x
m) y   4 y   4 y  x 2 e 2 x
n) y   3 y   2 y  cosh x  sinh x
o) y   3 y   2 y  cosh 4 x  sinh 4 x
12. Form the differential equations of the following curves;
a) y  Ae 2 x  Be 2 x
b) y  Ae x  Be 2 x
c) y   A cos x  B sin x e 3 x
d) y  A cos3 x  B sin 3 x
e) y   A cos x  B sin x e  x
340
 f) y   A cos x  B sin x e 2 x
g) y   Ax  B e 2 x
h) y   Ax  B e x
i) y   Ax  B e  x

y   Ax  B e 2 x 
5
j)
4
k) y  Ae x  Be 2 x  x  3
3 4
l) y  e x ( Ax  B )  sin 2 x  cos 2 x
5 5
2
2 d y dy
B
13. Show that y  Ax  , is a solution of the D.E x 2
 x  y 0.
x dx dx
14. Given that x  A sin(wt   ) or x  A cos(wt   ) , show that
d 2x
2
 w 2 x  0 hence solve the following D.E.
dt
d 2x
(a)  4x  0
dt 2
d 2x
(b)  9x  0
dt 2
d 2x
(c)  81x
dt 2
d 2x
(d)  100x
dt 2
dt 2 1
(e) 2 
d x 36x
dt 2 1
(f) 2  0
d x 49x
d 2x
(g)  3x  0
dt 2
d 2x
(h)  5 x
dt 2
d 2x
(i)  4x  4  0
dt 2

341
 d2y
(j)  9 y  18  0
d 2
d 2
(k)  2  6  0
dt 2
15. Exact D.E are equations of the form Mdx  Ndy  0 where M and
N are functions of x and y . Show that Exact D.E must satisfies the
condition M  N , hence solve the following exact D.E;
y x
(a) (2 x  3 y )dx  (3 x  y  1)dy  0
3

(b) (3 x 2 y  4 x  2 y 3 )dx  ( x 3  6 xy 2  5)dy  0

(c) ( x 2  y 3  4 xy)dx  (3 xy 2  2 x 2  y 4 )dy  0
(d) (5 x 4  3 x 2 y 2  2 xy 3 )dx  (2 x 3 y  3 x 2 y 2  5 y 4 )dy  0

16. Describes the principle of super position hence solve the following
D.E, y   4 y  8 x 2  2e 3 x

17. Form the Differential Equations from the given solutions;

(a) 3xy  x  A2
(b) y  Ae  x  Be 3 x
(c) y  Ax 2  B
(d) y  Ae 2 x  Be 3 x  5 x  3
(e) y  A sin 4 x  B cos 4 x  e 2 x
(f) y 2  Ax  B

18. Solve the following differential equations;

dy
(a) (2 x  y )  2 x  y  2 , given that y (2)  1 .
dx
d 2x
(b) 2
 9 x  36  0 given that x  6 , dx  9 when t  0
dt dt

19. Form a differential equation representing a circle of radius r and

whose center is along the x-axis.
20. Solve the differential equation xdy  3xydx  x 2 e x dx .
d 2x dx dx
21. If 2 is directly proportional to  and if x  20 ,  25 when
dt dt dt
t  0 , solve the resulting 2 nd order linear differential equation

342
22. Determine the differential equations whose set of independent solution
is;
(a) e x , e x 
(b) e x , xe x , x 2 e x 
23. Solve the following differential equations;
(a) 1  x 2 
dy
 2 xy  x 2
dx
d2y dy
(b) 2
 3  2 y  e4x
dx dx
(c) (5 x 4  3x 2 y 2  2 xy 3 )dx  (2 x 3 y  3x 2 y 2  5 y 4 )dy  0
24. The population of a country doubles in 50 years. In how many years
will it be tripled under the assumption that the rate of increase of the
population is proportional to the number of inhabitants?
25. Use the substitution z  2 x  3 y to solve 2 x  3 y  3
dy
 2x  2 y  1
dx
given that y  1 when x  1.
26. By substitution x  X 1 and y  Y  3 reduce the differential equation
dy 4 x  y  7
 to a homogeneous equation and hence find the
dx 2 x  y  1
general solution in terms of x and y.
27. A spring with mass 4 kg has a natural length of 1m . A force of 25.6N
its required to maintain it compressed to a length of 0.9m and then
released, find
(a) The differential equation relating the given data.
(b) The position of mass at any time t.
(c) The position of the mass using the initial conditions x(0)  1 and
v (0)  0 where v is velocity.
28. A spring with mass of 2 kg has a damping constant c  14 and a force
F  6N , that is needed to stretch it by a length of 0.5m , find
(a) The differential equation relating the information.
(b) The general solution representing the position of the mass at any
time t.
29. A terrorist after along hiding in a certain country, was caught by the
soldiers. The body checkups showed that the terrorist’s body
temperature was 25 c . After 30min his body temperature dropped to
22 c while the room temperature was constantly at 15 c , knowing
that the normal body temperature is 37 c , how long will it take for
the terrorist to die?

343
 30. 100g Of sugarcane in water is converted into dextrose at the rate
which is directly proportional to the amount unconverted. Find the
differential equation expressing the rate of conversion after time t in
minutes.
31. Suppose the initial temperature of the body was  and after time t the
body temperature is  R . Prove that T  A  Be  kt where T is
temperature of the body after time t , A is temperature difference
between the body and surrounding.
32. Water at temperature 100 c cools in 10 minutes to 88 c in a room of
temperature 25 c . Find the temperature of water after 20 minutes.
33. A tank of volume 0.5Litre is filled with brine containing 36kg of
dissolved salt. Water runs in and out of the tank at the rate of
15  103 litres per second and the mixture is kept constant by stirring.
How much salt will be in the tank after one hour? (Give your answer
correct to two significant figures).
34. Solve the D.E 1  e x y dx  e x y 1  x y dy  0 .
2
 
35. Solve the differential equation dy   x  y  1 
dx  2 x  2 y 
36. Solve the initial value problem y   8 y   16 y  0 ; y (1)  3 ,
y (1)  2
37. Solve the initial value problem y   2 y   10 y  0 ; y (0)  4 , y (0)  1
38. Find the particular solution of y   0 given that
y0  3, y1  4, y2  6 .
 
39. Solve D.E,  y  xydx  x  xy 2 dy  0 .
dy tan y
  2e x
2
40. Solve sec2 y
dx x

REVISION EXERCISE 5:2

1. Find the general solution of the D.E
dy
(a)  sec2 y
dx
1 dy
(b)  x 1
x dx
dy
(c) x 2  y3
dx
2. Solve the following D.E
dy
a) x 2  3 x 2  xy
dx

344
 dy
b) xy  x2  y2
dx
dy
c) x 2  x 2  xy  y 2
dx
2 dy
d) 3 x  y2
dx

e) x 2  y 2 
dy
dx
 xy

3. Solve the following D.E

(a) 4 x  y 
dy
 4x
dx
dy
(b) x  y  x2  y2
dx
dy
(c) x  x  2 y
dx

4. Solve the following exact differential equations.

dy 1
a) y 2  2 xy  2
dx x
x dy
b) Iny   sec x tan x
y dx
dy
c) xy 2  x 2 y  sec2 2 x
dx
d) 1  2 x e y
dy
 2e y  sec2 x
dx
2 s ds
e) 2te  t e
s
 sin t  t cost
dt
dr
f) e u r 2  2reu   cos ec 2 u
du
5. By inspection find integration factor which will make the following
differential equations exact and solve.
dy
a) sin y  x cos y 2
dx
dy y e x
b)  
dx x x
1 2 x dx
(d) ye  1
1 dy x
tan y  sec2 y  2e x
2
c) ye
x dx 2 dy

345
 Chapter Six

COORDINATE GEOMETRY II
Introduction

In mathematics, a conic section (or simply conic) is a curve obtained as the

intersection of the surface of a cone with a plane. The three types of conic
section are the parabola, the ellipse and the hyperbola. The circle is a special
case of the ellipse, and is of sufficient interest in its own right that it was
sometimes called a fourth type of conic section.
Consider three dimension figure below which show how a parabola, ellipse and
hyperbola can be obtained from cone and a cutting plane.

Coordinate Geometry II or Conic sections or conics are the sections of which

the ratio of the distance of the variable point from the fixed point to the distance
of the variable point from the fixed line is constant.
Consider the figure below which show the ratio of the distance explained above

fig 6. 1

Conics are sections of which ratio of SP  constant eccentricity(e)

MP

346
TYPES OF CONIC SECTIONS

Conic sections are categorized into three types depending on the value of
constant or eccentricity

(1) Parabola (conic section whose eccentricity e  1)

(2) Ellipse (conic section whose eccentricity e  1)
(3) Hyperbola (conic section whose eccentricity e  1

TERMS USED IN CONIC SECTIONS

These are some of terms used in conic sections
(a) Focus is a fixed point of the conic sections
(b) Directrix is a fixed line whose distance from the focus is fixed
(c) Eccentricity is a constant ratio of the distance of the variable point from
the focus to the distance of the variable point from the directrix
(d) Axis of the conic is the straight line which cuts the conic sections
symmetrically
(e) Focal chord is a line passing through focus and joining two points of the
conics
(f) Latus rectum is a focal chord perpendicular to the axis and parallel to
the directirix
(g) Vertex is a turning point of the conic sections
(h) Tangent is the straight line touching the conic sections at one point
(i) Normal is the straight line perpendicular to the tangent at the point of
contact
Generally the above terms can be shown by using the sketch below

fig 6. 2

Note: Some terms I didn’t label because of space and smartness of the
curves

347
6.1 PARABOLA
Parabola is a conic sections whose eccentricity is one ( e  1 )

fig 6. 3

SP
 e but e  1
MP
SP
1
MP
SP  MP

EQUATIONS OF THE PARABOLA

Equations of the parabola are categorized into three forms which are;

(a) Standard equations of the parabola

Standard equations of the parabola are parabolic equations which have vertices
at origin. Standard equations of the parabola are divided into four cases which
are standard equations which open rightward, leftward, upward and downward.

(i) Standard equations of the parabola which open rightward

Consider the parabola along x  axis whose focus is S (a,0) and directrix
x  a

fig 6. 4

348
 SP
From the figure above  e but e  1
MP
SP  MP
x  a 2  y 2  xa
Square both sides
x  a 2  y 2  x  a 2
x 2  2ax  a 2  y 2  x 2  2ax  a 2
y 2  4ax

Properties of the parabola y 2  4ax

1. Focus is S (a,0)
2. Directrix is x   a
3. Vertex is (0,0)
Example 1
Find the coordinates of the vertex, focus and the equation of directrix of each of
the following;
(a) y 2  4 x
(b) y 2  12x
(c) y 2  3 x
(d) y  x
2

(e) y 2  kx
(f) y 2  8 x  0
(g) 2 y 2  10x  0
(h) y 2  7 x  0
2
(i) y  2
x
(j) y  
x y 
x 0
Solution
In each case compare with the standard equation of the form y 2  4ax to obtain the value of " a"
(a) y 2  4 x the value of a  1
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S (1,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x  1

349
(b) y 2  12 x the value of a  3
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S ( a,0), S (3,0)
Equation of directrix x   a, x  3

(c) y 2  3 x the value of a  3

4

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S ( a,0), S ( 34 ,0)
Equation of directrix x   a, x   34

( d ) y 2  x the value of a  1
4

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S ( a,0), S ( 14 ,0)
Equation of directrix x   a, x   14

(e) y 2  kx the value of a  k

4

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S ( a,0), S ( k4 ,0)
Equation of directrix x   a, x   k4

( f ) y 2  8 x  0, y 2  8 x the value of a  2
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S ( a,0), S ( 2,0)
Equation of directrix x   a, x  2

( g ) 2 y 2  10 x  0, y 2  5 x the value of a  5
4

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S ( a,0), S ( 54 ,0)
Equation of directrix x   a, x   54

(h) y 2  7 x  0, y 2  7 x the value of a  4

7

Vertex, V (0,0)
7
Focus S (a,0), S ( 4 ,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x   4
7

350
 y2
(i )  2, y 2  2 x the value of a  12
x
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S ( 12 ,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x   12

  
( j ) y  x y  x  0, y 2  x  0, y 2  x the value of a  1
4

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S ( 14 ,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x   14

Example 2
Find the coordinates of the vertex, focus and the equation of directrix of each of
the following;
(a) y  x
(b) y  2 x  0
(c) y  6 x  0
Solution
In each case compare with the standard equation of the form y 2  4ax to obtain the value of " a"
(a) y  x , y 2  x the value of a  14
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S ( 14 ,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x   14

(b) y  2 x  0 , y  2 x , y 2  4 x the value of a  1

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S (1,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x  1

351
(c) y  6 x  0 , y   6 x , y 2  6 x the value of a  3
2

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S ( 32 ,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x   32

Example 3
Find the equation of the parabola whose;
(a) focus is S 1,0 and equation of directrix is x  1
(b) focus is S 2,0 and vertex at origin
(c) Vertex is at origin and equation of directrix is x  3
(d) Equation of directrix is x  4k and vertex at origin
Solution
(a) focus is S 1,0 and equation of directrix is x  1
If the focus is S (1,0) and directrix equation is x  1 implies the vertex is at origin
and open right hand side, i.e. y 2  4ax
From S (a,0)  S (1,0) mean that a  1
 The equation of the parabola is y 2  4 x

(b) focus is S 2,0 and vertex at origin

From S (a,0)  S (2,0) mean that a  2
 The equation of the parabola is y 2  8 x

(c) Vertex is at origin and equation of directrix is x  3

From x  a  3, mean that a  3
 The equation of the parabola is y 2  12x

(d) Equation of directrix is x  4k and vertex at origin

From, x  a  4k , mean a  4k
 The equation of the parabola is y 2  16kx

352
(ii) Standard equations of the parabola which open leftward
Consider the parabola along y 2  4ax whose focus is S (  a,0) and directrix
xa

fig 6. 5

SP
From the figure above  e but e  1
MP
SP  MP
x  a 2  y 2  xa
Square both sides
x  a 2  y 2  x  a 2
x 2  2ax  a 2  y 2  x 2  2ax  a 2
y 2  4ax

Properties of the parabola y 2  4ax

1. Focus is S (  a,0)
2. Directrix is x  a
3. Vertex is V (0,0)

Example 4
Find the coordinates of the vertex, focus and the equation of directrix of each of
the following;
(a) y 2  16x
(b) y 2  0.5 x
(c) y  3x
2

353
(d) y  x  0
2

(e) y  kx  0
2

(f) y 2  8 x  0
(g) 0.5 y 2  4 x  0
(h) y  7 x  0
2

y2
(i) 20
x
Solution
In each case compare with the standard equation of the form y 2  4ax to obtain the value of " a"
(a) y 2  16x the value of a  4
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S (4,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x  4

(b) y 2  0.5 x the value of a  1

8

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (  a,0), S ( 18 ,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x  1
8

354
(c) y 2  3 x the value of a  3
4

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S ( 34 ,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x  3
4

(d ) y 2  x  0, y 2   x the value of a  1
4

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S ( 14 ,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x  1
4

(e) y 2  kx  0, y 2  kx the value of a  k

4

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S ( k4 ,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x  k
4

( f ) y 2  8 x  0, y 2  8 x the value of a  2
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S (2,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x  2

( g )0.5 y 2  4 x  0, y 2  8 x the value of a  2

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S (2,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x  2

(h) y 2  7 x  0, y 2   7 x the value of a  4

7

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S ( 4
7
,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x  4
7

355
 y2 y2
(i )  2  0,  2, y 2  2 x the value of a  1
2
x x
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (a,0), S ( 12 ,0)
Equation of directrix x  a, x  1
2

Example 5
Find the equation of the parabola whose;
(a) focus is S  8,0 and equation of directrix is x  8
(b) focus is S  6,0 and vertex at origin
(c) Vertex is at origin and equation of directrix is x  0.8
(d) Equation of directrix is x  10k and vertex at origin
Solution
(a) focus is S  8,0 and equation of directrix is x  8
If the focus is S (1,0) and directrix equation is x  1 implies the vertex is at origin
and open L.H.S , i.e. y 2  4ax
From S (a,0)  S (8,0) mean that a  8
 The equation of the parabola is y 2  32x

(b) focus is S  6,0 and vertex at origin

From S (a,0)  S (6,0) mean that a  6
 The equation of the parabola is y 2  24x

(c) Vertex is at origin and equation of directrix is x  0.8

From x  a  0.8, mean that a  0.8
 The equation of the parabola is y 2  3.2 x

(d) Equation of directrix is x  10k and vertex at origin

From x  a  10k , mean that a  4k
 The equation of the parabola is y 2  40kx

356
(iii) Standard equations of the parabola which open upward
Consider the parabola along y  axis whose focus is S (0, b) and directrix
y  b

fig 6. 6

SP
From the figure above  e but e  1
MP
SP  MP
x 2   y  b  y  b
2

Square both sides

x 2   y  b   y  b
2 2

x 2  y 2  2by  b 2  y 2  2by  b 2
x 2  4by

Properties of the parabola x 2  4ay

1. Focus is S (0, b)
2. Directrix is y  b
3. Vertex is V (0,0)

Example 6
Find the coordinates of the vertex, focus and the equation of directrix of each of
the following;
(a) x 2  20 y
(b) x  13 y  0
2

357
(c) x  5 y
2
(d) x  4
y
 
(e) x  2 y x  2 y  0 
Solution
In each case compare with the standard equation of the form x 2  4by to obtain the value of "b"
(a) x 2  20 y the value of b  5
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (0, b), S (0,5)
Equation of directrix y  b, y  5

(b) x 2  13 y  0, x 2  13 y the value of b  121

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (0, b), S (0, 121 )
Equation of directrix y  b, y   121

(c) x  5 y , x 2  25 y the value of b  254

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (0, b), S (0, 254 )
Equation of directrix y  b, y   254

x2
(d )  4, x 2  4 y the value of b  1
y
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (0, b), S (0,1)
Equation of directrix y  b, y  1

  
(e) x  2 y x  2 y  0, x 2  4 y  0, x 2  4 y the value of b  1
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (0, b), S (0,1)
Equation of directrix y  b, y  1

358
Example 7
Find the equation of the parabola whose;
(a) focus is S 0,3 and equation of directrix is y  3
 
(b) focus is S 0, 2 and vertex at origin
(c) Vertex is at origin and equation of directrix is y  5
Solution
(a) If the focus is S (0,3) and directrix equation is y  3 implies the vertex is at origin
and the parabola open upward, i.e. x 2  4by
From S (0, b)  S (0,3) mean that b  3
 The equation of the parabola is x 2  12 y

 
(b) The focus is S 0, 2 and the vertex is at origin
From S (0, b)  S 0, 2  mean that b  2
 The equation of the parabola is x 2  4 2 y

(c) The vertex is at origin and the equation of directrix is y  5

From S (0, b)  S (0,5) mean that b  5
 The equation of the parabola is x 2  20 y

(iv) Standard equations of the parabola which open downward

Consider the parabola along y  axis whose focus is S (0,b) and directrix
y b

fig 6. 7

359
 SP
From the figure above  e but e  1
MP
SP  MP
x 2   y  b  y  b
2

Square both sides

x 2   y  b   y  b
2 2

x 2  y 2  2by  b 2  y 2  2by  b 2

x 2  4by

Properties of the parabola x 2  4by

1. Focus is S (0,b)
2. Directrix is y  b
3. Vertex is V (0,0)

Example 8
Find the coordinates of the vertex, focus and the equation of directrix of each of
the following;
(a) x 2  4 y
(b) x 2  0.2 y  0
x2
(c) 1  0
8y
x2  2 y
(d) 0
y
x2  y
(e)  2
y
Solution

360
In each case compare with the standard equation of the form x 2  4by to obtain the value of " b"
(a) x 2  4 y the value of b  1
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (0,b), S (0,1)
Equation of directrix y  b, y  1

(b) x 2  0.2 y  0, x 2  0.2 y the value of b  0.05

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (0,b), S (0,0.05)
Equation of directrix y  b, y  0.05

x2 x2
(c )  1  0,  1, x 2   y the value of b  14
y y
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (0,b), S (0, 14 )
Equation of directrix y  b, y  14

x2  2 y
(d )  0, x 2  2 y the value of b  1
y 2

Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (0,b), S (0, 12 )
Equation of directrix y  b, y  1
2

x2  y
( e)  2, x 2  3 y the value of b  3
4
y
Vertex, V (0,0)
Focus S (0,b), S (0, 34 )
Equation of directrix y  b, y  3
4

Example 9
Find the equation of the parabola whose;
(a) focus is S 0,2 and equation of directrix is y  2
(b) focus is S 0,0.7  and vertex at origin
(c) Vertex is at origin and equation of directrix is y  4
Solution
361
(a) If the focus is S (0,2) and directrix equation is y  2 implies the vertex is at origin
and the parabola open downward, i.e. x 2  4by
From S (0,b)  S (0,2) mean that b  2
 The equation of the parabola is x 2  8 y

(b) The focus is S 0,0.7  and the vertex is at origin

From S (0,b)  S 0,0.7  mean that b  0.7
 The equation of the parabola is x 2  2.8 y

(c) The vertex is at origin and the equation of directrix is y  4

From S (0,b)  S (0,4) mean that b  4
 The equation of the parabola is x 2  16 y

(b) Translated equations of the parabola

These are parabola translated by the factor ( h, k ) and whose vertices are V ( h, k )
as shown in different cases of parabola below

(i) Translated equation of the parabola which open rightward

Translated parabola are parabolas with vertices in any quadrant or at any point.
Consider the parabola whose focus is S (a  h, k ) and its vertex is V ( h, k ) as
shown in the figure below

fig 6. 8

362
 SP
From the figure above  e but e  1
MP
SP  MP
x  (a  h) 2   y  k 2  xah
Square both sides
x  (a  h) 2   y  k 2  x  a  h 2
x 2  2(a  h) x  (a  h) 2   y  k   x 2  ax  hx  ax  a 2  ah  hx  ah  h 2
2

x 2  2(a  h) x  (a  h) 2   y  k   x 2  2ax  2hx  a 2  2ah  h 2

2

x 2  2ax  2hx  a 2  2ah  h 2   y  k   x 2  2ax  2hx  a 2  2ah  h 2

2

 2ax  2ah   y  k   2ax  2ah

2

 y  k 2  4ax  4ah
 y  k 2  4ax  h

Properties of the parabola  y  k 2  4ax  h

1. Focus is S (a  h, k )
2. Directrix is x  a  h
3. Vertex is ( h, k )

Example 10
Find the coordinates of the vertex, focus and the equation of directrix of each of
the following;
(a)  y  2  4x  3
2

(b)  y  12  5x  4

(c) y 2  12x  1
(d)  y  2  x
2

(e) y 2  2 y  8 x  9  0
(f) y 2  4 x  8  0
Solution

363
(a )  y  2  4 x  3 by comparing with tran slated equation  y  k   4a x  h 
2 2

h  3, k  2 and a  1
Vertex, V h, k   V 3,2
Focus, S a  h, k   S 4,2
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x  2

(b)  y  1  5 x  4 by comparing with tran slated equation  y  k   4a x  h 

2 2

h  4, k  1 and a  5
4

Vertex, V h, k   V 4,1

Focus, S a  h, k   S  214 ,1
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x  114

(c) y 2  12 x  1 by comparing with tran slated equation  y  k   4a x  h 

2

h  1, k  0 and a  3
Vertex, V h, k   V 1,0
Focus, S a  h, k   S 4,0
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x  2

(d )  y  2  x by comparing with tran slated equation  y  k   4a x  h 

2 2

h  0, k  2 and a  14
Vertex, V h, k   V 0,2
Focus, S a  h, k   S  14 ,2
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x   14

( e) y 2  2 y  8 x  9  0
y 2  2 y  8 x  9 (by completing the square)
 y  12  8x  1 by comparing by translated equation  y  k 2  4ax  h 
h  1, k  1 and a  2
Vertex, V h, k   V 1,1
Focus, S a  h, k   S 3,1
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x  1

364
( f ) y 2  4x  8  0
y 2  4x  8
y 2  4 x  2 by comparing by translated equation  y  k   4ax  h 
2

h  2, k  0 and a  1
Vertex, V h, k   V 2,0
Focus, S a  h, k   S 3,0
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x  1

(ii) Translated equation of the parabola which open leftward

Consider the parabola whose focus is S (a  h, k ) and its vertex is V ( h, k ) as
shown in the figure below

fig 6. 9

SP
From the figure above  e but e  1
MP
SP  MP
x  (a  h) 2   y  k 2  xah
Square both sides
x  (a  h) 2   y  k 2  x  a  h 2
x 2  2(a  h) x  (a  h) 2   y  k   x 2  ax  hx  ax  a 2  ah  hx  ah  h 2
2

x 2  2ax  2hx  a 2  2ah  h 2   y  k   x 2  2ax  2hx  a 2  2ah  h 2

2

2ax  2ah   y  k   2ax  2ah

2

 y  k 2  4ax  4ah
 y  k 2  4ax  h

365
Properties of the parabola  y  k   4ax  h
2

1. Focus is S (a  h, k )
2. Directrix is x  a  h
3. Vertex is ( h, k )

Example 11
Find the coordinates of the vertex, focus and the equation of directrix of each of
the following;
(a)  y  3  24x 1 (d)  y  2  x  0
2 2

(b)  y  1  7x  4 (e) y  2 y  8 x  7  0

2 2

(c) y  12  12x (f) y  6 x  18  0

2 2

Solution
(a)  y  3  24x  1 by comparing with tran slated equation  y  k   4a x  h 
2 2

h  1, k  3 and a  6
Vertex, V h, k   V 1,3
Focus, S  a  h, k   S  5,3
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x  7

(b)  y  1  7 x  4  by comparing with tran slated equation  y  k   4a x  h 

2 2

h  4, k  1 and a  7
4

Vertex, V h, k   V 4,1

Focus, S  a  h, k   S  94 ,1
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x  23
4

(c) y 2  12  12x
y 2  12x  1 by comparing with tran slated equation  y  k   4a x  h 
2

h  1, k  0 and a  3
Vertex, V h, k   V 1,0 
Focus, S  a  h, k   S  2,0 
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x  4

366
(d )  y  2  x  0
2

 y  22   x by comparing with tran slated equation  y  k   4ax  h 

2

h  0, k  2 and a  14
Vertex, V h, k   V 0,2
Focus, S  a  h, k   S  14 ,2
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x  1
4

( e) y 2  2 y  8 x  7  0
y 2  2 y  8 x  7 (by completing the square)
 y  12  8x  1 by comparing by translated equation  y  k 2  4ax  h 
h  1, k  1 and a  2
Vertex, V h, k   V 1,1
Focus, S  a  h, k   S  1,1
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x  3

( f ) y 2  6 x  18  0
y 2  6x  3 by comparing by translated equation  y  k   4ax  h 
2

h  3, k  0 and a  3
2

Vertex, V h, k   V 3,0

Focus, S  a  h, k   S  32 ,0
Equation of directrix, x  a  h, x  9
2

(iii) Translated equation of the parabola which open upward

Consider the parabola whose focus is S (h, b  k ) and its vertex is V ( h, k ) as
shown in the figure below

fig 6. 10
367
 SP
From the figure above  e but e  1
MP
SP  MP
x  h 2   y  (b  k ) 2  ybk
Square both sides
x  h 2   y  (b  k ) 2   y  b  k 2
x  h 2  y 2  2(b  k ) y  (b  k ) 2   y  b  k 2
x  h 2  y 2  2by  2ky  b 2  2bk  k 2  y 2  by  ky  by  b 2  bk  ky  bk  k 2
x  h 2  2by  2bk  2by  2bk
x  h 2  4by  4bk
x  h2  4b y  k 

Properties of the parabola x  h  4b y  k 

2

1. Focus is S (h, b  k )
2. Directrix is y  b  k
3. Vertex is ( h, k )

Example 12
Find the coordinates of the vertex, focus and the equation of directrix of each of
the following;
(a) x 12  4 y  3
(b) x  1  1.2 y  2
2

(c) x 2  64 y  1
(d) x  6  y
2

(e) x 2  2 x  8 y  7  0
(f) x 2  4 y  12  0
Solution
(a) x  1  4x  3 by comparing with tran slated equation x  h   4b y  k 
2 2

h  1, k  3 and b  1
Vertex, V h, k   V 1,3
Focus, S h, b  k   S 1,4
Equation of directrix, y  b  k , y  2

368
(b)  x  1  1.2 y  2 by comparing with tran slated equation  x  h   4b y  k 
2 2

h  1, k  2 and b  0.3

Vertex, V h, k   V  1,2
Focus, S h, b  k   S  1,1.7 
Equation of directrix, y  b  k , y  2.3

(c) x 2  64 y  1 by comparing with tran slated equation  x  h   4b y  k 

2

h  0, k  1 and b  16
Vertex, V h, k   V 0,1
Focus, S h, b  k   S 0,17
Equation of directrix, y  b  k , y  15

d x  62  y by comparing with translated equation x  h2  4b y  k 

 f x 2  4 y  12  0
x 2  4 y  12
x 2  4 y  3 by comparing with tran slated equation  x  h   4b y  k 
2

h  0, k  3 and b  1
Vertex, V h, k   V 0,3
Focus, S h, b  k   S 0,4
 Equation of directrix y  b  k , y  2

369
 (iv) Translated equation of the parabola which open downward
Consider the parabola whose focus is S ( h,b  k ) and its vertex is V ( h, k ) as
shown in the figure below

fig 6. 11

SP
From the figure above  e but e  1
MP
SP  MP
x  h 2   y  (b  k ) 2  y bk
Square both sides
x  h 2   y  (b  k ) 2   y  b  k 2
x  h 2  y 2  2(b  k ) y  (b  k ) 2   y  b  k 2
x  h 2  y 2  2by  2ky  b 2  2bk  k 2  y 2  by  ky  by  b 2  bk  ky  bk  k 2
x  h 2  2by  2bk  2by  2bk
x  h 2  4by  4bk
x  h2  4b y  k 
Properties of the parabola x  h2  4b y  k 
1. Focus is S ( h,b  k )
2. Directrix is y  b  k
3. Vertex is ( h, k )
Example 13
Find the coordinates of the vertex, focus and the equation of directrix of each of
the following;
(a) x  5  10 y  6 (d) x  0.5   y
2 2

(b) x  1  2 y  2 (e) x  6 x  4 y  5  0

2 2

(c) 2 x   y  3
2
(f) x  2 y  2  0
2 1

Solution
370
(a) x  5  10 y  6 by comparing with tran slated equation x  h   4b y  k 
2 2

h  5, k  6 and b  52
Vertex, V h, k   V 5,6
Focus, S h,b  k   S 5, 72 
Equation of directrix, y  b  k , y  172

(b) x  1  2 y  2 by comparing with tran slated equation x  h   4b y  k 

2 2

h  1, k  2 and b  12
Vertex, V h, k   V  1,2
Focus, S h,b  k   S  1,1.5
Equation of directrix, y  b  k , y  2.5

(c ) 2 x 2   y  3
2 x 2    y  3
x 2   12  y  3 by comparing with tran slated equation x  h   4b y  k 
2

h  0, k  3 and b  18
Vertex, V h, k   V 0,3
Focus, S h,b  k   S 0, 158 
Equation of directrix, y  b  k , y  258

(d ) x  0.5   y by comparing with tran slated equation x  h   4b y  k 

2 2

h  0.5, k  0 and b  14
Vertex, V h, k   V 0.5,0
Focus, S h,b  k   S  12 , 14 
Equation of directrix, y  b  k , y  14

( e) x 2  6 x  4 y  5  0
x 2  6 x  4 y  5 (by completing the square)
x  32  4 y  4
x  32  4 y  1 by comparing with tran slated equation x  h 2  4b y  k 
h  3, k  1 and b  1
Vertex, V h, k   V 3,1
Focus, S h,b  k   S 3,0
Equation of directrix, y  b  k , y  2

371
( f ) x 2  2 y  12  0
x 2  2 y  12
x 2  2 y  14  by comparing with tran slated equation  x  h   4b y  k 
2

h  0, k  14 and b  12
Vertex, V h, k   V 0, 14 
Focus, S h,b  k   S 0, 14 
Equation of directrix, y  b  k , y  3
4

(c) General equation of the parabola

Consider the parabola whose focus is S (u , v ) and directrix equations is
ax  by  c  0 as shown below

fig 6. 12

SP
From the figure above  e but e  1
MP
SP  MP
ax  by  c
x  u 2   y  v 2 
a2  b2
Square both sides

x  u 2   y  v 2  ax 2 by 2 c 
2

a b

372
Example 14
Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is 3,0 and directrix is
3x  4 y  1 .
Solution

SP
From the figure above  e but e  1
MP
SP  MP
3x  4 y  1
x  32  y 2 
32  4 2
Square both sides

x  32  y 2  3x  4 y  1
2

25
 2 2

25  x  3  y  3 x  4 y  1
2

 
25 x  y  6 x  9  9 x 2  16 y 2  24xy  6 x  8 y  1
2 2

16x 2  9 y 2  144x  8 y  24xy  224  0

 The equation of the parabola is 16x 2  9 y 2  144x  8 y  24xy  224  0

Example 15
Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is 4,2 and directrix is y  x .
Solution
SP
 e, SP  e MP but e  1
MP
SP  MP
SP  x  42   y  22 .......... .......... ...(i)
x y
MP  .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
2
x y
x  42   y  22 
2

2 x  4   y  2  x  y 
2 2
 2

 x 2  y 2  16x  8 y  2 xy  40  0

373
 (d) Parametric Equation of the parabola
Parametric equations are set of equations in terms of a parameter that represent
a relation.
Each value of the parameter, when evaluated in the parametric equations,
corresponds to a point along the curve of the relation.
To convert equations from parametric form into a single relation, the parameter
needs to be eliminated by solving simultaneous equations.
Consider a line y  mx  c is a tangent to a parabola y 2  4ax , a tangent satisfies
the parabola at point of contact.
Substitute y  mx  c into y 2  4ax
mx  c 2  4ax
m 2 x 2  2mcx  c 2  4ax
m 2 x 2  2mc  4a x  c 2  0
By using general quadratic equation
 2mc  4a   2mc  4a 2  4m 2 c 2
x
2m 2
Condition for tangent to touch the curve discri min ant  0
 2mc  4a 
x since a  mc
2m 2
 2a  4a  a
2
1 1
x  2  a  let  t (Parameter)
m
2
2m m m
x  at 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( i )
 a  a a a 2a 1
Again from y  mx  c  m 2       2a   2at
m  m m m m m
y  2at.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( ii)

Parametric Equation of the parabola

x  at 2 , y  2at

374
Example 16
Write the parametric equations of the parabola y 2  12x
Solution
Compare equation y 2  12x with y 2  4ax
4ax  12x
a3
x  at 2  3t 2
y  2at  6t
 The parametric equations are x  3t 2 and y  6t

Example 17
Write the parametric equations of the parabola x 2  20 y .
Solution
Compare equation x 2  20 y with x 2  4by
4by  20 y
b5
x  bt 2  5t 2
y  2bt  10t
 The parametric equations are x  5t 2 and y  10t

Example 18
Write the parametric equations of the parabola  y 12  16x  2
Solution
Compare equation  y  1  16x  2 with  y  k   4a x  h 
2 2

16x  2  4ax  h 
a  4, h  2.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( i )
 y  12   y  k 2
k  1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)
x  at 2  h  4t 2  2
y  2at  k  8t  1
 The parametric equations are x  4t 2  2 and y  8t  1

375
Example 19
Find the focus and directrix equation of the parabola represented by x  2t 2 and
y  4t
Solution
x  2t 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( i )
y  4t.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( ii)
y
From equation (ii) t  .......... .......... .......... ....( iii)
4
Substitute equation (iii) into equation (i)
2
 y
x  2 
4
y 2  8 x compare with y 2  4ax
a2
Focus, a,0   2,0 
Directrix, x   a, x  2
 Focus is 2,0  and directrix x  2

6.1.1 TANGENT TO THE PARABOLA

Tangent is a line which touches the parabola at one point

fig 6. 13

Condition for tangency to the parabola

(a) Consider a line y  mx  c is a tangent to the parabola y 2  4ax , the
condition of tangency is obtained as follows

376
Substitute y  mx  c into y 2  4ax
mx  c 2  4ax
m 2 x 2  2mcx  c 2  4ax
m 2 x 2  2mc  4a x  c 2  0
By using general quadratic equation
 2mc  4a   2mc  4a 2  4m 2 c 2
x
2m 2
Condition for tangent to touch the curve discriminat  0
2mc  4a 2  4m 2 c 2  0
4m 2 c 2  16amc  16a 2  4m 2 c 2  0

Condition for tangency a  mc

(b) Consider a line ax  by  c  0 is a tangent to the parabola y 2  4ax , the

condition of tangency is obtained as follows
Substitute ax  by  c  0 into y 2  4ax
b c
From ax  by  c  0, x   y 
a a
 b c
y 2  4 a  y  
 a a
y  4 by  c 
2

y 2  4by  4c  0
Condition for tangent b 2  4ac
(4b) 2  4(4c)
16b 2  16c
Condition for tangency b2  c

EQUATIONS OF TANGENTS TO THE PARABOLA

Equations of tangents can be expressed into two forms
(a) Cartesian form
(b) Parametric form

377
(a) Equation of tangent in Cartesian form
Consider the tangent to the parabola y 2  4ax at point Px1 , y1 

fig 6. 14

Slopes of tangent and parabola at point of contact are the same

dy dy 2a
y 2  4ax, 2 y  4a , 
dx dx y
Equation of tangent at ( x1 , y1 )
2a
m , ( x1 , y1 ), ( x, y )
y1
2a y  y1

y1 x  x1
2a ( x  x1 )  y1 ( y  y1 )
2ax  2ax1  y1 y  y1 but y1  4ax1
2 2

2ax  2ax1  y1 y  4ax1

2ax  y1 y  2ax1  0

Example 20
Find the equation of a tangent to the parabola y 2  4 x at the point 1,2 .
Solution
The slope of tangent is equal to the slope of parabola at point of contact
dy dy 2 dy
y 2  4 x, 2 y  4,  let m
dx dx y dx

Slope of tangent at 1,2, m   1

2
2
Equation of tangent , from y  mx  x0   y0
y  1x  1  2
y  x 1
 The equation of tangent is x  y  1  0

378
Alternative
Required the equation of tangent t o the parabola y 2  4 x at 1,2
From, 2ax  y1 y  2ax1  0
x1 , y1   1,2 also from y 2  4 x the value of a  1
Therefore, 2(1) x  2 y  2(1)(1)  0
2x  2 y  2  0
 The equation of tangent is x  y  1  0

Example 21
Find the equation of a tangent to the parabola y 2  3x at the point  3,3 .
Solution
The slope of tangent is equal to the slope of parabola at point of contact
dy dy  3 dy
y 2  3x, 2 y  3,  let m
dx dx 2 y dx
3
Slope of tangent at  3,3, m 
1

23 2
Equation of tangent , from y  mx  x0   y0

y
1
x  3  3
2
 The equation of tangent is x  2 y  3  0

Example 22
Find the equation of a tangent to the parabola x 2  12 y at the point  6,3 .
Solution
The slope of tangent is equal to the slope of parabola at point of contact
dy dy  x dy
x 2  12 y, 2 x  12 ,  let m
dx dx 6 dx
  6
Slope of tangent at  6,3, m  1
6
Equation of tangent , from y  mx  x0   y0
y  1x  6  3
 The equation of tangent is x  y  9  0

379
Example 23
1
Find the equation of a tangent to the parabola x 2   y at the point 2,8 .
2
Solution
The slope of tangent is equal to the slope of parabola at point of contact
1 1 dy dy dy
x 2   y, 2 x   ,  4 x let m
2 2 dx dx dx
Slope of tangent at 2,8, m  42  8
Equation of tangent , from y  mx  x0   y0
y  8x  2  8
 The equation of tangent is 8 x  y  8  0

Example 24
Find the point of contact of a tangent y  x  1 to the parabola y 2  4 x .
Solution
The tangent y  x  1 share the the point at point of contact y 2  4 x
Substitute y  x  1 into y 2  4 x
x  12  4 x
x 2  2x  1  0
x 1
When x  1, y  x  1  2
 The point of contact is 1,2

Example 25
Find the equation of a tangent to the parabola  y 1  9x 1 at the point
2

 2,2 .
Solution
The slope of tangent is equal to the slope of parabola at point of contact

 y  12  9x  1, 2 y  1 dy  9, dy  9 let dy  m

dx dx 2 y  1 dx

Slope of tangent at  2,2, m 

9 9

22  1 2
Equation of tangent , from y  mx  x0   y0

y  x  2  2
9
2
 The equation of tangent is 9 x  2 y  22  0

380
(b) Equation of tangent in parametric form
Consider the tangent to the parabola y 2  4ax at point Pat 2 ,2at 

fig 6. 15

Slopes of tangent and parabola at point of contact are the same

dy dy 2a 2a 1
y 2  4ax, 2 y  4a,    since y  2at
dx dx y 2at t
Equation of tangent at (at 2 ,2at)
1
m  , (at 2 ,2at), ( x, y )
t
1 y  2at

t x  at 2
x  at 2  t ( y  2at)
x  at 2  ty  2at 2
x  ty  at 2  0

Example 26
Find the equation of a tangent to the parabola y 2  4 x at the point t 2 ,2t  .
Solution
The slope of tangent is equal to the slope of parabola at point of contact
dy dy 2 dy
y 2  4 x, 2 y  4,  let m
dx dx y dx

Slope of tangent at t 2 ,2t , m  

2 1
2t t
Equation of tangent , from y  mx  x0   y0

y  x  t 2   2t
1
t
 The equation of tangent is x  ty  t 2  0

381
Alternative
From general parametric equation, x  ty  at 2  0
Consider y 2  4 x, a  1
 x  ty  t 2  0

6.1.2 NORMAL TO THE PARABOLA

Normal to the parabola is the straight line which is perpendicular to the tangent
at the point of tangency.
Consider the figure below which show the normal to the tangent

fig 6. 16

Equation of normal in Cartesian form

Normal and tangent are perpendicular to each other therefore from the slope of tangent
we can apply the perpendicularity condition m1m2  1 to determine the slope of normal
dy dy 2a 2a
From y 2  4ax, 2 y  4a,  at P ( x1 , y1 ) m1 
dx dx y y1
2a
Slope of tangent is m1  and let the slope of normal be m2
y1
2a y
From m1m2  1, m2  1, m2   1
y1 2a
Equation of the normal
y
m2   1 , ( x1 , y1 )
2a
From y  m( x  x1 )  y1
y1
y ( x  x1 )  y1
2a
2ay   y1 ( x  x1 )  2ay1
2ay   y1 x  x1 y1  2ay1
y1 x  2ay  y1 x1  2a   0

382
Example 27
Find the equation of normal to the parabola given by y 2  8x at point 4,2 .
Solution
 , at 4,2 the slope
dy 4 dy
Consider y 2  8 x,  m1  2
dx y dx
Slope of tangent is the same as slope of the parabola at point of contact i.e. m1  2
But tangen t line is perpendicular with normal line m1m2  1
1 1
m2  
m1 2

Equation of normal having m2   ,  x0 , y0   4,2

1
2
From, y  mx  x0   y0

y
1
x  4  2
2
 The equation of normal is x  2 y  6  0

Example 28
Find the equation of normal to the parabola given by y 2  2x at point 2,2 .
Solution
 , at 2,2 let
dy 1 dy 1
Consider y 2  2 x,  m1  
dx y dx 2
 1
Slope of tangent is the same as slope of the parabola at point of contact  i.e. m1   
 2
But tangen t line is perpendicular with normal line m1m2  1
1
m2  2
m1
Equation of normal having m2  2, x0 , y0   2,2
From, y  m x  x0   y0
y  2x  2  2
 The equation of normal is 2 x  y  6  0

383
Example 29
Find the equation of normal to the parabola given by y 2   x at point
 9,3 .
Solution
  , at  9,3 the slope
dy 1 dy 1
Consider y 2   x,  m1 
dx 2y dx 6
 1
Slope of tangent is the same as slope of the parabola at point of contact  i.e. m1  
 6
But tangen t line is perpendicular with normal line m1m2  1
1
m2   6
m1
Equation of normal having m2  1, x0 , y0    9,3
From, y  m x  x0   y0
y  6x  9  3
 The equation of normal is 6 x  y  57  0

Example 30
1
Find the equation of normal to the parabola given by x 2  y at point  1,2 .
2
Solution
 4 x, at  1,2 the slope
1 dy dy
Consider x 2  y,  m1  4
2 dx dx
Slope of tangent is the same as slope of the parabola at point of contact i.e. m1  4
But tangen t line is perpendicular with normal line m1m2  1
1 1
m2  
m1 4

Equation of normal having m2  , x0 , y0    1,2

1
4
From, y  m x  x0   y0

y
1
x  1  2
4
 The equation of normal is x  4 y  9  0

384
Equation of normal in parametric form
Normal and tangent are perpendicular to each other therefore from the slope of tangent
we can apply the perpendicularity condition m1m2  1 to determine the slope of normal
dy dy 2a 2a 1
From y 2  4ax, 2 y  4a,  at P (at 2 ,2at) m1  , m1 
dx dx y 2at t
1
Slope of tangent is m1  and let the slope of normal be m2
t
1
From m1m2  1, m1  m2  1, m2  t
t
Equation of the normal
m2  t , ( x1 , y1 )
From y  m( x  x1 )  y1
y  t ( x  at 2 )  2at
y  tx  at 3  2at
tx  y  at 3  2at  0

6.2 ELLIPSE
Ellipse is a conic section whose eccentricity is less than one, e  1 .
Consider the figures below show Ellipse along x-axis and y-axis.

fig 6. 17

SP
From the figure above  e where e  1
MP

ELLIPES HAS TWO AXES

(i) Major axis is the symmetric line whose length is large
(ii) Minor axis is the symmetric line whose length is small

385
EQUATIONS OF AN ELLIPSE
(a) Standard Equation of an Ellipse
(b) Translated Equation of an Ellipse
(c) General Equation of an Ellipse

(a) Standard Equation of an Ellipse

Standard Equation of an Ellipse is an Ellipse whose centre is at origin.
Consider an Ellipse below whose loci are along x-axis, before derivation of
equation we need to determine focus s,0 and equation of derectrix x  x1 

fig 6. 18 fig 6. 19

SP
From the figure above  e where e  1
MP
SP  e MP
a  s  ex1  a .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
SP  e MP
a  s  ex1  a .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
Add equation (i) and equation (ii)
2a  2ex1
a
 x1  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( iii)
e
Subtract equation (i) from equation (ii)
2s  2ae
 s  ae.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( iv)
a
Therefore, foci are S  ae,0 and directrices are x   
e

386
CASE I: EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE ALONG X-AXIS
Consider the figure below

fig 6. 20

SP
From the figure above  e where e  1
MP
SP  e MP, SP  e 2 MP   2
  2

By distance formula
2

x  ae2  y 2  e 2  x  a 
 e
x  2aex  a e  y  e 2 x 2  2aex  a 2
2 2 2 2

x 2  a 2e2  y 2  e2 x 2  a 2
x 2  e2 x 2  y 2  a 2  a 2e2
1  e x
2 2
 y 2  1 e2 a 2  
Divide by 1  e 2  a 2
throughout
x2 y2
 1

a 2 1 e2 a 2 
 
Let b 2  1  e 2 a 2 where a  b
x2 y2
  1
a2 b2
x2 y2
Standard equation of Ellipse along x-axis  1
a 2 b2

387
Properties
(i) The equation is along x-axis
(ii) a  b
2

(iii) a 1  e  b
2
 2

(iv) Foci, s ae,0

a
(v) Directrices, x   
e
(vi) Vertices,  a,0 along major axis and 0,b  along minor axis.

Example 31
x2 y2
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse  1
9 4
Solution
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
9 4 a b
a  9, a  3
2

b 2  4, b  2
 
Since a  b then a 2 1  e 2  b 2 the Ellipse is along x - axis
b2 4 5
e  1 2
 1 
a 9 3
5
 Eccentricity is
3

 Foci are  ae,0   ae,0   5 ,0  

a 9 5
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 5

Example 32
x2 y2
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse  1
5 3
Solution

388
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
5 3 a b
a  5, a  5
2

b 2  3, b  3
Since a  b then a 2 1  e 2   b 2 an Ellipse is along x - axis
b2 3 2
e  1 2
 1 
a 5 5
2
 Eccentricity is
5


 Foci are  ae,0   ae,0   2 ,0 
a 5 2
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 2

Example 33
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse
9 x 2  16 y 2  144
Solution
9 x 2  16 y 2  144
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
16 9 a b
a  16, a  4
2

b 2  9, b  3
Since a  b then a 2 1  e 2   b 2 the Ellipse is along x - axis
b2 9 7
e  1 2
 1 
a 16 4
7
 Eccentricity is
4

 Foci are  ae,0   ae,0   7 ,0 

a 16 7
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 7

389
Example 34
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse
x 2  16 y 2  16
Solution
x 2  16 y 2  16
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
16 1 a b
a  16, a  4
2

b 2  1, b  1
 
Since a  b then a 2 1  e 2  b 2 the Ellipse is along x - axis
b2 1 15
e  1 2
 1 
a 16 4
15
 Eccentricity is
4

 Foci are  ae,0   ae,0   15,0 
a 16 15
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 15

Example 35
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse
7 x 2  11y 2  77
Solution

390
7 x 2  11y 2  77
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
11 7 a b
a  11, a  11
2

b 2  7, b  7
Since a  b then a 2 1  e 2   b 2 the Ellipse is along x - axis
b2 7 2
e  1 2  1 
a 11 11
2 11
 Eccentricity is
11
 Foci are  ae,0   ae,0   2,0
a 11
 Equations of directrices are x      5.5
e 2

Example 36
Find the standard equation of Ellipse whose foci are  2 7 ,0 and e 2    7
16
.

Solution
 
Foci  2 7 ,0 are in the form of  ae,0
ae  2 7
7
a 2 e 2  28 but e 2 
16
28
a2   64
e2
a 2  64.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
From b 2  a 2 1  e 2 
b 2  641  167   36
b 2  36.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
x2 y2
From the general standard equation  1
a2 b2
x2 y2
 The standard equation of the Ellipse is  1
64 36

391
Example 37
Find the standard equation of Ellipse whose foci are  5 ,0 and the  
9
directrices are x   .
5
Solution
 
Foci  5 ,0 are in the form  ae,0
ae  5.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
9 a
Directrices, x   are in the form x  
5 e
a 9
 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( ii)
e 5
Multiply equation (i) and (ii)
a  9 
ae   5  
e  5
a 2  9.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iii)
Divide equation (i ) by equation (ii)
ae 5

a 9
e 5

5
e 2  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( iv)
9
From b 2  a 2 1  e 2  
 5
b 2  91    4
 9
b  4.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (v)
2

x2 y2
From the general standard equation  1
a 2 b2
x2 y2
 The standard equation of the Ellipse is  1
9 4

392
CASE II: EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE ALONG Y-AXIS
Consider the figure below

fig 6. 21

SP
From the figure above  e where e  1
MP
SP  e MP, SP 2
 
 e 2 MP
2

By distance formula
2
 b
x   y  be  e  y  
2 2 2

 e
x 2  y 2  2aey  b 2 e 2  e 2 y 2  2bey  b 2
x 2  y 2  b 2e2  e2 y 2  b 2
x 2  e2 x 2  y 2  b 2  b 2e2
  
x 2  1 e2 y 2  1 e2 b2 
Divide by 1  e b 2 2
throughout
x2 y2
 1

1 e2 b2 b2 
 
Let a 2  1  e 2 b 2 where a  b
x2 y2
  1
a2 b2 x2 y2
Standard equation of Ellipse along x-axis  1
a 2 b2
Properties
(i) The equation is along x-axis
(ii) b  a
(iii) b 2 1  e 2   a 2

393
(iv) Foci, s0,be
b
(v) Directrices, y   
e
(vi) Vertices, 0,b  along major axis and  a,0 along minor axis.

Example 38
x2 y2
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse  1
9 25
Solution
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
9 25 a b
a  9, a  3
2

b 2  25, b  5
 
Since b  a then b 2 1  e 2  a 2 the Ellipse is along y - axis
a2 9 4
e  1 2
 1 
b 25 5
4
 Eccentricity is
5

 Foci are 0,be  0,4

b 25
 Equations of directrices are y   
e 4

Example 39
x2 y2
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse  1
4 16
Solution

394
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
4 16 a b
a  4, a  2
2

b 2  16, b  4
 
Since b  a then b 2 1  e 2  a 2 the Ellipse is along y - axis
a2 4 3
e  1 2
 1 
b 16 4
3
 Eccentricity is
4


 Foci are 0,be  0, 3 
b 16 3
 Equations of directrices are y    
e 3

Example 40
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse 2 x 2  y 2  4
Solution
2x 2  y 2  4
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
2 4 a b
a  2, a  2
2

b 2  4, b  2
 
Since b  a then b 2 1  e 2  a 2 the Ellipse is along y - axis
2
a 2 2
e  1 2
 1 
b 4 2
2
 Eccentricity is
2

 Foci are 0,be  0, 2 
b
 Equations of directrices are y    2 2
e

395
Example 41
2 2
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse x  y  12
1 1
4 3

Solution
x2 y2
  12
1 1
4 3

x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
3 4 a b
a  3, a  3
2

b 2  4, b  2
 
Since b  a then b 2 1  e 2  a 2 the Ellipse is along y - axis
a2 3 1
e  1 2
 1 
b 4 2
1
 Eccentricity is
2
 Foci are 0,be  0,1
b
 Equations of directrices are y    4
e
Example 42
2 2
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse x  y  4
2 3
Solution
x2 y2
 4
2 3
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
8 12 a b
a  8, a  2 2
2

b 2  12, b  2 3

396
Example 43
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse y2
x2  9
4
Solution
y2
x2  9
4
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
9 36 a b
a 2  9, a  3
b 2  36, b  6
 
Since b  a then b 2 1  e 2  a 2 the Ellipse is along y - axis
a2 9 3
e  1 2
 1 
b 36 2
3
 Eccentricity is
2
 Foci are 0,be  0,3 3  
b
 Equations of directrices are y    4 3
e

Example 44
Find the standard equation of Ellipse whose foci are 0, 6  and e2 
6 .
11
Solution
 
Foci 0, 6 are in the form of 0,be
be  6
6
b 2 e 2  6 but e 2 
11
6
b2   11
e2
b 2  11.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i )
From a 2  b 2 1  e 2 
 6
a 2  111    5
 11 
a  5.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
2

x2 y2
From the general standard equation  1
a 2 b2
x2 y2
 The standard equation of the Ellipse is  1
5 11
397
Example 45
Find the standard equation of Ellipse whose foci are 0, 15 and the  
directrices are y   16 .
15
Solution
 
Foci 0, 15 are in the form 0,be
be  15.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
16 b
Directrices, y   are in the form y  
15 e
b 16
 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( ii)
e 15
Multiply equation (i) and (ii)
b  16 
be   15 
e  15 
b 2  16.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iii)
Divide equation (i ) by equation (ii)
be 15 15
 , e2  .......... .......... .......... .......... (iv)
b
e
16
15
16
From a 2  b 2 1  e 2  
 15 
a 2  161    1
 16 
a  1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (v)
2

x2 y2
From the general standard equation  1
a 2 b2
x2 y2
 The standard equation of the Ellipse is  1
1 16

Example 46
Find the standard equation of the ellipse along y-axis and passing through the
points 3,2 and 1,6 .
Solution

398
x2 y2
  1 where b  a
a2 b2
b 2 x 2  a 2 y 2  a 2b 2
The ellipse pass through 3,2  and 1,6
At point 3,2 , 9b 2  4a 2  a 2 b 2 .......... .......... ........( i )
At point 1,6 , b 2  36a 2  a 2 b 2 .......... .......... .......( ii)
Subtract equations (i) and (ii)
8b 2  32a 2  0
b 2  4a 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( iii)
Substitute equation (iii) into equation (i)
 
9 4a 2  4a 2  a 2 4a 2  
40a  4a , 10a  a 4 , a 2 a 2  10  0
2 4 2
 
a  0 or a  10 but a  0
2 2 2

a 2  10.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( iv)

Substitute equation (iv) into equation (iii)
b 2  40.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( v)
x2 y2 x2 y2
From,   1 therefor e  1
a2 b2 10 40
x2 y2
 The equation of the Ellipse is  1
10 40

(b) Translated Equation of an Ellipse

CASE I: Translated Equation of Ellipse is an ellipse whose centre is at h, k  .
Consider an ellipse whose centre is translated from standard 0,0 to h, k 
along a line y  k as shown below,

399
 SP
From the figure above  e where e  1
MP
SP  e MP, SP  e 2 MP   2
  2

By distance formula
2
 a 
x  ae  h    y  k 
2 2
 e  x    h 
2

 e 
x 2  2 xae  h   ae  h    y  k   ex  a  eh
2 2 2

x 2  2hx  a 2 e 2  h 2   y  k   e 2 x 2  2e 2 hx  a 2  e 2 h 2
2

1  e x  2hx  h   y  k   1  e a
2 2 2 2 2 2

1  e x  h   y  k   1  e a
2 2 2 2 2

Divide by 1  e a throughout 2 2

x  h 2   y  k 2 1
a2 1  e a 2 2

Let b 2  1  e a 2 2
where a  b


x  h 2   y  k 2 1
a2 b2
x  h2   y  k 2 1
a2 b2

Properties
(i) The equation is symmetric about y  k
(ii) a  b
(iii) a 2 1  e 2   b 2
(iv) Foci, s ae  h, k 
a
(v) Directrices, x   h
e
(vi) Vertices,  a  h, k  along major axis and h,b  k  along minor axis

400
Example 47
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse
x  32 
 y  22 1
144 121
Solution
x  32   y  22  1 compare with
x  h 2   y  k 2 1
144 121 a2 b2
a  144, a  12
2

b 2  121, b  11
h  3, k  2
 The centre of an ellipse is 3,2 
 
Since a  b then a 2 1  e 2  b 2 an Ellipse is symmetric about a line y  k  2
b2 121 23
e  1 2
 1 
a 144 12
23
 Eccentricity is
12


 Foci are  ae  h, k    23  3,2 
a 144
 Equations of directrices are x   h 3
e 23

Example 48
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse
x  12   y  12 1
3 2
Solution

401
Example 49
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci and equations of directrices of an ellipse
3x  2  4 y  2  12
2 2

Solution
3x  2  4 y  2  12
2 2

x  22   y  22  1 compare with

x  h 2   y  k 2 1
4 3 a2 b2
a  4, a  2
2

b 2  3, b  3
h  2, k  2
 The centre of an ellipse is 2,2
Since a  b then a 2 1  e 2   b 2 an Ellipse is symmetric about a line y  k  2
b2 3 1
e  1 2
 1 
a 4 2
1
 Eccentricity is
2

 Foci are  ae  h, k    1  2,2

a
 Equations of directrices are x    h  4  2,2
e

402
Example 50
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse
4 x 2  25 y 2  24x  50 y  39  0
Solution
4 x 2  25 y 2  24x  50 y  39  0
4 x 2  24x  25 y 2  50 y  39
   
4 x 2  6 x  25 y 2  2 y  39 (by completing the square)
4x  3  25 y  1  100
2 2

x  32   y  12  1 compare with

 x  h  y  k 
2

2
1
25 4 a2 b2
a  25, a  5
2

b 2  4, b  2
h  3, k  1
 The centre of an ellipse is 3,1

Since a  b then a 2 1  e 2  b 2 
b2 4 21
e  1 2
 1 
a 25 5
21
 Eccentricity is
5


 Foci are  ae  h, k    21  3,1 
a 25
 Equations of directrices are x    h   3
e 21

403
CASE II: Translated Equation of Ellipse is an ellipse whose centre is at h, k  .
Consider an ellipse whose centre is translated from standard 0,0 to h, k 
along a line x  h as shown below,

fig 6. 22

SP
From the figure above  e where e  1
MP
SP  e MP, SP  e 2 MP   2
  2

By distance formula
2
 b 
x  h    y  be  k 
2 2
 e  y    k  
2

 e 
x  h 2  y 2  2 ybe  k   be  k 2   ye  b  ke2
x  h 2  y 2  2bye  2ky  b 2 e 2  2bek  k 2  y 2 e 2  2bye  2 ye2 k  b 2  2bek  k 2 e 2
x  h 2  y 2  2ky  b 2 e 2  k 2  y 2 e 2  2 ye2 k  b 2  k 2 e 2
x  h 2  1  e 2 y 2  2ky  k 2   1  e 2 b 2
x  h 2  1  e 2  y  k 2  1  e 2 b 2
Divide by 1  e 2 b 2 throughout
x  h 2 
 y  k 2 1
1  e b
2 2
b2
Let a 2  1  e 2 b 2 where a  b


x  h 2   y  k 2
1
a2 b2
x  h2   y  k 2  1
The equation of translated Ellipse is
a2 b2

404
Properties
(i) The equation is symmetric about x  h
(ii) b  a
(iii) b 2 1  e 2   a 2
(iv) Foci, sh,be  k 
b
(v) Directrices, y    k
e
(vi) Vertices, h,b  k  along major axis and  a  h, k  along minor axis.

Example 51
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse
x 12   y  22  1
36 64
Solution
x  12   y  22  1 compare with
 x  h  y  k 
2

2
1
36 64 a2 b2
a  36,
2
a6
b 2  64, b  8
h  1, k  2
 The centre of an Ellipse is 1,2

Since b  a then b 2 1  e 2  a 2 
a2 36 7
e  1 2
 1 
b 64 4
7
 Eccentricity is
4

 Foci are h,be  k   1, 3  2 
b 32 7
 Equations of directrices are y    k   2
e 7

405
Example 52
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse
9x  2  4 y  3  36
2 2

Solution
9x  2  4 y  3  36
2 2

x  22   y  32  1 compare with

x  h 2   y  k 2 1
4 9 a2 b2
a 2  4, a2
b 2  9, b  3
h  2, k  3
 The centre of an Ellipse is  2,3

Since b  a then b 2 1  e 2  a 2 
a2 4 5
e  1 2
 1 
b 9 3
5
 Eccentricity is
3


 Foci are h,be  k    2, 5  3 
b 9 5
 Equations of directrices are y    k   3
e 5

Example 53
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse
49x 2  36 y 2  392x  980  0
Solution

406
49x 2  36 y 2  392x  980  0
49x 2  392x  36 y 2  980
 
49 x 2  8 x  36 y 2  980
By completing the square
49 x  4  36 y 2  1764
2

x  42  y 2  1 compare with

 x  h  y  k 
2

2
1
36 49 a2 b2
a  36, a  6
2

b 2  49, b  7
h  4, k  0
 The centre of an Ellipse is  4,0

Since b  a then b 2 1  e 2  a 2
a2 36 13
e  1 2
 1 
b 49 7
13
 Eccentricity is
7

 Foci are h,be  k    4, 3  2 
b
 Equations of directrices are y    k   13
e

(c) General Equation of an Ellipse

Consider an Ellipse below

fig 6. 23

407
 SP
From,  e, SP  e MP
MP

x  p 2   y  q   e ax 2by 2c
a b
Square both sides

x  p    y  q   e ax2 by 2 c 
2 2
2

a b
 2 2
 2

 a  b x  p    y  q   e 2 ax  by  c 
2

PARAMETRIC EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE

Consider the standard equation of an Ellipse below,
x2 y2
 1
a 2 b2
2 2
 x  y
     1
a b
x y
But  cos and  sin
a b
 The parametric equations of an Ellipse are x  a cos and y  b sin

6.2.1 TANGENT TO AN ELLIPSE

Tangent is a straight line which touches an Ellipse at only one pont.

fig 6. 24

where P is a point of contact or point of tangency

408
CONDITION FOR TANGENCY TO AN ELLIPSE
x2 y2
Consider a line y  mx  c is a tangent to an Ellipse 2  2  1 the condition is
a b
obtained by substituting the line into an Ellipse and keep the discriminant equal
to zero.
x2 y2
Take a line y  mx  c substitute into 2  2  1
a b
x 2

mx  c   1
2

2
a b2
b 2 x 2  a 2 mx  c   a 2 b 2
2

a m
2 2
    
 b 2 x 2  2a 2 mc x  a 2 c 2  a 2 b 2  0

x
 2a 2 mc  2a mc   4a m  b a c
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 a 2b 2 
2a m  b  2 2 2

Discriminant  0
2a mc 
2 2
 
 4 a 2 m 2  b 2 a 2 c 2  a 2b 2  0 

4a 4 m 2 c 2  4a 2 a 2 m 2  b 2 c 2  b 2  

a 2m 2c 2  a 2m 2  b 2 c 2  b 2  
b 2 c 2  a 2b 2 m 2  b 4  0
c2  a 2m2  b2
c 2  a 2m2  b2
Condition for tangency to an Ellipse is

6.2.2 EQUATIONS OF TANGENT AND NORMAL OF AN ELLIPSE

(a) Cartesian Equation of a Tangent
Consider the figure below which show tangent line of an Ellipse

fig 6. 25

409
 x2 y2
Consider a tangent and normal to an Ellipse   1 at given point P x1 , y1 
a2 b2
The slope of tangent is the same as the slope of Ellipse at point of contact
2 x 2 y dy
 0
a 2 b 2 dx
b2 x
  2 The general slope of an Ellipse
dy
dx a y
b 2 x1
At point Px1 , y1 ,   2 slope of tangent  slope of Ellipse
dy
dx a y1
b 2 x1
Slope of tangent m   
a 2 y1
b 2 x1
Eqution of tangent w ith slope m   , x1 , y1 
a 2 y1
b 2 x1 y  y1
 2 
a y1 x  x1
 b 2 x1  x  x1   a 2 y1  y  y1 
 b 2 x1 x  b 2 x1  a 2 y1 y  a 2 y1
2 2

a 2 y1 y  b 2 x1 x  a 2 y1  b 2 x1
2 2

Divide by a 2 b 2 throughout
2 2 2 2
x1 x y1 y x1 y x y
2
 2  2  12 but 12  12  1
a b a b a b
xx yy
 12  12  1
a b
x1 x y1 y
The equation of tangent in Cartesian form is  1
a2 b2

Example 54
x2 y2
Find the equation of the tangent to the Ellipse   1 at point 2,3 .
6 27
Solution

410
 x2 y2 2 x 2 y dy dy 9x
Consider   1,   0, 
6 27 6 27 dx dx 2y

At point 2,3,
dy
 m  3
dx
Equation of tangent having m  3, and passing through 2,3
From, y  mx  x0   y0
y  3x  2  3
 The equation of tangent is 3x  y  9  0

Alternative
x2 y2
Given that ,   1 , a 2  6, b 2  27 and  x1 , y1   2,3
6 27
xx yy
From general tangent equation, 12  12  1
a b
2x 3y
 1
6 27
x y
  1, 3 x  y  9
3 9
 The equation of tangent is 3x  y  9  0

Example 55
x2 y2
Find the equation of the tangent to the Ellipse   1 at point  2,1 .
8 2
Solution
x2 y2 2 x 2 y dy dy x
Consider   1,   0, 
8 2 8 2 dx dx 4y

At point  2,1,
dy 1
m
dx 2
Equation of tangent having m   , and passing through  2,1
1
2
From, y  m x  x0   y0

y   x  2  1
1
2
 The equation of tangent is x  2 y  3  0

411
Example 56
Show that the condition for the line ax  by  c  0 to be a tangent to the Ellipse
x2 y2
  1 is c2  a4  b4
a2 b2
Solution
At tangenc y point the line and the Ellipse share the same coordinates
 ax  c 
ax  by  c  0, y   .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( i )
 b 
x2 y2
2
 2  1, b 2 x 2  a 2 y 2  a 2 b 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( ii)
a b
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
 ax  c 
2

b x a 
2 2 2
 a b
2 2

 b 
b 4 x 2  a 2 ax  c   a 2 b 4
2

b 4 x 2  a 4 x 2  2a 3 cx  a 2 c 2  a 2 b 4
a 4
  
 b 4 x 2  2a 3cx  a 2 c 2  b 4  0
 2a 3 c  4a c  4a  b a c
6 2 4 4 2 2
 b4 
x
2a  b  4 4

If a line is a tangent t o the curve the discriminant  0

  
4a 6 c 2  4 a 4  b 4 a 2 c 2  b 4  0
4a c  4a a  b c  b 
6 2 2 4 4 2 4

a c  a  b c  b 
4 2 4 4 2 4

a 4 c 2  a 4 c 2  a 4b 4  b 4 c 2  b8
0  a 4b 4  b 4 c 2  b 8
b 4 c 2  a 4b 4  b8
c2  a4  b4
 The condition is c 2  a 4  b 4

412
(b) Parametric Equation of a Tangent
Consider the figure below which show tangent line of an Ellipse

fig 6. 26

dx
x  a cos ,  a sin .......... .......... .......... ........( i )
d
dy
y  b sin ,  b cos .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
d
Combine equation (i) and equation (ii) by chain rule
dy dy d
 
dx d dx
dy b cos b
   cot .......... .......... .......... ...(iii)
dx a sin a
b
Slope of tangent   cot
a
Equation of tangent in parametric form
b cos y  b sin
 
a sin x  a cos
 b cos  x  a cos   a sin  y  b sin 
 bx cos  ab cos2   ay sin  ab sin 2 
 
ab cos2   sin 2   ay sin  bx cos
ay sin  bx cos  ab divide by ab throughout
x y
 cos  sin  1
a b
x y
The equation of tangent in parametric form is given by cos  sin   1
a b

413
EQUATION OF NORMAL TO AN ELLIPSE

(a) Cartesian equation of normal

Consider a normal to an Ellipse at point Px1 , y1 

fig 6. 27

Normal line is perpendicular the tangent line m1m2  1

 b 2 x1  a 2 y1
  2 m2  1, m2  2
 a y1  b x1
a 2 y1
Equation of normal with slope m2  and pass through Px1 , y1 
b 2 x1
a 2 y1 y  y1

b 2 x1 x  x1
a 2 y1  x  x1   b 2 x1  y  y1 
a 2 xy1  a 2 x1 y1  b 2 x1 y  b 2 x1 y1
 
a 2 xy1  b 2 x1 y  a 2  b 2 x1 y1
 
 a 2 y1 x  b 2 x1 y  a 2  b 2 x1 y1  0
The equation of normal in Cartesian is  
a 2 y1 x  b 2 x1 y  a 2  b 2 x1 y1  0

Example 57
x2 y2
Find the equation of the normal to the Ellipse   1 at point 2,1 .
8 2
Solution

414
 x2 y2 2 x 2 y dy dy x
Consider   1,   0, 
8 2 8 2 dx dx 4y

At point  2,1,
dy 1
 m1  
dx 2
Normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line, i.e. m1m2  1
1
m2  2
m1
Equation of normal having m  2, and passing through 2,1
From, y  mx  x0   y0
y  2x  2  1
 The equation of tangent is 2 x  y  5  0

(b) Parametric equation of normal

Consider a normal to an Ellipse at point Pa cos , b sin 

fig 6. 28

Normal line is perpendicular to a tangent line, by using m1m2  1

b b cos
Slope of tangent   cot  
a a sin
 b cos  a sin
 m2  1, m2  slope of normal
 a sin  b cos
Equation of Normal in parametric form
a sin y  b sin

b cos x  a cos
a sin  x  a cos   b cos  y  b sin 
ax sin  a 2 sin cos  by cos  b 2 sin cos
ax sin  by cos  a 2 sin cos  b 2 sin cos
ax sin  by cos  a 2  b 2 sin cos
Equation of normal in parametric is  
ax sin   by cos  a 2  b 2 sin cos

415
 6.2.3 CIRCLES OF AN ELLIPSE
There are two circles generated to an Ellipse which are
(a) Director circle
Director circle is a circle formed after joining points of intersections of
perpendicular tangents.

x2 y2
Consider the tangent y  mx  c to Ellipse  1
a2 b2
Condition for tangency is given by c 2  a 2 m 2  b 2 , c  a 2 m 2  b 2
Substitute c   a 2 m 2  b 2 into y  mx  c then formulate an equation in term of ' m'
y  mx  a 2 m 2  b 2
y  mx   a 2 m 2  b 2 (square both sides)
 y  mx 2  a 2 m 2  b 2
x   
 a 2 m 2  2 xym  y 2  b 2  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
2

m1 are roots of equation m2 and m1 and m2 are slopes of perpendiclar tangent s,

If the tangents are perpendicular m1m2  1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
y 2  b2
And also product of roots, m1m2  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( iii)
x2  a2
Equate equation (i )and equation (ii)
y 2  b2
 1
x2  a2
y 2  b2  a2  x2
x 2  y 2  a 2  b 2 where a 2  b 2  r 2
 x 2  y 2  r 2 where " r" radius of a director circle
Equation of Director Circle is
x2  y 2  r 2

416
(b) Auxiliary circle
Auxiliary circle is the circle whose radius is equal to semi-major axis, i.e. r  a

fig 6. 29

The equation of Auxiliary circle is given by x2  y2  a2 along x-axis.

OR

fig 6. 30

The equation of Auxiliary circle is given by x2  y 2  b2 along y-axis.

6. 2.4 CONCETRIC ELLIPSES

Concentric Ellipses are Ellipses whose centres are the same.

fig 6. 31

x2 y2 x2 y2
The equations of above Ellipse are   1 and  1
a2 b2 A2 B 2
From the figure above A  a  B  b

Condition for concentric ellipses A B  a b

417
6.3 HYPERBOLA
Hyperbola is the conic section whose eccentricity is greater than one, e  1.
Equations of Hyperbola
(a) Standard equation of Hyperbola
(b) Translated equation of Hyperbola
(c) General equation of Hyperbola
(a) Standard equation of Hyperbola
CASE I: EQUATION OF HYPERBOLA ALONG X-AXIS
Consider a standard hyperbola below along x-axis

fig 6. 32

SP
From the figure above  e where e  1
MP
SP  e MP, SP  e 2 MP   2
  2

By distance formula
2

x  ae2  y 2  e 2  x  a 
 e
x  2aex  a e  y  e 2 x 2  2aex  a 2
2 2 2 2

x 2  a 2e2  y 2  e2 x 2  a 2
a 2e 2  a 2  y 2  e2 x 2  x 2
e 2
 
1 a 2  y 2  e2 1 x 2 
e 2
 1x
 y  e2 2 2
 1a 2

Divide by e  1a 2 2
throughout
2 2
x y
 2 1
a2 e 1 a 2  
Let b  e  1 a 2
2
 2

2 2
x y
  2 1
a 2
b x2 y2
Standard equation of Hyperbola along x-axis  1
a2 b2

418
Properties
(i) The equation is symmetric about x-axis
(ii) a 2 e 2  1  b 2
(iii)Foci, s ae,0
a
(iv) Directrices, x   
e

Example 58
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
x2 y2
 1
9 4
Solution
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
9 4 a b
a  9, a  3
2

b 2  4, b  2
 
From a 2 e 2  1  b 2 the hyperbola is along x - axis
b2 4 13
e  1 2
 1 
a 9 3
13
 Eccentricity is
3


 Foci are  ae,0   ae,0   13,0 
a 9 13
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 13

Example 59
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
x2 y2
 1
5 3
Solution

419
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
5 3 a b
a  5, a  5
2

b 2  3, b  3
 
From, a 2 e 2  1  b 2 the hyperbola is along x - axis
2
b 3 8
e  1  1 
a2 5 5
2 2
 Eccentricity is
5


 Foci are  ae,0   ae,0   2 2 ,0 
a 5 2
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 4

Example 60
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
9 x 2  16 y 2  144
Solution
9 x 2  16 y 2  144
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
16 9 a b
a  16, a  4
2

b 2  9, b  3
 
From a 2 e 2  1  b 2 the hyperbola is along x - axis
2
b 9 5
e  1  1 
a2 16 4
5
 Eccentricity is
4

 Foci are  ae,0    ae,0    5,0 

a 16
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 5

420
Example 61
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
x 2  16 y 2  16
Solution
x 2  16 y 2  16
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
16 1 a b
a  16, a  4
2

b 2  1, b  1
 
From a 2 e 2  1  b 2 the hyperbola is along x - axis
b2 1 17
e  1 2
 1 
a 16 4
17
 Eccentricity is
4

 Foci are  ae,0   ae,0   17 ,0 
a 16 17
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 17

Example 62
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
7 x 2  11y 2  77
Solution

421
7 x 2  11y 2  77
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
11 7 a b
a  11, a  11
2

b 2  7, b  7
 
From a 2 e 2  1  b 2 the hyperbola is along x - axis
b2 7 18 3 2
e  1 2
 1  
a 11 11 11
3 22
 Eccentricity is
11

 Foci are  ae,0   ae,0   3 2 ,0 
a 11 2
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 6

Example 63
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
x2 y2
 1
9 25
Solution
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
9 25 a b
a  9, a  3
2

b 2  25, b  5
From a 2 e 2  1  b 2
b2 25 34
e  1 2
 1 
a 9 3
34
 Eccentricity is
3


 Foci are  ae,0   34 ,0 
a 9
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 34

422
Example 64
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
x2 y2
 1
4 16
Solution
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
4 16 a b
a  4, a  2
2

b 2  16, b  4
 
From a 2 e 2  1  b 2
b2 16
e  1 2
 1  5
a 4
 Eccentricity is 5


 Foci are  ae,0   2 5 ,0 
a 2 5
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 5

Example 65
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of an ellipse 2 x 2  y 2  4
Solution

423
Example 66
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
x2 y2
  12
1 1
4 3
Solution
x2 y2
  12
1 1
4 3
2
x y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
3 4 a b
a  3, a  3
2

b 2  4, b  2
 
From a 2 e 2  1  b 2
b2 4 7
e  1 2
 1 
a 3 3
7
 Eccentricity is
3
 Foci are  ae,0    7 ,0 
a 3 7
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 7

Example 67
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
x2 y2
 4
2 3
Solution

424
x2 y2
 4
2 3
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
8 12 a b
a  8, a  2 2
2

b 2  12, b  2 3
 
From a 2 e 2  1  b 2
b2 12 5
e  1 2  1 
a 8 2
5
 Eccentricity is
2


 Foci are  ae,0    2 5 ,0 
a 4 5
 Equations of directrices are x   
e 5

Example 68
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
y2
x   4.
2

4
Solution

425
Example 69
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
x 2  y 2  16
Solution
x 2  y 2  16
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
16 16 a b
a  16, a  4
2

b 2  16, b4

From a 2 e 2  1  b 2
b2 16
e  1 2  1  2
a 16
 Eccentricity is 2


 Foci are  ae,0   4 2 ,0 
a
 Equations of directrices are x    2 2
e

426
CASE II: EQUATION OF HYPERBOLA ALONG Y-AXIS

Consider a standard hyperbola below along y-axis

fig 6. 33

SP
From the figure above  e where e  1
MP
SP  e MP, SP  e 2 MP   2
  2

By distance formula
2
 b
x   y  be  e  y  
2 2 2

 e
x  y  2aey  b e  e 2 y 2  2bey  b 2
2 2 2 2

x 2  y 2  b 2e 2  e 2 y 2  b 2
x 2  b 2e 2  b 2  e 2 y 2  y 2
   
x 2  e2 1 b2  e2 1 y 2
e  1y  x  e  1b
2 2 2 2 2

Divide by e  1b throughout

2 2

y2 x2
 1

b2 e2 1 b2 

Let a 2  e 2  1 b 2 
y2 x2
  1
b2 a2 y2 x2
 1
Standard equation of Hyperbola along y-axis b2 a2
427
Properties
(i) The equation is along x-axis
(ii) b 2 e 2  1  a 2
(iii)Foci, s0,be
b
(iv) Directrices, y   
e

Example 70
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
y2 x2
 1
49 9
Solution
y2 x2 y2 x2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
49 9 b a
a  9, a  3
2

b 2  49, b  7
 
From b 2 e 2  1  a 2
a2 9 58
e  1 2  1 
b 49 7
58
 Eccentricity is
7


 Foci are 0,be  0, 58 
b 49
 Equations of directrices are y    
e 58

Example 71
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
y2 x2
 1
169 196
Solution

428
 y2 x2 y2 x2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
169 196 b a
a  196, a  14
2

b 2  169, b  13

From b e  1  a 2
2 2

a2 196 365
e  1 2
 1 
b 169 13
365
 Eccentricity is
13

 Foci are 0,be  0, 365  

b 169
 Equations of directrices are y   
e 365

Example 72
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
y 2  2 x 2  30
Solution
y 2  2 x 2  30
y 2  2 x 2  30
y2 x2 y2 x2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
30 15 b a
a  15, a  15
2

b 2  30, b  30

From b 2 e 2  1  a 2 
a2 15 3
e  1 2
 1 
b 30 2
3
 Eccentricity is
2
 Foci are 0,be  0,3 5  
b
 Equations of directrices are y    2 5
e
429
Example 73
Find the eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
y2  x2  1
Solution
y2  x2  1
y2 x2 y2 x2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
1 1 b a
a  1, a  1
2

b 2  1, b 1

From b 2 e 2  1  a 2
a2 1
e  1 2
 1  2
b 1
 Eccentricity is 2

 Foci are 0,be  0, 2  

b 2
 Equations of directrices are y   
e 2

Example 74
Find the centre and vertices of the hyperbola
11x 2  25 y 2  22x  250 y  889  0 .
Solution
Consider 11x 2  25 y 2  22x  250 y  889  0
11x 2  22x  25 y 2  250 y  889
  
11 x 2  2 x  25 y 2  10 y  889 
By completing the square
11 x  1  25 y  5  275
2 2

x  12   y  52  1 compare with

x  h 2   y  k 2 1
25 11 a2 b2
 Centre is h, k    1,5

 Vertices  a  h, k    5  1,5

430
Example 75
Find the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola whose vertices 0,6
and foci 0,7  .
Solution
Given that vertices 0,b   0,6 and foci 0,be  0,7 
From the data above b  6 and be  7.......... .......... .......... ...(i )
7 7
e   .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( ii)
b 6
 
a  b 2 e 2  1  6 2  76   1  13.......... .......... .......... .......... .(iii)
2 2

y2 x2 y2 x2
  1 therefore  1
b2 a2 36 13
y2 x2
 The equation of the hyperbola is  1
36 13

(b) Translated equation of Hyperbola

CASE I: Translated Equation of Ellipse is an ellipse whose centre is at h, k  .
Consider the hyperbola whose centre is translated from standard 0,0 to h, k 
along a line y  k as shown below,

fig 6. 34

431
 SP
From the figure above  e where e  1
MP
SP  e MP, SP  e 2 MP   2
  2

By distance formula
2
 a 
x  ae  h    y  k  2 2
 e  x    h 
2

 e 
x 2  2 xae  h   ae  h    y  k   ex  a  eh
2 2 2

x 2  2hx  a 2 e 2  h 2   y  k   e 2 x 2  2e 2 hx  a 2  e 2 h 2
2

e 2
 1a 2   y  k   e 2  1x 2  2hxe 2  1  e 2  1h 2
2

e 2
 1a 2   y  k   e 2  1x 2  2hx  h 2 
2

e 2
 1a 2   y  k   e 2  1 x  h 
2 2

e 2
 1a 2  e 2  1 x  h    y  k 
2 2

Divide by e 2  1a 2 throughout

x  h 2   y  k 2 1
a2 e 2
 1a 2
Let b 2  e 2  1a 2


x  h 2   y  k 2
1
a2 b2 x  h2   y  k 2
Translated equation of Hyperbola 1
a2 b2

Properties
(i) The equation is symmetric about y  k
(ii) a e  1  b
2
 2
 2

(iii)Foci, s ae  h, k 
a
(iv) Directrices, x   h
e
(v) Vertices,  a  h, k  along major axis and h,b  k  along minor axis.

432
Example 76
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
x  32   y  22  1
144 121
Solution
x  32   y  22  1 compare with
x  h 2   y  k 2 1
144 121 a2 b2
a  144, a  12
2

b 2  121, b  11
h  3, k  2
 The centre of hyperbola is 3,2 

Since a  b then a 2 e 2  1  b 2 
b2 121 265
e  1 2
 1 
a 144 12
265
 Eccentricity is
12

 Foci are  ae  h, k    265  3,2 
a 144
 Equations of directrices are x   h 3
e 265

Example 77
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
x  12   y  12 1
3 2
Solution
x  12   y  12  1 compare with
x  h 2   y  k 2 1
3 2 a2 b2
a  3, a  3
2

b 2  2, b  2
h  1, k  1
The centre of the hyperbola is 1,1

433
Since a  b then a 2 e 2  1  b 2
b2 2 5
e  1  1 
a2 3 3
5
 Eccentricity is
3
 
 Foci are  ae  h, k    
15
 1,1
 3 

a 3 15
 Equations of directrices are x   h 1
e 5

Example 78
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci and equations of directrices of the hyperbola
3x  2  4 y  2  12
2 2

Solution
3 x  2  4 y  2  12
2 2

x  22   y  22  1 compare with

x  h2   y  k 2 1
4 3 a2 b2
a  4, a  2
2

b 2  3, b  3
h  2, k  2
 The centre of the hyperbola 2,2

Since a  b then a 2 e 2  1  b 2 
b2 3 7
e  1 2
 1 
a 4 2
7
 Eccentricity is
2


 Foci are  ae  h, k    7  2,2 
a 4
 Equations of directrices are x    h    2,2
e 7

434
Example 79
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
4 x 2  25 y 2  24x  50 y  39  0
Solution
4 x 2  25 y 2  24x  50 y  39  0
4 x 2  24x  25 y 2  50 y  39
   
4 x 2  6 x  25 y 2  2 y  39 (by completing the square)
4 x  3  25 y  1  100
2 2

x  32   y  12  1 compare with

 x  h  y  k 
2

2
1
25 4 a2 b2
a  25, a  5
2

b 2  4, b  2
h  3, k  1
 The centre of an ellipse is 3,1

Since a  b then a 2 1  e 2  b 2 
b2 4 21
e  1 2
 1 
a 25 5
21
 Eccentricity is
5

 Foci are  ae  h, k    21  3,1 
a 25
 Equations of directrices are x   h 3
e 21

CASE II: Translated Equation of Ellipse is an ellipse whose centre is at h, k  .

Consider the hyperbola whose centre is translated from standard 0,0 to h, k 
along a line x  h as shown below,

435
 fig 6. 35

SP
From the figure above  e where e  1
MP
SP  e MP, SP  e 2 MP   2
  2

By distance formula
2

x  h 2   y  be  k 2  e 2  y   b  k  

 e 
x  h   y  2 ybe  k   be  k    ye  b  ke2
2 2 2

x  h 2  y 2  2bye  2ky  b 2 e 2  2bek  k 2  y 2 e 2  2bye  2 ye2 k  b 2  2bek  k 2 e 2

x  h 2  y 2  2ky  b 2 e 2  k 2  y 2 e 2  2 ye2 k  b 2  k 2 e 2
x  h 2  e 2  1b 2  e 2  1y 2  2kye 2  1  e 2  1k 2
x  h 2  e 2  1b 2  e 2  1y 2  2ky  k 2 
x  h 2  e 2  1b 2  e 2  1 y  k 2
e 2  1b 2  e 2  1 y  k 2  x  h2
 
Divide by e 2  1 b 2 throughout
y  k  2

x  h 2 1
b2 e 2
1 b2

Let a 2  e 2  1 b 2 

y  k  2

 x  h
2
1
b2 a2
The equation of translated Hyperbola
 y  k 2  x  h2  1
b2 a2

436
Properties
(i) The equation is symmetric about x  h
(ii) b 2 e 2  1  a 2
(iii)Foci, sh,be  k 
b
(iv) Directrices, y    k
e
Example 80
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
 y  22  x  12 1
64 36
Solution
 y  22  x  12  1 compare with
 y  k 2  x  h 2 1
64 36 b2 a2
a  36,
2
a6
b 2  64, b  8
h  1, k  2
 The centre of the hyperbol is 1,2 

Since b  a then b 2 e 2  1  a 2 
2
a 36 5
e  1 2
 1 
b 64 4
5
 Eccentricity is
4
 Foci are h,be  k   1,10  2
b 32
 Equations of directrices are y   k  2
e 5

Example 81
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci and equation of directrices of the hyperbola
4 y  3  9x  2  36
2 2

Solution
4 y  3  9x  2  36
2 2

 y  32  x  22  1 compare with

 y  k 2  x  h 2 1
9 4 b2 a2
a 2  4, a2
b 2  9, b  3
h  2, k  3
 The centre of the hperbola is  2,3

437
  
Since b  a then b 2 e 2  1  a 2
a2 4 13
e  1 2
 1 
b 9 9
13
 Eccentricity is
9
 
 Foci are h,be  k     2,
13
 3 
 3 
b 27 13
 Equations of directrices are y    k   3
e 13

(c) General equation of Hyperbola

Consider the hyperbola below;

SP
From,  e, SP  e MP
MP

x  p 2   y  q   e ax 2by 2c
a b
Square both sides

x  p    y  q   e ax2 by 2 c 
2 2
2

a b
 2 2
 2

 a  b x  p    y  q   e 2 ax  by  c 
2

438
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF THE HYPERBOLA
The parametric equations of the hyperbola are given as
x  a sec and y  b tan  or x  a cosh and y  b sinh where  is a parameter

6.3.1 TANGENT TO THE HYPERBOLA

This is a straight line which touches the hyperbola at only one point.

CONDITION FOR TANGENCY TO THE HYPERBOLA

x2 y2
Consider a line y  mx  c is a tangent t o the hyperbola 2  2  1
a b
2 2
x y
Substitute the line into the hyperbola 2  2  1
a b
x 2

mx  c   1
2

2
a b2
b 2 x 2  a 2 mx  c   a 2 b 2
2

b 2
    
 a 2 m 2 x 2  2a 2 mc x  a 2 b 2  a 2 c 2  0
2a 2 mc  4a m c  4b  a m a b
4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 a 2c 2 
x
2b  a m  2 2 2

If a line is a tangent t he discri min ant  0

 
4a 4 m 2 c 2  4 b 2  a 2 m 2 a 2 b 2  a 2 c 2  0 
2 2

a m c  b a m b c 0
2 2 2 2
 2 2

a 2 m 2 c 2  b 4  b 2 c 2  a 2b 2 m 2  a 2 m 2 c 2  0
b 4  b 2 c 2  a 2b 2 m 2  0
b2  c2  a 2m2  0
c2  a 2m2  b2
Condition for tangency to the Hyperbola is c 2  a 2m2  b2

439
EQUATIONS OF TANGENT AND NORMAL OF THE HYPERBOLA
(a) Cartesian Equation of a Tangent
Consider the figure below which show tangent line of the Hyperbola

fig 6. 36

x2 y2
Consider a tangent and normal to the Hyperbola   1 at given point P x1 , y1 
a2 b2
The slope of tangent is the same as the slope of Hyperbola at point of contact
2 x 2 y dy
 0
a 2 b 2 dx
dy b 2 x
 The general slope of Hyperbola
dx a 2 y
dy b 2 x1
At point Px1 , y1 ,  slope of tangent  slope of Hyperbola
dx a 2 y1
b 2 x1
Slope of tangent m   2
a y1
b 2 x1
Eqution of tangent w ith slope m  , x1 , y1 
a 2 y1
b 2 x1 y  y1

a 2 y1 x  x1
b 2 x1  x  x1   a 2 y1  y  y1 
b 2 x1 x  b 2 x1  a 2 y1 y  a 2 y1
2 2

a 2 y1 y  b 2 x1 x  b 2 x1  a 2 y1
2 2

Divide by a 2 b 2 throughout
2 2 2 2
x1 x y1 y x1 y x y
2
 2  2  12 but 12  12  1
a b a b a b
xx yy
 12  12  1
a b
x1 x y1 y
The equation of tangent to the Hyperbola in Cartesian form is  1
Example 82 a2 b2
440
Show that the condition for the line ax  by  c  0 to be a tangent to the
x2 y2
hyperbola 2  2  1 is c2  a4  b4 .
a b
Solution
At tangenc y point the line and the Ellipse share the same coordinates
 ax  c 
ax  by  c  0, y   .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( i )
 b 
x2 y2
2
 2  1, b 2 x 2  a 2 y 2  a 2 b 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( ii)
a b
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
 ax  c 
2

b x a 
2 2 2
 a b
2 2

 b 
b 4 x 2  a 2 ax  c   a 2 b 4
2

b 4 x 2  a 4 x 2  2a 3cx  a 2 c 2  a 2 b 4
b 4
 a 4 x 2  2a 3 cx  a 2 c 2  b 4   0
 2a 3 c  4a 6 c 2  4b 4  a 4 a 2 c 2  b 4 
x
2a 4  b 4 
If a line is a tangent t o the curve the discriminant  0
4a 6 c 2  4b 4  a 4 a 2 c 2  b 4   0
4a 6 c 2  4a 2 a 4  b 4 c 2  b 4   0
4a 6 c 2  4a 2 a 4  b 4 c 2  b 4 
a 4 c 2  a 4  b 4 c 2  b 4 
a 4 c 2  a 4 c 2  a 4b 4  b 4 c 2  b8
0  a 4b 4  b 4 c 2  b8
b 4 c 2  a 4b 4  b8
c2  a4  b4
 The condition is c 2  a 4  b 4

441
(b) Parametric Equation of a Tangent
Consider the figure below which show tangent line of the Hyperbola

fig 6. 37

dx
x  a sec ,  a sec tan  .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
d
dy
y  b tan  ,  b sec2  .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( ii)
d
Combine equation (i) and equation (ii) by chain rule
dy dy d
 
dx d dx
dy b sec2  b sec b
   .......... .......... .......... .......( iii)
dx a sec tan  a tan  a sin 
b
Slope of tangent 
a sin 
Equation of tangent in parametric form
b y  b tan 

a sin  x  a sec
b x  a sec   a sin   y  b tan  
bx  ab sec  ay sin   ab sin  tan 
bx cos  ab  ay sin  cos  ab sin 2 
bx cos  ay sin  cos  ab  ab sin 2 
bx cos  ay sin  cos  ab 1  sin 2   
bx cos  ay sin  cos  ab cos2 
bx  ay sin   ab cos
bx  ay sin   ab cos  0
The equation of tangent to the hyperbola in parametric form is
bx  ay sin   ab cos  0

442
6.3.2 EQUATION OF NORMAL TO THE HYPERBOLA
(c) Cartesian equation of normal
Consider a normal to the Hyperbola at point Px1 , y1 

fig 6. 38

Normal line is perpendicular the tangent line m1m2  1

 b 2 x1  a 2 y1
 2 m2  1, m2  
 a y1  b 2 x1
a 2 y1
Equation of normal with slope m2  and pass through Px1 , y1 
b 2 x1
a 2 y1 y  y1
 
b 2 x1 x  x1
 a 2 y1  x  x1   b 2 x1  y  y1 
 a 2 xy1  a 2 x1 y1  b 2 x1 y  b 2 x1 y1

a 2 xy1  b 2 x1 y  a 2  b 2 x1 y1
2 2

 a y1 x  b x1 y  a  b 2 x1 y1  0
2

The equation of normal in parametric form is given by
 
a 2 y1 x  b 2 x1 y  a 2  b 2 x1 y1  0

(d) Parametric equation of normal

Consider a normal to the Hyperbola at point Pa cos , b sin 

fig 6. 39

443
Normal line is perpendicular to a tangent line, by using m1m2  1
b
Slope of tangent 
a sin
 b   a sin
 m2  1, m2  slope of normal
 a sin  b
Equation of Normal in parametric form
 a sin y  b tan 

b x  a sec
 a sin  x  a sec   b y  b tan  
 ax sin  a 2 sin sec  by  b 2 tan 
a 2
 b 2 tan   ax sin  by
ax sin  by  a 2  b 2 tan 
Equation of normal in parametric form is  
ax sin  by  a 2  b 2 tan 

6.3.3 TRANSVERSE AXIS OF THE HYPERBOLA

Transverse axis is an axis joining two vertices of the hyperbola.

LENGTH OF THE TRANSVERSE AXIS OF THE HYPERBOLA

Consider the Hyperbola below along x-axis

fig 6. 40

VV   a  (a)2  2a 2
 Length of transverse axis along x  axis is 2a

444
Consider the Hyperbola below along y-axis

fig 6. 41

VV   b  (b)2  2b2
 Length of transverse axis along y  axis is 2b

LATUS RECTUM OF THE HYPERBOLA

This is a focal chord which is perpendicular to the transverse axis of the
hyperbola.

fig 6. 42

445
Length of the Latus Rectum to the Hyperbola
We need to find the length of the Latus rectum from P to P
x2 y2
  1 but x  ae at point P and P
a2 b2
ae2  y 2  1
a2 b2
b 2 ae  a 2 y 2  a 2 b 2
2

a 2b 2 e 2  a 2 y 2  a 2b 2
b 2e2  y 2  b 2
   
y 2  b 2 e 2  1 but b 2  a 2 e 2  1
y  a e  1e  1
2 2 2 2

y  a e  1
2 2 2 2

y  a e  1
2 2 2

y   a e  1
2

Length  ae  1   ae  1  2a e

2 2 2
1
The length of Latus Rectum is given by  
2a e 2  1

6.3.4 ASYMPTOTES TO THE HYPERBOLA

Asymptotes to the hyperbola are the straight lines which do not touch the
hyperbola even at infinity.

fig 6. 43

446
EQUATIONS OF ASYMPTOTES TO THE HYPERBOLA
x2 y2
Consider a line y  mx  c as a tangent t o the hyperbola  1
a2 b2
x 2 mx  c 
2
 1
a2 b2
b 2 x 2  a 2 mx  c   a 2b 2
2

b 2 x 2  a 2 m 2 x 2  2mcx  c 2   a 2b 2
b 2 x 2  a 2 m 2 x 2  2a 2 mcx  a 2 c 2  a 2b 2
b 2
 a 2 m 2 x 2  2a 2 mcx  a 2 c 2  a 2b 2   0

x
2a 2 mc  2a mc   4b  a m a c
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 a 2b 2 
2b  a m 
2 2 2

Discriminant  0
a 2 mc
x
b2  a 2m2
For the line to be asymptote the denominator should be equal to zero
b2  a 2m2  0
b2
m2 
a2
m   The slopes of asymptotes.......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
b
a
From condition for tangency c 2  a 2 m 2  b 2
c2  a2m2  b2
 b2 
c 2  a 2  2   b 2
a 
c2  b2  b2
c  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
Substitute equations (i) and (ii) into y  mx  c

y   x Equations of Asymptotes
b
a
b
 The equations of asymptotes are y x
a

447
Example 83
2 2
Find the asymptotes of the hyperbola x  y  1 .
25 16
Solution
x2 y2 x2 y2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
25 16 a b
a  25, a  5
2

b 2  16, b  4
b
Asymptotes, y   x
a
4
 Asymptotes are y   x
5

Example 84
Find the vertices and asymptotes of the hyperbola 9 y 2  16 x 2  144 .
Solution
9 y 2  16x 2  144
y2 x2 y2 x2
  1 compare with 2  2  1
16 9 b a
a  9, a  3
2

b 2  16, b  4
b
Asymptotes, y   x
a
4
 Asymptotes are y   x
3

 Vertex 0,b   0,4

448
Example 85
Find the asymptotes of the hyperbola 3 x 2  4 y 2  12  0 .
Solution
3x 2  4 y 2  12  0
3x 2  4 y 2  12
x2 y2
 1
4 3
a 2  4, a  2
b 2  3, b  3
b 3
y   x, y   x
a 2
3
 The equations of asymptotes y   x
2

6.3.5 RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA

Rectangular Hyperbola is the hyperbola whose asymptotes are perpendicular to
each other.
Rectangular Hyperbola sometime is called Equilateral Hyperbola

fig 6. 44

449
EQUATIONS OF ASYMPTOTES OF THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA
b
From the general equations of asymptotes y   x.......... .......... ...( i )
a
b b
i.e. y   x, m1  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
a a
b b
y   x, m2   .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( iii)
a a
The Asymptotes for Rectangular Hyperbola are perpendicular
m1m2  1
 b  b 
     1
 a  a 
b2  a2
a  b.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( iv)
Substitute equation (iv) into equation (i)
a
y x
a
y   x or y  x  0 and y  x  0
 The equations of asymptotes of rectangular hyperbola are y  x

CONDITION FOR RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA

x2 y2
From standard equation of hyperbola 2  2  1 but a  b
a b
2 2 2 2
x y x y
2
 2  1 or 2  2  1
a a b b
 x  y  a or x 2  y 2  b 2
2 2 2

Example 86
Prove that the straight line lx  my  n touches rectangular hyperbola xy  c 2 if
n 2  4mlc 2 .
Solution

450
Substitute a line lx  my  n into hyperbola xy  c 2
 n  lx 
x c
2

 m 
nx  lx 2  mc 2
lx 2  nx  mc 2  0

Check if it satisfy perfect square i.e. condition for tangency, b 2  4ac 
b n
2 2

4ac  4mlc 2
But n 2  4mlc 2
 The given line is a tangent t o the rectangular hyperbola

6.4 POLAR COORDINATES

Polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each
point on a plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and an angle
from a reference direction.

The reference point (analogous to the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system)

is called the pole, and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the
polar axis. The distance from the pole is called the radial coordinate or radius,
and the angle is called the angular coordinate, polar angle.

Relationship between Polar coordinate and Rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates

Consider the sketch below

fig 6. 45

451
 x y
From the figure above cos  and sin 
r r
x  r cos .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i )
y  r sin .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(ii)
Divide equation (ii) by equation (i)
y
tan  
x
 y
  tan 1  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( iii)
x
Squre equations (i) and (ii) then add

x 2  y 2  r 2 cos2   sin 2  
x2  y2  r 2
r  x 2  y 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( iv)

Example 87
Change the Cartesian equation 4 x 2  9 y 2  36 into polar form.
Solution
Consider 4 x 2  9 y 2  36.......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
x  r cos and y  r sin  .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
4r cos   9r cos   36
2 2

 4r 2 cos2   9r 2 sin 2   36

Example 88
Change the Cartesian equation x 2  2 xy  y 2  4 into polar form.
Solution
Consider x 2  2 xy  y 2  4.......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
x  r cos and y  r sin  .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
r cos 2  2r 2 cos sin   r cos 2  4
r 2 cos2   2r 2 cos sin   r 2 sin 2   4

r 2 cos2   2 cos sin   sin 2   4 
r 2 cos  sin    4
2

 r cos  sin    2

452
Example 89
Change the polar equation r  3  2 cos Cartesian form.
Solution
Consider r  3  2 cos .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
x
cos  .......... .......... ............ .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
r
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
 x
r  3  2 
r
r  3r  2 x but r 2  x 2  y 2
2

x2  y 2  3 x2  y 2  2x
 x2  2x  y 2  3 x2  y 2

Example 90
4
Change the polar equation r  Cartesian form.
1  2 sin 
Solution
4
Consider r  .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i )
1  2 sin 
sin   ry .......... .......... ............ .......... .......... .......... .(ii)
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
4
r
1  2 ry 
4r
r , r  2 y  4 but r  x 2  y 2
r  2y
x2  y2  2 y  4
 x 2  3 y 2  16 y  16  0

Graphs of Polar Equations

The graph of a polar equation is the set of all points in the plane whose polar
coordinates satisfy the equation.
One method we use to sketch the graph of a polar equation is to plot points. In
graphing a polar equation of the form r  f   we treat  as the independent

453
variable and r as the dependent variable. We select several values of  ,
calculate the corresponding value of r , then plot the points r ,  . Through
these points we draw a smooth curve.

General forms of polar curves

(a) General curve of r  a  b cos where a  b   .

(b) General curve of r  a  b sin where a  b   .

(c) General curves of r  a cos and r  a sin where a  0 and a  0 .

454
(d) General curves of r  a cosn  and r  a sinn  where n is even and 2n
petals.

(e) General curves of r  a cosn  and r  a sinn  where n is odd and n

petals.

(f) General curves of r 2  a 2 cos 2 , r 2  a 2 cos 2 , r 2  a 2 sin 2 and

r 2  a 2 sin 2 .

Recall: A negative "r" means we need to be on the opposite side of the origin.

455
Example 91

Sketch the curve of r  2  3sin

Solution
Table of values r  2  3sin
0 30  60  90  120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

0    2 5  7 4 3 5 11 2
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6

2 3.5 4.6 5 4.6 3.5 2 0.5  0.6  1  0.6 0.5 2

The curve of r  2  3sin

Example 92
Sketch the curve of r  2  2 sin
Solution
Table of values r  2  2 sin
0 30  60  90  120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

0    2 5  7 4 3 5 11 2
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6

2 1 0.27 0 0.27 1 2 3 3.7 4 3.7 3 2

456
Example 93
Sketch the curve of r  3cos2
Solution
Table of values r  3cos2
0 30  60  90  120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

0    2 5  7 4 3 5 11 2
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
3 1.5 1.5  3 1.5 1.5 3 1.5 1.5  3 1.5 1.5 3

The curve of r  3cos2

457
Example 94
Sketch the curve of r  sin 1
Solution
Table of values r  sin 1

Example 95
Sketch the curve of r  2.5
Solution
This means that radius is constant, no matter what value of angle  takes.

458
Example 96
Sketch the curve of r  1 cos
Solution

Example 97
Sketch the curve of r  1 cos
Solution

Example 98
Sketch the curve of r  1 sin
Solution

459
Example 99
Sketch the curve of r  1 sin
Solution

Example 100
Sketch the curve of r  2  4 cos
Solution

Example 101
Sketch the curve of r  2  4 cos
Solution

460
Example 102
Sketch the curve of r  2  4sin
Solution

Example103
Sketch the curve of r  2  4 sin
Solution

Example 104
Sketch the curve of r  cos2
Solution

461
Example 105
Sketch the curve of r  cos3
Solution

Example 106
Sketch the curve of r  cos4
Solution

Example 107
Sketch the curve of r  cos5
462
Solution

Example 108
Sketch the curve of r  sin 2
Solution

Example 109
Sketch the curve of r  sin 3
Solution

Example 110
Sketch the curve of r  sin 4
463
Solution

Example 111
Sketch the curve of r  sin 5
Solution

Example 112
Sketch the curve of r  sin 6
Solution

Example 113
Sketch the curve of r  sin 7
Solution

464
Example 114
Sketch the curve of r  sin 8
Solution

6.5 APPLICATIONS OF CONIC SECTIONS

There are three conics in the conics sections- Parabolas, Ellipses and
Hyperbolas. We see them everyday, but we just don't notice them. They appear
everywhere in the world and can be man-made or natural. The applications of
conics can be seen everyday all around us. Conics are found in architecture,
physics, astronomy and navigation. If you get lost, you can use a GPS and it
will tell you where you are (a point) and it will lead you to your destination
(another point). Bridges, buildings and statues use conics as support systems.
Conics are also used to describe the orbits of planets, moons and satellites in
our universe. Conics have also helped mankind. Conics are everywhere.

Parabolas are really common in our daily lives. Parabolas can be found in most
things we encounter everyday. Parabolas are formed when a football is kicked,
a baseball is hit, a basketball hoop is made, dolphins jump and much more. A
parabola forms when a comet shoots across the sky. Parabolas have helped
465
mankind in many ways. One example, is astronomy. Sometimes, parabolas are
used to determine the distance of the rocket ship traveling up in the sky. The
Eiffel Tower is known worldwide to be in the form of a parabola. Thousands of
people see the Eiffel Tower everyday, yet they don't notice the significance of
how the tower is formed. They do not realize that the parabola is actually really
important in the structure of the tower. The middle of The tower can be seen as
the "Axis of Symmetry" because that is where the middle of the tower is. The
bottom part of the Eiffel Tower seems as if it is showing a "negative parabola".
The Eiffel Tower was built and designed this way so it could support the wind
and so it would be more stable. Another significant item that helps us everyday
is Automobile Headlights. Without them, there would be tons of accidents daily
and we wouldn't be able to commute safely. When the headlights are turned on,
the light takes shape in a parabolic manner and it shines in front of the car while
moving. The headlights are in the form of a parabola and they also have a
vertex (the starting point) and the focus (the point of the light that leads the
rest). Parabolas are found everywhere and the shape has truly helped mankind.

Eyes
The part of the eye that can be compared to a circle, is the iris because the iris is
the overall part and the pupil is the center.

The Eiffel Tower

The bottom of the Eiffel Tower is a parabola and it can be interpreted as a
negative parabola because it opens down.

Roller Coasters
"The parabola is the form taken by the path of any object thrown in the air, and
is the mathematical curve used by engineers in designing some suspension
bridges. The properties of the parabola make it the ideal shape for the reflector
of an automobile headlight."
Have you ever wondered why the best roller coasters are parabolic? When on a
roller coaster, it feels like you're defeating or going against the force of gravity.
When a coaster falls from the peak of a parabola, it is rejecting air resistance. In
America, there are hundreds of theme parks and thousands of roller coasters.
People of all different ages ride roller coasters but only a few notice that most
roller coasters are in the form of a parabola.

The cups we use, the CD's and DVD's we watch, the caps we take off of our
juice and water bottles, the soccer balls we kick, the pizza we eat and the list
goes on and on. All these little things are just some of the objects that take a
circular shape. Parabolas and Circles are probably the two most common conics
because you can see these two shapes everywhere. Pizza, as significant as it
466
may seem, is actually a really great example of how a circle works in the conic
sections. The center of pizza is like the center of a circle because that’s the
point where everything meets/starts. The slices of pizzas can kind of be
visualized as the radius of the circle because they extend towards the edge of
the circle. Another example is "eyes". Our eyes are really important because
without them, we wouldn’t be able to see. Our eyes take the shape of a circle
and our pupils can be compared to the center of the circle.

Pizza
Pizza is not a really significant concept in the world, and that’s why, it makes a
great example. People nowadays, do not make an effort to relate math to the
real world when really, math has changed the world in so many ways. The
simple idea of a "pizza" taking the shape of a circle shows how important
conics really are in our daily lives.

Clocks
Clocks are really useful and important because they help us keep time. Before,
we used a sun dial to tell time but now we have the clock. But the clock has
always taken the form of a circle. The middle of the clock is the "center" of the
circle and the hands are the "radius".

Ellipses
Ellipses are seen everyday and all around the world. We don't notice the
importance of this conic, but it really has an impact on the world. There are
many items that are used daily that take the form of a parabola. There's
buildings, supplies, toys, foods and much more. Ellipses are actually really
important because planets take an elliptical path. This occurs in our universe.
Some foods that look like ellipses are lemons and eggs. Most of us eat eggs
everyday but we don't realize that the egg actually takes the form of an ellipse.
For example, an ellipse is formed when you tilt a glass of water. When the cup
is tilted, the water all goes to one side, making the water uneven, forming an
ellipse. Conics are really important because they help us daily.

Football
Many people play football...on a team or just for fun. The thing is that nobody
notices the importance of why the football is shaped this way. Because the
football is in the shape of an ellipse, it rotates and moves quicker. This makes it
easier and much more convenient when throwing the ball long distance.
467
Tycho Brahe Planetarium
The Tycho Brahe Planetarium is located in Copenhagen, Denmark. It is in
honor of Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer. It was opened on November 1st,
1989. The building takes the form of an ellipse and it is clearly shown. Any
cylinder sliced at an angle will reveal an ellipse.

The Planets
The early Greek astronomers thought the planets moved in circular orbits
around an unmoving Earth. In the 17th century, Johannes Kepler eventually
discovered that each planet moves in an elliptical pattern around the sun. The
sun is the center of the "ellipse". Many people don't realize that we literally
travel in an ellipse.

Hyperbolas
A hyperbola is the mathematical shape that you obtain when vertically cutting a
double cone. The hyperbola has a few properties that allow it to play its part in
the real world. Many fields use this conic to help in design. Hyperbolas are the
least common conics in daily life. They aren't seen as much or as often as the
other 3 conics. Some examples are radios and satellites. Both of these use
hyperbolic functions. When scientists launch a satellite into space, they must
first use various mathematical equations to predict its path. By using
hyperbolas, scientists can make sure that the satellite gets to its proper
destination. There are many hyperbolic structures in real life.

The James S Mcdonnell Planetarium

The James S Mcdonnell Planetarium is part of the Saint Louis Science Center
in St. Louis, Missouri. In the field of architecture, there are many buildings and
statues that take the form of conics. In the architecture of the James S
Mcdonnell Planetarium, a hyperbola is formed. In the middle, you can clearly
see the "box" that is formed when the points are created. The asymptotes extend
to the sides. Perhaps many people see this building but don't know that it is in
the form of a hyperbola.

Lamp Shade
When you turn on a lamp, you get a hyperbola. If the lamp is open from the top
and the bottom, the light comes out and form a hyperbola. The asymptotes can
be seen coming out from the top and the bottom.

468
General Examples

Example 115
Find equation of parabola when its vertex is at (0,0) and passes through (5,2)
and symmetry with respect to y  axis .
Solution
Consider the sketch below;

From x 2  4by.......... .......... .......... .........( i )

Point 5,2 satisfy equation (i)
5 2  8b
25
b  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(ii)
8
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
 25 
x 2  4  y
 8 
25
 x2  y
2

469
Example 116
For what value of  does the line x  y  1  0 touch the parabola y 2  x .
Solution
Substitute y  x  1 into y 2  x
x  12  x
x 2  2 x  1  x
x 2  2   x  1  0
If the line touches the parabola b 2  4ac
2   2  4
2  4  0
  4

Example 117
Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines joining the vertex of the
parabola x 2  12 y to the ends of its latus rectum.
Solution
Consider the sketch below;

x 2  12 y compare with x 2  4by

b3
Length of Latus rectum, L  4b  12
1 1
A  Lb   12  3  18sq. units
2 2
 Area of a triangle is 18sq. units

470
Example 118
If a parabolic reflector is 20cm in diameter and 5cm deep, find the locus.
Solution
Consider the sketch below;

Consider y 2  4ax.......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i)

But x, y   5,10 satisfies the equation (i)
102  20a
a5
 The locus of the reflectoris y 2  20x

Example 119
A cable used to support a swinging bridge approximates the shape of a
parabola. Determine the equation of the parabola if the length of the bridge is
100m and the vertical distance from where the cable is attached to the bridge to
the lowest point of the cable is 20m.
Solution

Consider the figure below;

471
Consider x 2  4by.......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
But  x, y   50,20 satisfies the equation (i)
502  80b
125
b
4
 The locus of the reflectoris x 2  125y

Example 120
A satellite dish receiver is in a shape of parabola. A cross section of the dish
shows a diameter of 13 feet at a distance 2.5 feet from the vertex of the
parabola
(a) Write an equation for the parabola.
(b) Where the receiver should be placed?
Solution
Consider the figure below;

a  Consider y 2  4ax.......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i)

But x, y   2.5,6.5 satisfies the equation (i)
6.5 2  10a
a  4.225
 The locus of the reflectoris y 2  16.9 x

b  The receiver should be placed at focus a,0  4.225,0

472
Example 121
Find the equation of the ellipse given that the centre is ( 4,1) , focus is (1,1)
and passing through (8,0) .
Solution

Consider
x  h 2   y  k 2  1.......... .......... .......... ...(i )
a2 b2
Centre  h, k   4,1
Focus  ae  h, k   1,1
ae  h  1
ae  3.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)

From a 2 1  e 2  b 2 
a 2  ae  b 2
2

a 2  9  b 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( iii)

Then,
x  42   y  12
1
a2 b2
x  42   y  12  1 this equation pass through 8,0
a2 a2  9
16 1
 2 1
a 2
a 9
a 4  26a 2  144  0
a 2  18, a 2  8
When a 2  18, b 2  a 2  9  9
When a 2  8, b 2  a 2  9  1 invalid 
Substitute equation a 2  18, b 2  9 into equation (i)


 x  4
2

 y  1
2
1
18 9

Example 122
4
Prove that the equation r  represent translated parabola.
1  cos
Solution

473
 4 x
Consider r  but cos 
1  cos r
4 4r
r 
x rx
1
r
4r
r
rx
r  x  4 but r  x2  y2
x2  y2  x  4
x2  y2  4  x
x 2  y 2  4  x 
2

x 2  y 2  16  8 x  x 2
y 2  16  8 x
 y 2  8x  2  the equation of translated parabola

Example 123
An arch is in form of a parabola with its axis vertical. The arch is 10m high and
5m wide at the base. How wide is it 2m from the vertex of parabola?
Solution
Consider the figure below;

From x 2  4by at  x, y   2.5,10

2.52  4b(10), b  5
32
Then x  85 y
2

At y  2, x  2
5

 Wide of an arch  2 x  2  2

5
5

474
 REVISION EXERCISE 6.1
1. Find equation of the parabola whose focus is the point ( 4,0) and whose
directrix is x  4 , also find the length of the latus rectum.
2. Find equation of parabola when its vertex is at (0,0) and passes through
(5,2) and symmetry with respect to y  axis .
3. Find equation of parabola whose focus is (3,0) and the directrix is
3x  4 y  1
4. Find equation of parabola whose focus is (1,1) and whose vertex is ( 2,1) .
5. Find equation of parabola whose focus is (0,5) and whose vertex is
( 2,3) .
6. Find the coordinates of focus, the equation of directrix and latus of the
parabola y 2  12x .
7. Find focus, vertex, length of latus rectum, equation of axis and the equation
of the directrix of the following,
(a) 3 y 2  4 x
59
(b) y 2  y  10 x  0
4
(c) 3 x 2  4 y

x2 1
8. (a) The parabola is given by y   x  , find
2 2
(i) Vertex and focus
(ii) The directrix and length of latus rectum
(b) Find the coordinates of the point of intersecting of the tangents at the
points (t1 , t 2 ) of parabola y 2  4ax .

9. (a) For what value of  does the line x  y  1  0 touch the

parabola y 2  x .
(b) If the normal from a point ( h, k ) meet the parabola y 2  4ax at three
points t1 , t 2 , t3 . Show that t1  t 2  t3  0
10. The normal to the parabola y 2  4 x at P (1,2) meets the x  axis at G
and M to the midpoint of PG through M parallel to the y  axis meets the
x  axis at N and the parabola at Q . Prove that QN  PG .
11. Find equation of tangent and normal at (3,4) to the parabola y 2  8( x  1) .
12. Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines joining the vertex of the
parabola x 2  12 y to the ends of its latus rectum.
475
13. If a parabolic reflector is 20cm in diameter and 5cm deep, find the locus.
14. A cable used to support a swinging bridge approximates the shape of a
parabola. Determine the equation of the parabola if the length of the bridge
is 100m and the vertical distance from where the cable is attached to the
bridge to the lowest point of the cable is 20m.
15. A satellite dish receiver is in a shape of parabola. A cross section of the
dish shows a diameter of 13 feet at a distance 2.5 feet from the vertex of
the parabola
(i) Write an equation for the parabola.
(ii) Where the receiver should be placed?
16. Find the equation of the ellipse given that the centre is ( 4,1) , focus is
(1,1) and passing through (8,0) .

REVISION EXERCISE 6.2

1. Find the major axis, minor axis, the value of c , vertices, directrices, foci,
eccentricity and length of latus rectum for ellipse,
(a) 36x 2  4 y 2  144
(b) 4 x 2  9 y 2  36 and give their sketch.
2. Find the equation of the,
(a) Ellipse if the vertices are (5,0) and foci (4,0)
(b) Find the equation of the ellipse if the length of major axis is 26 and foci
is (5,0) .
3. Find the distance between the foci, eccentricity and the length of the latus
rectum of 3x 2  4 y 2  12 .
4. Find the foci and directrix of the following ellipse
25x 2  4 y 2  50x  8 y  71 .
5. Find the equation of the ellipse if the centre is at the origin, major axis on
the y  axis and passing through (3,2) and (1,6) .
6. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the ellipse 5 x 2  3 y 2  137
at the point in the first quadrant whose ordinate is 2.
7. Find the equation of the tangents to the ellipse x 2  2 y 2  8 which are
parallel to the line y  2 x .
8. Find the equation of the ellipse if the length of the minor axis is 16 and
foci (0,6) .
9. Find the equation of the ellipse if the ends of the major axis are (3,0) and
ends of minor axis are (0,2) .
10. Find the equation of the ellipse if foci are (3,0) and a  4 .

476
 x2 y2
11. The normal at point P (4 cos ,3 sin ) on the ellipse   1 meets the
16 9
x  axis and y  axis at A and B respectively. Show that the locus of
the midpoint of AB is another ellipse with the same eccentricity as the
given ellipse.
x2 y2
12. P is the point (a cos , b sin ) on the ellipse 2  2  1 the normal at P
a b
to the ellipse meets the x  axis at Q . Show that the locus of the midpoint
2a 2  b 2 b
of PQ is an ellipse whose semi-axes are and .
2a 2
13. Find the equations to the normals at points (6,4) and (8,3) to the ellipse
x 2  4 y 2  100 . Prove that the line joining the origin to middle point of the
chord joining these two points is perpendicular to the line joining the origin
to the point of intersection of the normals.
14. The ellipse has its foci at points (1,0) and (7,0) when its eccentricity is
1
. Find the Cartesian equation.
2
15. Derive the formula for an ellipse lying along y  axis .
x2 y2
16. Find the equation of tangent and normal to the ellipse   1 at the
8 16
point (2,3) .
17. Find the equation of tangent and normal given the parametric point
x2 y2
( a cos , b sin ) to the ellipse 2  2  1 .
a b

18. A man running a race course notices that the sum of the distance from the
two flag posts from him is always 10metres and the distance between the
flag posts is 8metres. Find the equation of the path raced by the man.
19. A rod of length 12cm moves with its ends always touching the coordinate
axes. Determine the equation of the locus of a point P on the rod which is
3cm from the end in contact with the x  axis .
20. An arch is in the form of a semi ellipse. It is 8m wide and 2m high at the
centre. Find the height of the arch at point 1.5m from one end.
21. A rod AB of length 15m rests between two coordinate axes in such a way
that the end point A lies on y  axis . A point P ( x, y ) is taken on the rod in
such a way AP  6cm . Show that the locus of P is an ellipse.

477
 REVISION EXERCISE 6.3
1. Sketch the following hyperbolas and find their centre, transverse axis,
conjugate axis, value of c, vertices, directrices, foci, eccentricity and length
of latus rectum.
x2 y2
(i)  1
16 9
(ii) 16x 2  9 y 2  576

x2 y2
(iii)  1
9 27
(iv) 9 y 2  4 x 2  36
(v) 5 y 2  9 x 2  36
(vi) 3 x 2  y 2  4
2. (a) Prove that for a line to be tangent to a hyperbola is given b Prove that
for a line to be tangent to a hyperbola is given by ma  c  b
2 2

( x  p) 2 ( y  q) 2
(b)   1 is an equation of translated hyperbola.
a2 b2
3. (i) Find the coordinate of the foci, centre and equation of directrices from
the hyperbola 12x 2  5 y 2  48x  10 y  17 and sketch.
(ii) If 9 y 2  54 y  25x 2  200x  544  0 is an equation of hyperbola. Find
the centre, vertices, foci, directrices and equation of asymptotes and sketch
the graph.
4. (i) Find the equation of hyperbola where foci are (3,0) and vertices
(2,0) .
(ii) Find the equation of hyperbola when foci are (5,0) and transverse axis
is of length 8
5. (i) Find equation of hyperbola when foci are (0,13) and conjugate axis is
of length 24
(ii) Find the equation of hyperbola where foci are (3 5,0) and the latus
rectum is of length 8 .
(iii) Find equation of hyperbola if;
4
(a) Vertices are (7,0) and e 
3
(b) Foci are (0, 10) and passing through ( 2,3)

478
6. Find the equation of hyperbola whose directrix is 2 x  y  1  0 , focus (0,1)
3
and e 
2

7. Show that the point ( a sec , b tan  ) will satisfy the equation of hyperbola.
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2 2b 2
8. Show that the latus rectum of the equation,   1 is
a2 b2 a
9. Find the equation of the chord joining the points ( a sec , b tan  ) and
(sec , tan  ) .
10. Show that the graph of hyperbola 9 x 2  4 y 2  18x  24 y  63  0 is an
x2 y2
image of the hyperbola of the form of 2  2  1 . Then find,
a b
(i) Vertex
(ii) Eccentricity
(iii) Focus
(iv) Length of the latus rectum
11. Show that the ellipse 16x 2  25 y 2  400 and the hyperbola
4 x 2  5 y 2  20 are orthogonal.
1 1 
12. (a) Show that the point  a(t  1/ t ), b(t  1/ t )  is in hyperbola
2 2 
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2
(b) The two foci of the hyperbola are (3,0) , (7,0) and eccentricity is 2 .
Find its equation.
13. (a) Show that the line 3 x  4 y  5 is a tangent to the hyperbola
x 2  4 y 2  5 and find the point of contact.
(b) Find the two equation of the tangents with slope  1 to the
hyperbola x 2  4 y 2  4  0 . Hence write their point of contact with the
hyperbola.
14. Show that the equation of the tangent at ( x1 , y1 ) to the hyperbola
x2 y2
  1 is xx21  yy21  1 .
a2 b2 a b
15. Show that the equation of the tangent at ( a sec , b tan  ) to the hyperbola
x2 y2
  1 is bx  ay sin  ab cos  0
a2 b2

479
 Chapter Seven
STATISTICS
Statistics is the branch of mathematics which deals with collecting, organizing
and analyzing data obtained from various experiments, or is a systematic study
of numerical information.

TERMS USED IN STATISTICS

(a) Data is the collection of facts
(b) Information is processed data
(c) Frequency is the number of occurrence of the given data.
(d) Class interval is the group of data combined together.
(e) Class limits are lower and upper numbers involved in the class interval.
(f) Class mark is the average of lower limit and upper limit of the given class
interval.
(g) Class boundaries (or Class real limits) are numbers which separate one
class with another class.
(h) Class size is the difference between upper class boundary and lower class
boundary.

DATA
Data is the collection of facts

TYPES OF DATA
(i) Ungrouped data is the type of data in which each value is taken separately,
eg 3,5,9,15,20

(ii) Grouped data is the type of data in which data are categorized in classes, eg
Class Interval Frequency
09 9
1019 3
20 29 7
30 39 1

480
7.1 REPRESENTATION OF DATA
(a) Frequency Distribution Table
(b) Cumulative Frequency Distribution Table
(c) Frequency Polygon
(d) Frequency Histogram
(e) Cumulative Frequency Curve Or Ogive

(A) FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Frequency Distribution Table is the table of values with their
corresponding frequency, eg
Class Interval Frequency
21 25 3
26 30 5
31 35 2
36 40 4

(B) CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Cumulative Frequency Distribution Table is the table of values with their
corresponding cumulative frequency eg
Class Interval Frequency Commulative Frequency
21 25 3 3
26 30 5 8
31 35 2 10
36 40 4 14

(C) FREQUENCY POLYGON

Frequency polygon is a line graph which joins the corresponding points of
frequencies against the given values or class mark, eg

481
 (D) FREQUENCY HISTOGRAM
Frequency histogram is the bar graph which is drawn by using frequencies
against the given values or class mark, eg

(E) CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVE OR ORGIVE

Cumulative frequency curve or ogive is the curve of cumulative frequencies
against upper boundaries or values, eg

7.2 MEASURES OF DATA

There are three measures of data which are;
(a) Measures of central tendency
(b) Measures of dispersion
(c) Measures of position

482
 (A) MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
This is the value that describes a set of data by identifying the central values of
the given set of values.
These includes;
(i) Mean
(ii) Mode
(iii) Median
(i) Mean (Arithmetic Mean)
Arithmetic mean x  is the average of the given data (values).

 Mean for ungrouped data

Mean ( x ) 
Sum of observations

X
Number of observation N

x
X
N

Mean for grouped data

(a) By direct mean method
Mean by direct method is given by the following formula,

Mean ( x) 
 fx where x is ClassMark and f is frequency
f

(b) Mean by assumed mean

Derivation of formula of mean by assuming mean, consider the formula of
mean by direct method below,
x
 fx .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(i)
f
Let d  x  A where A is assumed mean
x  A  d .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( ii)
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)

x
 f  A  d    fA   fd  A f   fd
f f f
A f  fd
x 
f f
Mean  x   A 
 fd
f

483
 (c) Mean by coding method
Derivation of mean by coding method is shown as follows, consider the
assumed mean formula

Mean  x   A 
 fd .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i)
f
d
Let U  where C is a class size
C
d  UC.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( ii)
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)

Mean  x   A 
 fUC  A  C  fU
f f
C  fU
Mean  x   A 
f

 Mean Deviation
Mean Deviation is the arithmetic mean of the absolute deviations of all values
taken about any central value.

Mean Deviation 
 f xx
f

Example 1
Given the following distribution table,
Class Interval Frequency
7 14 17
15 22 12
23 30 24
31 38 43
39 46 31
47 54 14
55 62 22
Calculate the mean;
(a) By direct mean method
(b) By Assumed mean method
(c) By Coding method
484
Solution
Class Interval x f c. f fx d  x  A fd U  Cd fU

7 14 10.5 17 17 178.5 -24  408 -3 -51

15 22 18.5 12 29 222 -16  192 -2 -24
23 30 26.5 24 53 636 -8  192 -1 -24
31 38 34.5 43 96 1483.5 0 0 0 0
39 46 42.5 31 127 1317.5 8 248 1 31
47 54 50.5 14 141 707 16 224 2 28
55 62 58.5 22 163 1287 24 528 3 66

A  34.5
 f  163
 fx 5831.5
 fd 208
 fU 26
(a ) Mean by direct method

x 
 fx  5831.5  35.78
 f 163

(b) Mean by Assumed mean method

x  A
 fd  34.5  208  35.78
f 163

(c) Mean by Coding method

C  fU 826
x  A  34.5   35.78
f 163

485
(ii) Mode
Mode is a value which occurs most frequently in the given distribution.
 Mode for Ungrouped data
Mode for ungrouped data is obtained by checking or inspecting data which
occurs mostly.
 Mode for Grouped data
Consider the histogram below;

From the Histogram above

PRQ is similar to SRT
ER PQ

FR ST
M  L D1

U  M D2
M  L D2  U  M D1
MD2  LD2  UD1  MD1
MD1  MD2  UD1  LD2
M D1  D2   UD1  LD2 .......... .......... .......... ....( i )
But class size C  U  L, U  L  C.......... ......( ii)
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)
M D1  D2   L  C D1  LD2
M D1  D2   LD1  LD2  CD1
M D1  D2   LD1  D2   CD1 .......... .......... .......( iii)
Divide by D1  D2  throughout equation (iii)
 D1 
Mode M   L   C
 D1  D2 

486
where
L  Lower class boundary
D1  The difference between the frequency of modal class and the frequency of the
class before modal class
D2  The difference between the frequency of modal class and the frequency of the
class after modal class
C  Class size
U  Upper class boundary

Example 2
Calculate the mean and mode of the following distribution below,
Class interval Frequency
0  30 4
30 60 7
60 90 14
90120 11
120150 2

Solution

Class interval x f fx
0  30 15 4 60
30 60 45 7 315
60 90 75 14 1050
90120 105 11 1155
120150 135 2 270

487
 f  38
 fx  2850
 Mean  x  
 fx  2850  75
 f 38
 D1 
Mode  L   C
 D1  D2 
Modal class 60  90
L  60, C  30
D1  14  7  7
D2  14  11  3
 7 
 Mode  60   (30)  81
 73

(iii) Median
Median is the middle value of the given distribution when arranged in
ascending or descending order.

 Median for ungrouped data

Case I: When the number of observations (n) is odd, then median value is
 n21 th observation.
Case II: When the number of observations (n) is even, then median is the
average of two numbers  n2 th and  n2  1th observations.

 Median for grouped data

Median for grouped data is given by the formula

 N
  fb 
Median  L   2
C

 fw 

488
Where,
L  Lower class boundary of a median class
N  Sum of the frequencies
f b  Sum of frequency before the frequency of median class
f w  Frequency within the median class
C  Class size

Example 3
Given the following distribution table,
Class Interval Frequency
21 25 5
26 30 4
31 35 12
36 40 6
41 45 3
46 50 8

Calculate
(a) Mean by Coding method
(b) Mode
(c) Median
Solution
Class Interval x f c. f d  x A u  Cd fu

21 25 23 5 5 -10 -2 -10

26 30 28 4 9 -5 -1 -4
31 35 33 12 21 0 0 0
36 40 38 6 27 5 1 6
41 45 43 3 30 10 2 6
46 50 48 8 38 15 3 24

489
A  33
C 5
 fu  22
 f  38
(a ) Mean by coding method
C  fu 5(22)
x  A  33   35.89
f 38

 D1 
(b) Mode  L   C
 D1  D2 
Mode class is 31  35
L  31  0.5  30.5
D1  12  4  8
D2  12  6  6
C 5
 D1   8 
 Mode  L   C  30.5   5  33.36
 D1  D2  86

 N   fb 
(c) Median  L   2 C

 f w 
Median class is 31  35
L  31  0.5  30.5
N  38
f b 9
f w  12
   fb  9
C  30.5   2
N 38
 Median  L   2
 5  34.67
 fw   12 

490
Example 4
Find the mode and median of the following distribution below,
Class interval Frequency
10 20 3
20 30 2
30 40 10
40 50 4
50 60 5
60 70 2
Solution
 f  26
 D1 
Mode  L   C
 D1  D2 
L  30, D1  8, D2  6, C  10
 8 
 Mode  30   10  35.7
86

N 
   fb 
Median  L   2 C
 fw 
 
 
L  30, N  26,  f b  5, f w  10
 26  5 
 Median  30   2 10  38
 10 

Example 5
Find the mode and median of the following distribution below,
Class interval Frequency
4.0  4.2 3
4.3  4.5 8
4.6  4.8 11
4.9  5.1 13
5.2  5.4 12
5.5  5.7 5
5.8  6.0 1

491
Solution
Class interval f c. f
4.0  4.2 3 3
4.3  4.5 8 11
4.6  4.8 11 22
4.9  5.1 13 35
5.2  5.4 12 47
5.5  5.7 5 52
5.8  6.0 1 53

 f  53, C  0.3
 D1 
Mode  L   C
 1
D  D 2 

Modal class 4.9  5.1

L  4.9  0.05  4.85, D1  2, D2  1
 2 
 Mode  4.85   0.3  5.05
 2 1

N 
   fb 
Median  L   2 C
 fw 
 
 
Median class 4.9  5.1
L  4.85, N  53, f b  22, f w  13
 53  22 
 Median  4.85   2 0.3  4.95
 13 

492
 Exercise 7.1
1. From the following distribution,
x 10 20 30 40 50
f 16 18 25 19 22
Find the mean,
(a) By direct method
(b) By assumed mean method
(c) By coding method

2. From the following distribution

Class interval Frequency
0.20  0.24 3
0.25  0.29 10
0.30  0.34 12
0.35  0.39 9
0.40  0.44 2
Find,
(a) Mean
(b) Mode
(c) Median

(B) MEASURES OF DISPERSION

This is the measure of spreading (scatter) of the data. These are determinant on
how the given data varies from one another or from the mean.

Measures of dispersion includes;

(a) Range
(b) Variance
(c) Standard deviation

(a) Range
Range is the difference between maximum value and minimum value of data.
Range  Maximum value  Minimum value

493
(b) Variance
This is average of squared deviations of individual values from their arithmetic
mean.
Variance of data is denoted by Var ( x) or  2

 Variance for ungrouped data

Variance for ungrouped data is given by
Var ( x) 
 x  x  2

n
where
x  Individual data
x  Mean
n  Number of observations

Also the above formula can be expressed in the form below,

Var ( x) 
 x  x  2

.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( i )

n

Var ( x) 
 x 2  2 xx  x 2 
n

Var ( x) 
 x  2 x x   x
2

Var ( x) 
x 2

 2x
x  x 2

n n

Var ( x) 
 x2  2 x 2  x 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
n

 x  x  2
1
Var ( x) 
n

n
 x2  x 2

Example 6
Given the following N  10,  x  60 and  x 2
 1000, find
(a) Mean
(b) Variance
Solution
494
(a) Mean  x  
 x  60  6
N 10

(b) Var ( x)  1
n  x  x 
2 2
 101 1000  6 2  64

Example 7
It is given that N  200, x  48 and   3 and its required to find the values of
 x and  x 2

Solution

From mean formula, x 

x
N
  x  x N  48  200  9600

Also from Variance formula

Var ( x)   2 
x 2
 x x  x 2
N
 x   N x  x  x 2  6 2 (200)  48(9600)  482  465696
2 2

  x 2  465696

Example 8
The mean and variance of 7 observations are 8 and 16 respectively. If five of
the observations are 2,4,10,12 and 14 . Find the remaining two observations.
Solution
Let the two remaining observation be ' a ' and ' b'

From mean formula, x 

x
N
2  4  10  12  14  a  b
8
7
a  b  14.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
 x  x 
2

From variance formula, Var ( x) 

N
  x  8
2

16 
7
495
  x  8 2
 112
2  82  4  82  10  82  12  82  14  82  a  82  b  82  112
108  a  8  b  8  112
2 2

a  82  b  82  4
a 2  b 2  16a  b   124  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
a 2  b 2  1614  124  0
a 2  b 2  100.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( iii)
Solve equation (i) and (ii) simulteneously
a  b  14
 2
a  b  100
2

 a  6 when b  8 or a  8 when b  6

Example 9
Given that x is the mean and  2 is the variance of n
observations x1 , x2 , x3 , ..., xn . Prove that the mean and variance of the
observations ax1 , ax2 , ax3 , ..., axn are ax and a 2 respectively where a  0 .
Solution
Given observations x1 , x2 , x3 , ..., xn
x1  x2  x3 , ...,  xn
Mean x  
n
Required mean of ax1,ax2 ,ax3 , ...,ax n
ax1  ax2  ax3 , ...,  axn
Mean 
n
 x  x  x , ...,  xn 
Mean  a 1 2 3 
 n 
 Mean  ax

Given vari ance,  2


 x  x  2

n
Required Variance of ax1 ,ax2 ,ax3 , ...,ax n

Var ( x) 
 ax  ax  2


 a x  x 
2 2

a 2  x  x  2

 a 2 2
n n n
Var ( x)  a  2 2

496
Example 10
The mean and variance of 6 observations are 8 and 4 respectively. If each
observation is multiplied by 3, find the new mean and new variance of the
resulting observations.
Solution
Given that x  8,  2  4
New formula for mean and variance after multiplied by a constant number ' a  3'
New mean  ax  3  8  24
New variance  a 2 2  32  4  36
 New mean  24 and new variance  36

Example 11
The mean and standard deviation of 20 observations are found to be 10 and 2
respectively. On rechecking, it was found that an observation 8 was incorrect.
Calculate the correct mean and standard deviation in each of the following
cases,
(a) If the wrong item was omitted.
(b) If it is replaced by 12.
Solution
n  20, x  10 and   2

From, x 
x
n
 x  nx  20 10  200.......... .......... .......... .......... ........( i)
 2  1n  x 2  x 2
x 2
   
 n  2   x   20 2 2  102  2080.......... .......... ......( ii)
2

(a ) When 8 is omitted thenumber of observation reduce to n  19

Required correctedmean
Incorrect:  x  200
Correct :  x  200  8  192

 Correctedmean 
 x  192  10.105
n 19

497
Required correctedvariance
Incorrect: x  20802

Correct:  x  2080  8
2 2
 2016
2

 2  1n  x 2  x 2 
1
2016   192   3.98892
19  19 
  1.99723
 The correctedmean  10.105 and correcdstandard deviation  1.99723

(b) When 8 is replaced by 12, the number of observations remain the same n  20
Required correctedmean
Incorrect:  x  200
Correct :  x  200  8  12  204

 Correctedmean 
 x  204  10.2
n 20

Required correctedvariance
Incorrect:  x  2080
2

Correct :  x  2080  8
2 2
 122  2160

 2  1n  x 2  x 2  2160  10.22  3.96

1
20
  1.9897
 The correctedmean  10.2 and correcdstandard deviation  1.9897

 Variance for grouped data

(i ) Variance by direct method

 f x  x 
2
Variance for grouped data by direct method is given by
Var ( x) 
f
where
f  frequency
x  Class mark
x  Mean
f  sum of frequency

498
From the above formula we can express the variance formula in another way as
shown below,

Var ( x) 
 f x  x  2

f
Var ( x) 
 f x  2 xx  x 
2 2

f
Var ( x) 
 fx   2 fxx   fx
2 2

f
Var ( x) 
 fx  2 x  fx  x  f
2 2

f
Var ( x) 
 fx  2 x  fx  x  f but x   fx
2
2

f f f f
Var ( x) 
 fx  2 xx  x
2
2

f
Var ( x) 
 fx  2 x  x
2
2 2

f
Var ( x) 
 fx  x but x   fx
2
2

f f
 fx   fx 
2
2

Var ( x)   
f f 
 

499
(ii ) Variance by assumed method
Consider variance by direct method below,
 f x  x  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....(i)
2

Var ( x) 
f
 f x  A   A  x 
2

Var ( x) 
f
 f x  A  2x  A A  x    A  x  
2 2

Var ( x) 
f
 f x  A   2 f x  A A  x    f  A  x 
2 2

Var ( x) 
f
 f x  A  2 A  x   f x  A   A  x   f
2

Var ( x) 
2

f f f
Var ( x) 
 f x  A  2 A  x   f x  A   A  x  .......... .......... .......( ii)
2
2

f f
But x  A 
 fd , where d  x  A, A  x    f x  A .......... ......( iii)
f f
Substitute equation (iii) into equation (ii)

 f  x  A  f x  A  f x  A    f x  A 
2 2

Var ( x)  2
f f f 
  f 
 f  x  A   f  x  A    f  x  A 
2 2 2

Var ( x)   2   
f 
  f  
   f 

 f  x  A   f  x  A 
2 2

Var ( x)    but x  A  d
f 
  f 


 fd   fd 
2
2

Var ( x)   
f  f 
 

500
(iii) Variance by coding method
From Assumed mean formula formula

 fd   fd 
2 2

Var ( x)    .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i)

f f 
 
d
Let U  , d  UC.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( ii)
C
Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)

 f UC    fUC 
2 2

Var ( x)   
f  f 
 
 fU C  C  fU 
2 2 2

Var ( x)   
f  f 
 
 fU   fU 
2 2

Var ( x)  C 2
C 2 
f  f 
 
 
 fU 2    fU
2

Var ( x)  C  2  

 
f  f 
  

(c) Standard deviation

Standard deviation is a measure that is used to quantify the amount of variation
or dispersion of a set of data values, or is the measure of dispersion of a set of
data from its mean.
Standard deviation is denoted by a Greek letter 
Standard deviation is given by taken the square root of Variance.
Standard Deviation (S.D)  Var( x)

SIGNIFICANCE OF STANDARD DEVIATION

(i) If the standard deviation is zero, it indicates that there is no deviation and
all observations are equal to mean.
(ii) If the standard deviation is small, it indicates that the observations are close
to the mean.
(iii)If the standard deviation is large, it indicates that there is high degree of
dispersion of observations from the mean

501
 Standard deviation for ungrouped data
Standard Deviation (S.D)  Var( x)

S .D 
 x  x 
2

 Standard deviation for ungrouped data

(i) Standard deviation by Direct method

SD 
 f x  x  2

f
(ii) Standard deviation by Assumed method

 fd   fd 
2 2

SD   
f f 
 

(iii)Standard deviation by Coding method

 fU   fU 
2 2

SD C  
f  f 
 

Example 12
Given the distribution table below;
Class Interval Frequency
1 5 5
6 10 10
11 15 12
16 20 6
21 25 8

Calculate Variance and standard deviation;

(a) By direct method
(b) By assumed method
(c) By coding method
502
Solution
Class interval x f c. f fx
fx 2 d  x A fd fd 2 u  dc fu
fu 2
1 5 3 5 5 15 45 -10 -50 500 -2 -10 20
6 10 8 10 15 80 640 -5 -50 250 -1 -10 10
11 15 13 12 27 156 2028 0 0 0 0 0 0
16 20 18 6 33 108 1944 5 30 150 1 6 6
21 25 23 8 41 184 4232 10 80 800 2 16 32
A  13, C  5
 f  41
 fx  543
 fx  8889
2

 fd  10
 fd  1700
2

 fu  2
 fu  68
2

(a ) Variance and standard by direct method

 fx   fx 
2 2 2

Var ( x)     8889   543   41.4

f f 
  41  41 
S .D  Var ( x)  41.4  6.4

(b) Variance and standard by assumed method

 fd   fd 
2 2 2
  1700  10 
Var ( x)        41.4
f f 
  41  41 
S .D  Var ( x)  41.4  6.4
(c) Variance and standard by coding method
 fu 2   fu  

2
 2


Var ( x)  C 
2
   52  68   2    41.4
f  
 
f  41  41  
    
S .D  Var ( x)  41.4  6.4

503
MEAN AND VARIANCE OF THE COMBINED SAMPLES
Consider the following two samples of observations where,
(i) n1 and n2 are number of observations of two samples respectively.
(ii) a and b are means of two samples respectively.
(iii)  1 and  2 are standard deviations of two samples respectively.

The mean of the combined samples is given by the formula below,

n1a  n2b
Mean x  
n1  n2

Proof:
Consider the following samples
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ,  , an and
b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 ,  , bn
 a  a  a  a  a    a
1 2 3 4 n

b  b  b  b  b    b
1 2 3 4 n

 a , a  n a .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( i)

a
n
 1
1

b ,
b
n2
 b  n b .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( ii)
2

Combined mean ( x )
a  a2  a3  a4      an   b1  b2  b3  b4      bn 
x 1
n1  n2

x
 a   b .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( iii)
n1  n2
Substitute equations (i) and (ii) into equation (iii)

n1a  n2b
x
n1  n2

504
Example 13
The means of two samples of sizes 50 and 100 respectively are 54.1 and 50.3.
Find combined mean for the two samples.
Solution
n1  50, a  54.1
n2  100, b  50.3
n1a  n2 b
From combined mean formula, x 
n1  n2
(50  54.1)  (100 50.3)
x  51.57
50  100
 The combined mean is 51.57

Example 14
The means of two samples of sizes 20 and 42 respectively are 24 and 36. Find
combined mean for the two samples.
Solution
n1  20 a  24
n2  42 b  36
n1a  n2b
From combined mean formular, x 
n1  n2

x
20  24  42  36  32.13
20  42
 The combined mean is 32.13

Example 15
The means of two samples of sizes 18 and 26 respectively are 21 and 23. Find
combined mean for the two samples.
Solution
n1  18 a  21
n2  26 b  23
n1a  n2b
From combined mean formular, x 
n1  n2

x
18  21  26  23  22.18
18  26
 The combined mean is 22.18

505
VARIANCE OF THE COMBINED SAMPLES
The Variance of the combined samples is given by the formula below,

Combined Variance x  

n1  1  d1  n2  2  d 2
2 2
  2 2

n1  n2

Proof:
 a  a    b  b 
2 2

 2
 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...(i)
n1  n2
 a  a 
2

But  1  n1 1   a  a  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(ii)

2 2 2
,
n1

 b  b 
2

2 n2 2   b  b  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(iii)

2

2 2
,
n1
Also consider the following,
 a  x    a  a  a  x    a  a   a  x    a  a   2a  a a  x   a  x  
2 2 2 2 2

 a  x    a  a   2a  x  a  a    a  x 
2 2 2

 a  x    a  a    a  x 
2 2 2

 a  x   n   n d .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(iv)

2 2 2
1 1 1 1

Likewise

 b  x    b  b  b  x    b  b   b  x    b  b   2b  b b  x   b  x  

2 2 2 2 2

 b  x    b  b   2b  x  b  b    b  x 
2 2 2

 b  x    b  b    b  x 
2 2 2

 b  x   n   n d .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(v)

2 2 2
2 2 2 2

Substitute equation (iv) and (v) into equation (i)

n1 1  n1d1  n2 2  n2 d 2
2 2 2 2
2 
n1  n2

  1 1
2 
n   d1  n2  2  d 2
2 2
  2 2

n1  n2

506
Example 16
The mean of two samples of sizes 50 and 100 respectively are 54.1 and 50.3
and the standard deviation are 8 and 7. Find combined mean and the standard
deviation of the two samples.
Solution
n1  50, a  54.1,  1  8
n2  100, b  50.3,  2  7
n1a  n2 b
From combined mean formula, x 
n1  n2
(50  54.1)  (100 50.3)
x  51.57
50  100
 The combining mean is 51.57

Required combined standard deviation,

From combined variance,   1 1

2 
n   d1  n 2  2  d 2
2 2
  2 2

n1  n2
d1  a  x  54.1  51.57  2.53
d 2  b  x  50.3  51.57  1.27

2 
  
50 8 2  (2.53) 2  100 7 2  (1.27) 2 
 57.2089
50  100
  57.2089  7.56
 The combined standard deviation is 7.56

507
Example 17
The average heights of 20 boys and 30 girls are 160cm and 155cm
respectively. If the corresponding standard deviations of boys and girls are 4cm
and 3.5cm . Find the standard deviation of the whole group.
Solution
Number of boys  n1  20, a  160cm,  1  4cm
Number of girls  n2  30, b  155cm,  2  3.5cm

n1a  n1b (20 160)  (30 155)

Combined mean ( x )    157cm
n1  n2 20  30

Required combined standard deviation,

From combined variance,  2 

 2 2
 
n1  1  d1  n2  2  d 2
2 2

n1  n2
d1  a  x  160  157  3
d 2  b  x  155  157  2

2 
  
20 4 2  32  30 (3.5) 2  (2) 2 19.75
20  30
  19.75  4.444
 The combined standard deviation is 4.444

Example 18
The first sample of the two samples has 100 items with mean 15 and standard
deviation 3. If the whole group has 250 items with mean 15.6 and standard
deviation 13.44 . Find the mean and standard deviation of the second sample.
Solution

508
First sample  n1  100, a  15, 1  3
Second sample  n2  250  100  150, b  ?  2  ?
Also given that , x  15.6,   13.44
n1a  n2 b
From combined mean ( x ) 
n1  n2

15.6 
10015  150b  ,
b  16
250
 The mean of the second sample is 16

Required combined standard deviation,

From combined variance,   1 1 2 

n   d1  n 2  2  d 2
2 2
  2 2

n1  n2
d1  a  x  15  15.6  0.6
d 2  b  x  16  15.6  0.4

 13.44    
100 32  (0.6) 2  150  2  (0.4) 2
2  2

250
 2  16,  2  4
2

 The combined standard deviation is 4.

Example 19
The mean and standard deviation of a group of 100 observations were found to
be 20 and 3 respectively, later on it was found that three observations were
incorrect, which are recorded as 21, 21 and 18. Find the mean and standard
deviation if the incorrect observations were omitted.
Solution
n  100, x  20,   3

From, x 
 x ,  x  nx  100 20  2000
n
Incorrect data are 21, 21,18 these reduce the number of observations to n  100  3  97
Correctedsum,  x 2000  21 21 18  1940
Correctedmean, x 
 x  1940  20.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....(i)
n 97

509
Also from  2  1
n  x  x  ,  x
2 2 2

 n  2  x 
2

Incorrect x  1003  20   40900
2 2 2

Correct  x  40900 21  21  18  39694.......... .......... .......... .......... ....( ii

2 2 2 2

Corrected standard deviation,  2  1

n  x  x 
2 2

2 
1
39694  202  9.216
97
  3.036
 The corrected standard deviation is 3.036

Example 20
The variance of 15 observations is 4, if each observation is increased by 9. Find
the variance of the resulting observations.
Solution
Mean 
 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i)
N
When x is increased by 9

New mean 
 x  9N
N

New mean 
  9.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)
x
N
x x
2 2

Variance      4.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(iii)


N  N 
 x  9 x
2
 2

New variance     9 
N  N 

New variance 
 2

x  18x  81   x 

  
2

 18
 x  81 
N  N  N 
 

 x 2  18  x  81    x   18  x  81
2

New variance 
N N  N  N 
 
x x
2 2

New variance    

N  N 
New variance  4
 The variance of the resulting observations is 4

510
Example 21
Salaries paid to supervisors had a mean of 2500/  with the standard deviation
of 2000/  . If all salaries are increased by 2500/  , find the new mean and
standard deviation.
Solution

Mean 
 x  25000.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .(i)
N

xx2 2

Standard deviation      2000.......... .......... .......... ........( iii)


N  N 
If all salaries are increased by 2500

New mean 
 x  2500N   x  2500  25000  2500  27500
N N
 New mean is 27500/ 

 x  2500 x
2
2

New S.D     2500
N  N 

 x 
2
  x 2
   5000  x  25002 
2
2
 5000x  25002
New S.D    
N  N  N 
  

x x
2 2

New S.D      2000


N  N 
 The new standard deviation is 2000

511
(C) MEASURES OF POSITION

In Advanced level measures of position include;

(a) Quartile
(b) Percentile

(a) Quartile
Quartile is the division of frequency distribution into four equal parts, or
quartile are data values which divides the distribution into quarters.
Let N be number of observations of the frequency distribution.

Positions of Quartile for Ungrouped data are divided into three types
(i) Position of First Quartile (Lower Quartile)
 Position of Lower Quartile given even number of observations is
th
1 
 N
4 
 Position of Lower Quartile given odd number of observations is
th
1 
 ( N  1) 
 4 

(ii) Position of Second Quartile (Median)

 Position of second Quartile given even number of observations is
th
2 
 N
4 
 Position of second Quartile given odd number of observations is
th
2 
 ( N  1) 
4 

512
(iii)Position of Third Quartile (Upper Quartile)
th
3 
 Position of Upper Quartile given even number of observations is  N
4 
 Position of Upper Quartile given odd number of observations is
th
3 
 ( N  1) 
4 

NB:
1. Interquartile Range (I.Q.R)
This is the difference between upper quartile and lower quartile.
I .Q.R  Upper Quartile  Lower Quartile

I .Q.R  Q 3  Q1

2. Semi-Interquartile Range (S.I.R)

Semi-Interquartile Range (S.I.R) is given by,
Upper Quartile  Lower Quartile
Semi I.Q.R 
2
Q3  Q1
Semi I.Q.R 
2

Note: Semi-Interquartile range sometimes is called Quartile Deviation

Positions of Quartile for Grouped data are divided into three types
(i) Lower Quartile
 N
 fb 
Q1  L   4
c ………………………………………….(i)
 fw 

(ii) Second Quartile (Median)

 2N
 fb 
Q2  L   4
c
 fw 
 N
 fb 
Q2  L   2
c …………………...…………………..(ii)
 fw 
513
(iii)Upper Quartile
 3N  fb 
Q3  L   4 c ………………………………………(iii)
 fw 

(b) Percentile
Percentile is the division of frequency distribution into 100 equal parts as
shown below,

Percentile for Ungrouped Data

100N th
 The position of 1st percentile is

 The position of 2 percentile is 100

nd

2 N th

 The position of 3 percentile is 100

rd

3 N th

 The position of 4 percentile is 100

th

4 N th




 The position of 50th percentile is 50100N th



 The position of 99th percentile is 99100N th

514
Percentile for Grouped Data
 N  fb 
 P1  L   100 c
 fw 
 2N  fb 
 P2  L   100 c
 fw 
 3N  fb 
 P3  L   100 c
 fw 



 50 N  f b   N
 fb 
 P50  L   100 c , P50  L   2
c
 f w   fw 



 99 N  f b 
 P99  L   100 c
 fw 
Percentile range
This is a difference between two specified percentiles. These could
theoretically be any two percentiles, but the 10th  90th percentile range is
most common.

Example 22
Find the lower quartile, upper quartile and IQR of 9,19,27,14,28,29,39 .
Solution
In ascending order 9,14,19,27,28,29,39
N 7
th th
1  1 
Q1   N  1   7  1  2th  14
4  4 
th th
3  3 
Q3   N  1   7  1  6th  29
4  4 
IQR  Q3  Q1  29  14  15
 Q1  14, Q3  29 and IQR  15

515
Alternatively
In ascending order 9,14,19,27,28,29,39
N 7
Q1  Median of the lower half of data
Q3  Median of the upper half of data
Q1  Median of 9,14,19  14
Q3  Median of 28,29,39  29
IQR  Q3  Q1  29  14  15
 Q1  14, Q3  29 and IQR  15

Example 23
Find the quartile deviation of the following distributions
97,9,14,29,87,29,38,44,100,28,27,108,111,92,79,54,39,41,99,19 .
Solution
In ascending order 9,14,19,27,28,29,29,38,39,41,44,54,79,87,92,97,99,100,108,111
N  20
th th
N  20 
Q1        5th  28
4  4 
 3  20 
th th
 3N 
Q3       15  92
th

 4   4 
IQR  Q3  Q1  92  28  64
 The quartile deviation is 64

Example 24
Find the quartile deviation of the following distributions
7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17 .
Solution

516
In ascending order 7,10,11,12,13,14,16,17
N 8
th th
N 8
Q1        2th  10
4 4
 3 8 
th th
 3N 
Q3       6  14
th

 4   4 
IQR  Q3  Q1  14  10  4
 The quartile deviation is 4

Example 25
The following table shows distribution of marks on a final examination in
Advanced Mathematics.
Marks No. of students
30 39 1
40  49 3
50 59 11
60  69 21
70 79 43
80 89 32
90 99 9
Find;
(a) Find the quartiles of the distribution
(b) Find the quartile deviation
(c) Semi-quartile deviation
(d) Find the class interval with 10th and 90th percentiles
(e) Percentile range
Solution
Marks f c. f
30 39 1 1
40  49 3 4
50 59 11 15
60  69 21 36
70 79 43 79
80 89 32 111
90 99 9 120

517
  N
 fb 
(a )Lower Quartile, Q1  L   4
c
 fw 
Position of Q1   N4   120   30th its class interval 60  69
th th
4

L  59.5, f b  15, f w  21, c  10

 120  15 
Then Q1  59.5   4 10
 21 
Lower Quartile, Q1  66.6429

 3N  fb 
(b)Lower Quartile, Q3  L   4 c
 fw 
Position of Q3   34N    3120   90th its class interval 80  89
th th
4

L  79.5, f b  79, f w  32, c  10

 120  79 
Then Q3  79.5   4 10
 32 
 Upper Quartile, Q3  82.9375

(c) Quartile deviation  Q3  Q1  82.9375  66.6429

 Quartile deviation is 16.2946

Q3  Q1 82.9375  66.6429
(d) Semi - quartile deviation    8.1473
2 2
 Semi - quartile deviation is 8.1473

(e) Class interval with 10th and 90th percentiles

Position of 10th percentile  10100N   10100   12th its class interval 50  59
th 120 th

Position of 90th percentile   90100N    90100   108th its class interval 80  89

th 120 th

518
 f Percentilerange  90th  10th
 10 N  f b 
10th  L   100 c
 fw 
Position of 10th percentile  10100N   10100   12th its class interval 50  59
th th
120

L  49.5, f b  4, f w  11, c  10
 10120  4 
10th  49.5   100 10  56.77
 11 
Position of 90th percentile   90
100    100   108 its class interval 80  89
N th 90120 th th

L  79.5, f b  79, f w  32, c  10

 90120  79 
90th  79.5   100 10  88.56
 32 
Percentilerange  88.56  56.77  31.79
 Percentilerange is 31.79

7.3 APPLICATION OF STATISTICS

Statistics is the mathematical science involving the collection, analysis and
interpretation of data. A number of specialties have evolved to apply statistical
and methods to various disciplines. Certain topics have "statistical" in their
name but relate to manipulations of probability distributions rather than to
statistical analysis.

 Actuarial science is the discipline that applies mathematical and

statistical methods to assess risk in the insurance and finance industries.
 Astrostatistics is the discipline that applies statistical analysis to the
understanding of astronomical data.
 Biostatistics is a branch of biology that studies biological phenomena
and observations by means of statistical analysis, and includes medical
statistics.
 Business analytics is a rapidly developing business process that applies
statistical methods to data sets (often very large) to develop new
insights and understanding of business performance & opportunities
 Chemometrics is the science of relating measurements made on a
chemical system or process to the state of the system via application of
mathematical or statistical methods.
 Demography is the statistical study of all populations. It can be a very
general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population,
that is, one that changes over time or space.
519
 Econometrics is a branch of economics that applies statistical methods
to the empirical study of economic theories and relationships.
 Environmental statistics is the application of statistical methods to
environmental science. Weather, climate, air and water quality are
included, as are studies of plant and animal populations.
 Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the health and illness of
populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions
made in the interest of public health and preventive medicine.
 Geostatistics is a branch of geography that deals with the analysis of
data from disciplines such as petroleum geology, hydrogeology,
hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, geochemistry, geography.
 Machine learning is the subfield of computer science that formulates
algorithms in order to make predictions from data.
 Operations research (or operational research) is an interdisciplinary
branch of applied mathematics and formal science that uses methods
such as mathematical modeling, statistics, and algorithms to arrive at
optimal or near optimal solutions to complex problems.
 Population ecology is a sub-field of ecology that deals with the
dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact
with the environment.
 Psychometrics is the theory and technique of educational and
psychological measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and
personality traits.
 Quality control reviews the factors involved in manufacturing and
production; it can make use of statistical sampling of product items to
aid decisions in process control or in accepting deliveries.
 Quantitative psychology is the science of statistically explaining and
changing mental processes and behaviors in humans.
 Reliability engineering is the study of the ability of a system or
component to perform its required functions under stated conditions for
a specified period of time
 Statistical finance, an area of econophysics, is an empirical attempt to
shift finance from its normative roots to a positivist framework using
exemplars from statistical physics with an emphasis on emergent or
collective properties of financial markets.
 Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which
includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the
field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or
objects when subjected to a force.
 Statistical physics is one of the fundamental theories of physics, and
uses methods of probability theory in solving physical problems.

520
 Statistical signal processing utilizes the statistical properties of signals
to perform signal processing tasks.
 Statistical thermodynamics is the study of the microscopic behaviors of
thermodynamic systems using probability theory and provides a
molecular level interpretation of thermodynamic quantities such as
work, heat, free energy, and entropy.

REVISION EXERCISE 7
1. Compute the mean, mode and median values for the following data;
Values Frequency  f 
Less than 10 8
Less than 20 14
Less than 30 17
Less than 40 36
Less than 50 10
Less than 60 26
Less than 70 20
Less than 80 13
Less than 90 6
2. Consider the frequency distribution below. If there are 100 frequency
and 23.5 as a mode. Find the values of x and y
Class interval 1 5 6  10 11 15 16 20 21 25 26 30
Frequency 1 9 8 x 29 y

Hence, determine the mean and median

3. The table below shows distribution of the diameters of heads of reverts
manufactured by a company.
Diameter Frequency  f 
7.247  7.249 2
7.250  7.252 6
7.253  7.255 8
7.256  7.258 15
7.259  7.261 52
7.262  7.264 53
7.265  7.267 49
7.268  7.270 25
521
 Calculate;
(a) The mean diameter
(b) Standard deviation (in three decimal places)

4. Lives of two models of refrigerators turned in for new models in a

recent survey are;
Life No. of years Number of refrigerators
Model A Model B
02 5 2
24 16 7
46 13 12
6 8 7 19
810 5 9
1012 4 1

Which model has uniformity?

5. A random sample of 120 maize seeds was collected each seed was
weighed to the nearest 0.01gram and the results were summarized
below;
Weigh No. of seeds
1.10  1.29 7
1.30  1.49 24
1.50  1.69 33
1.70  1.89 32
1.90  2.09 14
2.10  2.29 1
2.30  2.49 9

Calculate (a) median (b) the mean and standard deviation (by coding
method)

522
 Chapter Eight

PROBABILITY
Introduction

Probability is the study which deals with mathematical prediction of happening

or non-happening of events,

Number of events
Probability 
Number of sample space

n E 
Probability 
nS 

OBJECTS USED IN PROBABILITY

(a) Coin is the objects which contains two faces Head (H) and Tail (T)
(b) Die is the object which contains six (6) faces numbered 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 .
(c) Tetrahedral is the object which contains four (4) faces numbered 1,2,3 and 4
(d) Cards are objects which occur together in the box of 52 playing cards and
become 54 cards including jockers

TERMS USED IN PROBABILITY

1. Random Experiment/Trial is an experiment whose outcome can’t be

predicted.
2. Sample space is a set of all possible outcomes in a random experiment.
3. An Event is a subset of a sample space.

Types of events
(a) Simple Event is a single element of a sample space
(b) Compound Event is a joint occurrence of two or more events
(c) Sure Event is an event which has the same elements as that of the
sample space
(d) An Impossible Event is an event which has no possibility to occur
523
 (e) Mutually Exclusive Event is an event in which the occurrence of one
event hinder or prevent the occurrence of the other events
(f) Compliment of an Event is the set of all elements which are not in
the event (E) but they are also found in the sample space.
(g) Equal Likely Events are events which have equal chances of
occurrence.
(h) Independent Events are events in which the occurrence of one event
does not affect the occurrence of the other event.
(i) Exhaustive Events are events whose union forms the entire set
(Sample space).

8.1 COUNTING TECHNIQUES FOR THE SAMPLE SPACE

(a) Principle Of Counting
The fundamental counting principle or counting rule is a way to figure out the
number of outcomes in a probability problems. Basically, you multiply the
events together to get the total number of outcomes. If there are
m ways to do one event and n ways to do another event, then there are
m  n ways of doing both events.

Principle of counting state that

“If one event can occur in e1 ways, the second event can occur in e2 ways, the
third event can occur in e3 ways and n th event can occur in en ways, therefore
the whole set or whole experiment can occur in e1  e2  e3      en ways ”

Example 1
In how many ways can an organization containing 20 members elect a
President, Treasurer and Secretary (assuming no person is elected more than
one position)
Solution

President Treasurer Secretary

20 19 18

524
Number of ways  20 19 18  6840ways
 Number of ways  6840

Alternative
Number of ways  20C1 19 C1 18 C1  6840ways
 Number of ways  6840

Example 2
If a license plate contains three letters followed by 3 digits with the first digit
non zero. How many different license plates can be printed?
Solution
Total number of letters= 26
Total number of digits= 10
l1 l2 l3 d1 d2 d3
26 26 26 9 10 10

Number of ways  26  26  26  9 10 10  15,818,400 ways

 Number of ways  15,818,400

(b) Principle Of Permutation

Permutation is the arrangement of the number of items taken from many items
in which the order matters.

Consider the letters A, B and C which are to be arranged in a group of two

letters per time, how many different arrangement can be obtained AB,AC, BC,
BA,CA,CB there are 6 arrangements.

Derivation of permutation formula,

Let n be number of sample space (Total number of objects involved in
experiment), and r be number of object taken per time, by considering the
above example three letters are arranged two letters per time how many
different are arrangement are there?
n  3 and r  2

525
By using the scenario  n(n  1)(n  2)    (n  r  1)
n(n  1)(n  2)    (n  r  1)(n  r )!
Number of ways 
(n  r )!
n!
Number of ways 
(n  r )!
Therefore the arrangement of 'r ' objects taken from 'n' distinct objects is given
by
n!
n
Pr 
(n  r )!

NB:
(a) If there are n distinct objects and all n objects are arranged per time
n! n!
(mean r  n ) the number ways is given by Pn    n!
n

(n  n)! 0!
note 0! 1
Number of ways  n!

(b) If there are n objects of which r are of one kind, r are of second kind,
1 2

r3 are of third kind,    , rn are of n th kind, therefore the total number

ways is given by
n!
Number of ways 
r1!r2 !r3!    rn !

(c) Arrangement of objects in a circular form

(i)The number of ways if 'n' unlike objects are arranged in a circular form
when clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are different is given
by ( n  1)!
Number of ways  ( n  1)!

526
 (ii) The number of ways if 'n' unlike objects are arranged in a circular
form when clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are the same is
( n  1)!
given by
2
(n  1)!
Number of ways 
2

Example 3
In how many ways can a manager display 5 brands of cereals in 3 spaces on a
shelf?
Solution
Data
n  5, r  3
n! 5! 5!
From nPr     60
n  r ! 5  3! 2!
 Number of ways is 60

Example 4
In how many ways can 5 people be arranged in a row?
Solution
Data n  5
Number of ways  n! 5! 120
Number of ways  120

Example 5
In how many ways can 4 people be arranged in a circle?
Solution
Data
n4
From, Number ways  (n  1)! (4  1)! 3! 6
Number of ways  6

527
Example 6
How many numbers greater than 1000 can be formed with the digits 3,4,6,8,9
if a digit cannot occur more than one in a number?
Solution
The required number it has four or five digits
5! 5!
5
P4  5P5    240
(5  4)! (5  5)!
Numbers  240
Alternative
By using table
The total number digits is 5 i.e. 3,4,6,8,9
1st 2 nd 3 rd 4th
5 4 3 2

Or
1st 2 nd 3 rd 4th 5 th
5 4 3 2 1

Number of numbers  5  4  3  2  5  4  3  2 1  240

The number of numbers is 240

Example 7
How many different ways can 4 red, 3 yellow and 2 blue bulbs be arranged in a
string of Christmas tree lights with 9 sockets?
Solution
Data
r1  4 red bulbs
r1  3 yellow bulbs
r1  2 blue bulbs
n  r1  r2  r3  4  3  2  9
n! 9!
From,   1260 ways
r1!r2 !r3 ! 4!3!2!
 Number of ways  1260

528
Example 8
How many 4 digit numbers can we make using the digits 3, 6, 7 and 8 without
repetitions?
Solution
We are making 4 digit numbers from 4 given digits
4
P4  4! 24
 24 numbers we can make

Example 9
How many 3 digit numbers can we make using the digits 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 without
repetitions?
Solution
We are making 3 digit numbers from 5 given digits
5!
5
P3   60
(5  3)!
 60 numbers we can make
Alternative
1st 2 nd 3 rd
5 4 3

Number of ways  5  4  3  60 ways

Example 10
In how many ways can you arrange 5 different books on a shelf?
Solution
Number of ways for distinct object  n! 5! 120
Number of ways  120

Example 11
How many 4 letter words can we make using the letters in the word LEADING
without repetitions?
Solution
LEADING it has 7 lettersand we want to make 4 letter words from 7 letters
7!
7
P4   840 ways
(7  4)!
 Number of ways  840

529
Example 12
In how different ways can the letters of the word ‘LEADING’ be arranged in
such a way that the vowels always come together?
Solution
LEADING vo wels are always together mean LDNG EAI 
 Number of ways  5!3! 720 ways

Example 13
In how different ways can the letters of the word ‘CORPORATION’ be
arranged so that the vowels always come together?
Solution
CORPORATIO N vowels are always together mean CRPRTN OOAIO 
7! 5!
Number of ways    50400 ways
2! 3!
 Number of ways  50400

Example 14
How many different words can be formed from the word LOVE?
Solution
LOVE it has 4 letters
Number of words formed from 4 distinct letters  4! 24
 24 different words can be formed

Example 15
How many different words can be formed from the word LOVE where by
letters LO are always together?
Solution
Regard LO as ' one' unit and combine with the remaining ' two' units(VE)  3 units
and permutation of LO is 2!
Number of words formed  3!2! 12
12 different words can be formed

Example 16
In how many ways can 5 people be arranged in a circle such that two people
must sit together?
530
Solution

Regard the 2 people who sit together as one ' unit' and the other 3 people as 3 ' units'.
Now arrange 4 ' units' in a circle: (4  1)! 3! 6 ways
Number of permutations of 2 people who sit together 2! 2 ways
So
Total number of ways  6  2  12 ways

Example 17
In how many ways can 6 girls and 2 boys be arranged in a row
(a) Without restriction?
(b) Such that the 2 boys are together?
(c) Such that the 2 boys are not together?
Solution
(a) 6 boys  2 girls  8 people, number of ways  8! 40320
Number of ways  40320

(b) Number of ways  7!2! 10080

(c) 2 boys are together  (without restriction)  (2 boys are together)

Number of ways  40320 10080  30240
 Number of ways  30240

Example 18
A meeting was held to elect a leader. A proposal of 10 people to contest for
leadership was passed. In how many ways can;
a) Any person step up stage at a time for self-introduction?
b) Two people step up stage at a time for self-introduction?
c) All 10 people step up stage at a time for self-introduction?
Solution
(a ) 10
P1  10 ways
(b) 10
P2  90 ways
(c ) 10
P10  3,628,800 ways

531
Example 19
In how many ways can four interviewees be permuted taking two at a time for
an interview?
Solution
4 P2  12 ways

Example 20
In how many ways can 3 students be seated in a row containing 7 seats?
Solution
7 P3  210 ways

Example 21
Six children are to be seated on a bench.
(a) In how many ways can the children be seated?
(b) How many arrangements are possible if the youngest child sits at the left
hand end to the bench?
(c) How many arrangements are possible if the youngest child sits at the left
hand end to the bench and the oldest child sits at the right hand end to the
bench?
Solution
(a ) 6P6  6! 210 ways
(b) 6  1! 5! 120 ways
(c) 6  2 ! 4! 24 ways

Example 22
How many 10 digit telephone numbers can be constructed using the digits 0 to
9 if each number starts with 0765 and no digit appears more than once?
Solution
Since each number start with 0765 this is constant arrangement let it be one unit
and the remaining six digits arranged out of six digits
 Number of ways  1!6! 720

532
Example 23
How many three-digit numbers more than 500 can be formed from the digit
1,2,3,4,5,6,7 ?
Solution
In order to get a number greater than 500 the first digit must be greater or equal to 5
(one among 5,6,7 which mean 3P1 ) the remaining two digits should be any digits among
the remaining six digits 6P2 .
 Number of ways  3P1 6 P2  90 ways

Example 24
From a committee of 8 persons, in how many ways can we choose a chairman
and a vice chairman assuming one person cannot hold more than one position?
Solution
Number of ways 8P1 7 P1  56 or shortly 8P2  56
 Number of ways  56

Example 25
Mayombya wants to arrange 3 mathematics, 2 physics and 4 chemistry books
on a shelf. If the books of the same subject are different, determine the number
of possible arrangements?
Solution
Since Books of the same subject are different the we consider all books are different
Number of ways  (3  2  4)  9! 362,880
 Number of ways  362,880 arrangements

Example 26
In how many ways can 4 boys and 3 girls be arranged on a bench if;
(a) There are no restrictions?
(b) Boys and girls alternate?
(c) Boys and girls are in separate groups?
(d) Eva and Peter wish to stay together?
Solution
(a) 7P7  5040 ways
(b) 4!3! 144 ways
(c) (Boys then Girls) or (Girls then Boys)  (4!3!)  (3!4!)  288 ways
(d) (2!)  6! 1440 ways

533
 Exercise 8.1
1. Tom wants to arrange 3 mathematics, 2 physics and 4 chemistry books on
a shelf. Determine the number of possible arrangements?
2. Simon wants to arrange 3 mathematics, 2 physics and 4 chemistry books
on a shelf. If the books of mathematics are the same and that of physics
and chemistry are different, determine the number of possible
arrangements?
3. In how many ways can 3 students be seated in a row containing 3 seats?
4. In how many ways can four interviewees be permuted taking three at a
time for an interview?
5. How many different ways can 3 green, 2 yellow and 1 white bulbs be
arranged in a string of Christmas tree lights with 6 sockets?

(c) Principle Of Combination

Combination is the selection of the number of items taken from many items in
which the order does not matter.
Consider a group of two letters selected from the group of three letters
A, B and C then the selection (number of combination) are AB, AC and BC,
there are 3 selections or group. The number ways of choosing a set of 'r '
objects from 'n' distinct objects is given by
n
P
n
Cr  r
r!
1
n
C r  n Pr 
r!
n! 1 n!
n
Cr   
(n  r )! r! (n  r )!r!
n!
n
Cr 
(n  r )!r!

 n
Note: nCr  nCr   
r

534
Example 27
In how many ways can a coach choose three swimmers from among five
swimmers?
Solution
There are 5 swimmers to be taken 3 at a time
n!
From C r 
n

(n  r )!r!
5!
5
C3   10
(5  3)!3!
A coach can choose the swimmers in 10 ways

Example 28
In a class there are 20 boys and 16 girls. The teacher wants to select a boy and a
girl to represent the class in a function. In how many ways can the teacher make
this selection?
Solution
20
C1 16 C1  320 ways

Example 29
In how many ways can you select a committee of 3 students out of 10 students?
Solution
We are selecting3 students out of 10 students, mean 10C3 
10!
10
C3   120
(10  3)!3!
 Number of committeesis 120

Example 30
A committee including 3 boys and 4 girls is to be formed from the group of 10
boys and 12 girls. How different committee can be formed from the group?
Solution
3 boys out of 10 mean  10
C3 
4 girls out of 12 mean  12
C4 
Number of committees10C3 12 C 4  59400
Number of committees 59400

535
Example 31
Out of 7 consonants and 4 vowels, how many words of 3 consonants and 2
vowels can be formed?
Solution
Number of ways of selecting(3 consonants of 7) and (2 vowels out of 4)
Number of groups  7 C3  4 C 2  210
Number of groups of selecting(3 consonants of 7) and (2 vowels out of 4)  210
Each group contains 5 letters
Number of ways of arranging 5 lettersamong themselves  5! 120
 Required number of ways  210120  25200 ways

Example 32
How many triangles can you make using 6 non collinear points on a plane?
Solution
3 points are selectedto form a triangle from 6 points
6!
6
C3   20
(6  3)!3!
Number of ways  20

Example 33
Suppose we have 12 adults and 10 kids as an audience of a certain show. Find
the number of ways the host can select three persons from the audiences to
volunteer. The choice must contain two kids and one adult.
Solution
2 kids out of 10 and 1 adult out of 12
Number of ways 10C2 12 C1  540 ways
 Number of ways  540

Example 34
From a group of 7 men and 6 women, 5 persons are to be selected to form a
committee so that at least 3 men are there in the committee. In how many ways
can it be done?
Solution
We may have (3 men and 2 women) or (4 men and 1 woman) or (5 men only)
   
Number of ways  7 C3 6 C 2  7 C 4 6 C1  7C5  756
 Number of ways  756

536
Example 35
Out of 10 mathematicians, a committee of 5 mathematicians has to be made. In
how many ways can this be done?
Solution
10
C5  252ways
 Number of ways  252

Example 36
Out of 5 mathematicians and 7 chemists, a committee of 2 mathematicians and
3 chemists has to be made. In how many ways can this be done:
a) If any mathematician and chemist can be included?
b) If one particular chemist must be in the committee?
c) If two particular mathematicians cannot be in the committee?
d) If two particular mathematicians and two chemists cannot be in the
committee?
e) If two particular mathematicians and three particular chemists cannot be in
the committee?
f) If two particular mathematicians cannot be in the committee and two
particular chemists must be in the committee?
g) If one particular mathematicians must be in the committee and one
particular chemists must be in the committee?
Solution
(a ) 5C 2 7 C3  350 ways
(b) 5C 2 1C1 6 C 2  150 ways
(c) 3C 2 7 C3  105 ways
(d ) 3C 2 5 C3  30 ways
(e) 3C 2  4 C3  12 ways
( f ) 3C 2  2 C 2 5 C1  15 ways
( g ) 1C1  4 C1 1C1 6 C 2  60 ways

537
Example 38
How many three digit odd numbers can be formed from the digits 1,2,3,4,5 . If
the digits cannot be repeated.
Solution
In order to get old number the last digit must be old (i.e.1,3,5) (one number out of three),
The first digit is one number out of four numbers and the second digit is one out of three numbers.
 4C1 3 C1 3 C1  36 numbers
Alternative
1st 2 nd 3 rd

4 3 3

4  3  3  36 numbers

Exercise 8.2
1. A group of students consists of 4 girls and 7 boys. In how many ways can
a team of 5 members be selected if the team has at least a boy and a girl?
2. Out of 5 mathematicians, a committee of 4 mathematicians has to be
made. In how many ways can this be done?
3. Suppose we have 6 adults and 4 kids as an audience of a certain show.
Find the number of ways the host can select three persons from the
audiences to volunteer. The choice must contain two kids and one adult.
4. How many triangles can you make using 4 non collinear points on a
plane?
5. In a class there are 12 boys and 10 girls. The teacher wants to select a boy
and a girl to represent the class in a function. In how many ways can the
teacher make this selection?

538
8.2 PROBABILITY AXIOMS AND THEOREM

(a) If A and B are two events associated with an experiment,

Then P A  B  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B)
Proof
Consider n A  B   n( A)  n( B)  n( A  B)
Divide by sample space both sides n( s)
n A  B  n( A) n( B) n( A  B)
  
n( s ) n( s ) n( s ) n( s )
P A  B   P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B)

(b) If A and B are two disjoint events P A  B   P( A)  P( B)

Disjoint events are events which does not intersect i.e. P ( A  B )  0
P A  B   P( A)  P( B)

(c) If A and B are two independent events, then P A  B  P( A)  P( B)

(d) If E is an event and E  is compliment of an event,

Then PE   PE   1
Proof
Consider n( E )  n( E )  n( s)
Divide by sample space both sides n( s)
n( E ) n( E ) n( s)
 
n( s ) n( s ) n( s )
P ( E )  P ( E )  1

Likewise,
P ( A  B )  P ( A  B )  1

and
P ( A  B )  P ( A  B )  1

539
(e) P( A  B)  P( A  B)
Consider n( A  B)  n( A  B)
Divide by sample space both sides n( s)
n( A  B) n( A  B)

n( s ) n( s )

P ( A  B )  P ( A  B)

Likewise

P ( A  B )   P ( A  B )

(f) P( A)  P ( A  B )  P ( A  B )
Consider n( A)  n( A  B)  n( A  B)
Divide by number of sample space n( s)
n( A) n( A  B) n( A  B)
 
n( s ) n( s ) n( s )
P ( A)  P ( A  B )  P ( A  B )

Likewise
P ( B )  P ( A  B )  P ( A  B )

(g) P( A)  P( A  B)  P( A  B)

Consider n( A)  n( A  B)  n( A  B)
Divide by number of sample space n( s)
n( A) n( A  B) n( A  B)
 
n( s ) n( s ) n( s )
P ( A)  P ( A  B )  P ( A  B )

Likewise
P ( B )  P ( A  B )  P ( A  B )

540
Example 39
If P ( A)  0.5 , P ( B )  0.3 , and P ( AnB)  0.2 , Find ;
a) P ( AnB )
b) P ( AnB)
c) P ( AuB)
d) P ( AnB )
Solution
(a) P( A  B)  P( A)  P( A  B)  0.5  0.2  0.3
(b) P( A  B)  P( B)  P( A  B)  0.3  0.2  0.1
(c) P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B)  0.5  0.3  0.2  0.6
(d ) P( A  B)  P( A  B)  1  P( A  B)  1  0.6  0.4

Example 40
3 1
If P ( A)  , P ( B )  and A and B are mutually exclusive, find P ( AuB) .
5 3
Solution
3 1 14
 P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)   
5 3 15

Example 41
3 1
If P ( A)  , P ( B )  , find P ( AnB) and P ( AuB) if A and B are independent.
5 5
Solution
3 1 3
P ( A  B )  P ( A)  P ( B )   
5 5 25
3 1 3 17
P ( A  B )  P ( A)  P ( B )  P ( A  B )    
5 5 25 25

Example 42
1 7 1
Events A and B are such that P ( A) , P( B)  and P ( AuB )  , state
2 12 4
whether A and B are independent events.
Solution

541
If events A and B are independent P(A  B)  P( A)  P( B)
Consider P( A  B)  P(A  B)  1  P(A  B)
1 3
P(A  B)  1  P( A  B)  1  
4 4
3
P(A  B)  .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( i )
4
1 7 7
P( A)  P( B)    .......... .......... .........( ii)
2 12 24
Therefore, P(A  B)  P( A)  P ( B) events A and B are not independent

Example 43
1 3
Given that events A and B are such that P ( A)  , P ( B )  p and P( AuB)  ,
2 5
find p if A and B are;
a) Mutual exclusive events
b) Independent events
Solution

(a) Mutulal Exclusive Events

P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)
3 1
 p
5 2
1
p
10
p
(b) Independent Events, P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B) 
2
From P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B)
3 1 p
  p
5 2 2
1
p
5

542
Example 44
If A and B are mutually exclusive events associated with a random experiment
such that P ( A)  0.4 and P ( B )  0.5 , Find;
a) P ( AuB)
b) P ( AnB )
c) P ( AnB)
d) P ( AnB )
Solution
(a) P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  0.4  0.5  0.9
(b) P( A  B)  P( A  B)  1  P( A  B)  1  0.9  0.1
(c) P( A  B)  P( B)  P( A  B)  0.5  0  0.5
(d ) P( A  B)  P( A)  P( A  B)  0.4  0  0.4

Example 45
Events A and B are given to be independent. Find P (B ) if P ( A)  0.4 and
P ( AuB)  0.7
Solution
P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B)
P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A)  P( B)
0.7  0.4  P( B)  0.4 P( B)
0.3  0.6 P( B)
 P( B)  0.5

Example 46
An urn contains 12 balls, in which 5 are red, 4 are white and 3 are green balls.
A ball is drawn at random. What is a probability that the ball drawn will be
(a) White
(b) Green
(c) Red or Green
(d) Not Green
(e) Neither White nor Green
Solution

543
Total number of balls  12, out of which one ball can be drawn out of 12 ways.
(a) Probability of drwn white ballThere 4 white balls out 12
n(E) 4 1
 P(white)   
n(S) 12 3
(b) There 3 green balls out 12
n(E) 3 1
 P(green)   
n(S) 12 4
(c) (There are 5 red out 12)or (3 green out 12)
n(E) 5 3 2
P(red or green)    
n(S) 12 12 3
Alternatively
n( E )  Red balls  Green balls  5  3  8
n(E) 8 2
 P(red or green)   
n(S) 12 3
(d ) Probability of not green means that either a ball is red or white.
1 3
P(not green)  1  P(green)  1  
4 4
3
 P(not green) 
4
n( E ) 5
 P(neither white nor green)  P(red)  
n( S ) 12

Example 47
In a box, there are 8 red, 7 blue and 6 green balls. One ball is picked up
randomly. What is the probability that the ball drawn will be blue?
Solution
Total number of balls  8  7  6  21 balls
n( E ) 7 1
 Probability of drawn blue ball   
n( S ) 21 3

544
Example 48
A bag contains 2 red, 3 green and 4 blue balls. Two balls are drawn at random.
What is the probability that
(a) All balls are green
(b) none of the balls drawn is blue
Solution
Total number of balls  2  3  4  9 balls
Number of sample space  2 balls are drawn out of 9 balls  n(S)  9C 2  36
(a) All balls are green
n( E )  2 balls are drwn out of 3 3C 2  3
n ( E ) 3C 2 3 1
 P( E )   9  
n( S ) C 2 36 12
(b) Non of the balls drawn is blue
Not blue mean its red or green
n(E)  Two balls are drawn out of 2 red  3green  5 balls 5C 2  10
n( E ) 10 5
 P( E )   
n( S ) 36 18

Example 49
In a class, there are 15 boys and 10 girls. Three students are selected at random.
Find the probability that 1 girl and 2 boys are selected.
Solution
Number Sample space  Number of ways of selecting3 students out of 25 students 25C3  2300
n( S ) 25C3  2300
Number of event  1 girl out of 10 and 2 boys out 1510C1 15 C 2  1050
n( E )  1050
n( E ) 10C1 15 C 2 1050 21
 P( E )   25
 
n( S ) C3 2300 46

Example 50
A card is drawn at random from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the
probability that the card is a
(a) King or Red card
(b) Club or Diamond
(c) King or Queen
(d) King or an Ace
(e) Spade or Club
(f) Neither a Heart nor a King
545
Solution
n( K ) 4 1
Let King  K, P( K )   
n( S ) 52 13
n( R) 26 1
Red  R, P( R)   
n( S ) 52 2
n(C ) 13 1
Club  C, P(C )   
n( S ) 52 4
n( D) 13 1
Diamond  D, P( D)   
n( S ) 52 4
n(Q) 4 1
Queen  Q, P(Q)   
n( S ) 52 13
n( A) 4 1
Ace  A, P( A)   
n( S ) 52 13
n( S ) 13 1
Spade  S, P( S )   
n( S ) 52 4
n( H ) 4 1
Heart  H, P( H )   
n( S ) 52 13
(a) P( K  R)  P( K )  P( R)  P( K  R)
2 1
Since there 2 kings out of 26 red cards, P( K  R)  
52 26
1 1 1 7
 P( K  R)  P( K )  P( R)  P( K  R)    
13 2 26 13
13 13 1
(b) P(C  D)  P(C )  P( D)   
52 52 2
4 4 2
(c) P( K  Q)  P( K )  P(Q)   
52 52 13
4 4 2
(d ) P( K  A)  P( K )  P( A)   
52 52 13
13 13 1
(e) P( S  C )  P( S )  P(C )   
52 52 2
( f ) P ( H  K )  1  P ( H  K )  1   P ( H )  P ( K )  P ( H  K ) 
 13 4 1  9
 P ( H  K )  1      
 52 52 52  13

546
Example 51
Two dice are thrown simultaneously. What is the probability of getting two
numbers whose sum is greater than or equal to ten?
Solution
Die  1,2,3,4,5,6
We can solve this question by using tree diagram or by using table
Dice 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6
2 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6
3 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6
4 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6
5 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6
6 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6
Number of sample space n( s )  36
Event  (4,6), (5,5), (5,6), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)
n( E )  6
n( E ) 6 1
 P( E )   
n( S ) 36 6

Example 52
In a lottery, there are 10 prizes and 25 blanks. A lottery is drawn at random.
What is the probability of getting a prize?
Solution
n( S )  10  25  35
n( E )  10
n( E ) 10 2
 P( E )   
n( S ) 35 7

Example 53
From a pack of 52 cards, two cards are drawn together at random. What is the
probability of both the cards being kings?
Solution
n( S )  2 cards are drawn out of 52 cards 52C2  1326
n( E )  event of getting 2 kings out of 4 kings  4C2  6
n( E ) 4 C 2 6 1
 P( E )   52  
n( S ) C2 1326 221

547
Example 54
Two dice are tossed. Find the probability that the total score is a prime number.
Solution
Dice 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6
2 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6
3 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6
4 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6
5 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6
6 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6
Number of sample space, n( s)  36
Event  (1,1), (1,2), (1,4), (1,7), (2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (3,2), (3,4), (4,1), (4,3), (5,2), (5,6), (6,1), (6,5)
n( E )  15
n( E ) 15 5
 P( E )   
n( S ) 36 12

Example 55
A card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards. Find the probability of getting a queen
of club or a king of heart.
Solution
n( S ) 52C1  52
Event  drawn 1 king out of 13 clubs or a 1 king of heart out of 13 hearts
n( E )1C1 or 1C1 1C1 1C1  2
n( E ) 1C1 1C1 2 1
 P( E )   52  
n( S ) C1 52 26

Example 56
Two cards are drawn together from a pack of 52 cards. Find the probability that
one is a spade and one is a heart.
Solution
nS  52C2  1326
Event  Number of ways of choosing1 spade out of 13 and 1 heart out of 13
nE 13C113 C1  169
nE  13C1 13 C1 169 13
 P E    52  
nS  C2 1326 102

548
Example 57
An urn contains 6 red, 5 blue and 2 green marbles. If 3 marbles are picked at
random, what is the probability that both are red?
Solution
Total number of marbles  6  5  2  13 marbles
n( S )13C3  286
n( E ) 6C3  20
n( E ) 6 C3 20 10
 P( E )   13  
n( S ) C3 286 143

Example 58
A bag contains 12 white and 18 black balls. Two balls are drawn in succession
without replacement. What is the probability that first is white and second is
black?
Solution
Total number of balls  12 white  18 black  30 balls
 12C   18C  36
 P( E )   30 1    29 1  
 C1   C1  145

Example 59
A box contains 4 chocobars and 4 ice creams. Tom eats 3 of them, by randomly
choosing. What is the probability of choosing 2 chocobars and 1 ice cream?
Solution
Total number of iterms  4  4  8
n( E ) 4
Probability of choosing the first chocobar  
n( S ) 8
n( E ) 3
Probability of choosing the second chocobar   (After eating no replacement)
n( S ) 7
n( E ) 4
Probability of choosing the one ice cream  
n( S ) 6
4 3 4 1
Required probability    
8 7 6 7
1
 The probability of choosing 2 chocobars and 1 ice cream 
7

549
Example 60
Tickets numbered 1 to 20 are mixed up and then a ticket is drawn at random.
What is the probability that the ticket drawn has a number which is a multiple
of 3 or 5?
Solution
n( S )  20
Event  3,6,9,12,15,18,5,10,20 n( E )  9
n( E ) 9
 P( E )  
n( S ) 20

Example 61
A card is drawn from a deck of 52 cards. Find the probability of getting a king
or heart or a red card.
Solution
Let K  King card
H  Heart cards
R  Red cards
Required, P( K or H or R)  P( K  H  R)
From, P( K  H  R)  P( K )  P( H )  P( R)  P( K  H )  P( K  R)  P( H  R)  P( K  H  R)
n( K )  4, n( H )  13 and n( R)  26
n( K  H )  1, n( K  R)  2, n( H  R)  13 and n( K  H  R)  1
Now, P( K  H  R)  P( K )  P( H )  P( R)  P( K  H )  P( K  R)  P( H  R)  P( K  H  R)
4 13 26 1 2 13 1 7
 P( K  H  R)        
52 52 52 52 52 52 52 13

Example 62
In a class 30% of the students offered mathematics, 20% offered chemistry and
10% offered both. If a students is selected at random, find the probability that
he has offered mathematics or chemistry.
Solution
Let M  Students offeredmathematics
C  Students offeredChemistry
P( M )  30%  0.3
P(C )  20%  0.2
P( M  C )  10%  0.1
Required, P( M  C )  P( M )  P(C )  P( M  C )
 P( M  C )  0.3  0.2  0.1  0.4

550
Example 63
The probability that at least one of the events A and B occurs is 0.7 and they
occur simultaneously with probability 0.2, find P ( A)  P ( B )
Solution
P ( A  B )  0.7 and P( A  B)  0.2
From, P ( A  B)  P ( A)  P( B )  P( A  B)
0.7  P( A)  P ( B)  0.2
P ( A)  P ( B )  0.9.......... .......... ........( i )
But
P ( A)  P ( A)  1.......... .......... .........( ii)
P ( B)  P ( B )  1.......... .......... .........( iii)
Add equations (i) and (ii)
P ( A)  P ( B )  P( A)  P ( B )  2......( iv)
Substitute equation (i) into equation (iv)
0.9  P( A)  P( B )  2
 P ( A)  P ( B)  1.1

Example 64
A coin is tossed and a die is thrown, find the probability that the outcomes will
be a head or a number greater than 4.
Solution
By using table
1 2 3 4 5 6
H H,1 H,2 H,3 H,4 H,5 H,6
T T,1 T,2 T,3 T,4 T,5 T,6
Let H  Head, G  Number greater than 4
n( S )  12, n( H )  6, n(G )  4 and n( H  G )  2
n( H ) 6 1
P( H )   
n( S ) 12 2
n(G ) 4 1
P(G )   
n( S ) 12 3
n( H  G ) 2 1
P( H  G )   
n( S ) 12 6
Required, P( H  G )  P( H )  P(G )  P( H  G )
1 1 1 2
 P( H  G )    
2 3 6 3

551
Example 65
2
The probability that a company executive will travel by plane is and that he
3
1
will travel by train is . Find the probability of his travelling by plane or train.
5
Solution
2
Let A  Travel by plane, P( A) 
3
1
B  Travel by Train, P( B) 
5
From, P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B) but P( A  B)  0
2 1 13
 P( A  B)    0 
3 5 15

Example 66
Naomi appears for an interview for two posts A and B, selection for which is
1 1
independent. The probability of selection for post A is and for post B is .
7 3
What is the probability that Naomi is selected for at least one of the posts?
Solution
1
Let A  Selected for post A, P( A) 
7
1
B  Selected for post B, P( B) 
3
From, P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B) but P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)
P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A)  P( B)
1 1 1 1 3
 P( A  B)      
7 3  7 3 7

Example 67
A bag contains 4 red and 3 black balls. A second bag contains 2 red and 4 black
balls. One bag is selected at random. From the selected bag, one ball is drawn.
Find the probability that the ball drawn is red.
Solution

552
The first bag has 4 red balls out of 7 balls and second bag has 2 red balls out of 6 balls
P(red )  P(red in first bag ) or P(red in second bag ) probability of selectinga bag
 4 2  1 19
 P(red )      
 7 6  2 42
Alternative
 4C 2C  1 19
P(red )   7 1  6 1   
 C1 C1  2 42
19
 Probability of getting red ball from any bag 
42

Example 68
A bag contains 5 white balls and 2 black balls. Another bag contains 3 white
balls and 6 black balls. If one ball is drawn from each bag, find the probability
that both are white.
Solution
The probability of drawn both ball are white are independent event from each bag
P(Both white)  P(White from bag 1)  P(White from bag 2)
5 3 5
 P(W  W )  P(W )  P(W )   
7 9 21

Example 69
Two balls are drawn at random from a bag containing 2 white, 3 red, 4 green
and 5 black balls, one by one without replacement. Find the probability that
both balls are of different colours?
Solution
Total number of balls in a bag  2  3  4  5  14 balls
P(Two balls of different colours)  P(w and w ) or P(r and r ) or P(g and g) or P(b and b)
Probability  P( w  w)  P(r  r )  P( g  g )  P(b  b)
Probability  P( w)  P( w)  P(r )  P(r )  P( g )  P( g )  P(b)  P(b)
 2 12   3 11  4 10   5 9  71
Probability                 
14 13  14 13 14 13  14 13 91
71
 The probability of selecting two balls of different coloursis
91

553
Example 70
In bag A there are 3 white and 7 black balls, in a bag B, 6 are white and 2 are
black balls and in bag C 4 are white and 5 are black balls. One ball is taken out
at random from each bag. Find the probability that all the three balls are of the
same colour.
Solution
Total number of balls in bag A  3 white  7 black  10 balls
Total number of balls in bag B  6 white  2 black  8 balls
Total number of balls in bag C  4 white  5 black  9 balls
Probability  All balls are white  or All balls are black 
 3 6 4   7 2 5  71
 Probabbility           
 10 8 9   10 8 9  360

Example 71
A bag A contains 2 green and 5 blue balls and another bag B contains 7 green
and 3 blue balls. A ball is drawn from bag A and without noticing its colour, is
put in bag B. A ball is then drawn from bag B. Find the probability that,
(a) The ball drawn is green in colour.
(b) The ball drawn is blue in colour.
Solution
Number of balls in bag A  2 green  5blue  7 balls
Number of balls in bag B  7 green  3blue  10 balls

(a) The ball drawn is green in colour.

554
(b) The ball drawn is blue in colour
Case I. A blue ball is transferred from bag A to bag B
5
Probability of drawn blue ball from bag A before transfer 
7
4
Probability of drawn blue ball from bag B after transfer 
11
 Note; After transfer1 blue ball from bag A to bag B, number blue balls 
 
 in bag B become 4 out of 11 balls 
5 4 20
Probability of both these events happening together   
7 11 77

Case II. A green ball is transferred from bag A to bag B

5
Probability of drawn blue ball from bag A before transfer 
7
3
Probability of drawn blue ball from bag B after transfer 
11
 Note; After transfer1 green ball from bag A to bag B, number blue balls 
 
 in bag B remains the same and the sample space become11 
5 3 15
Probability of both these events happening together   
7 11 77
The events in two cases above are mutually exclusive events,
20 15 35 5
 Probability of drawn blue ball    
77 77 77 11

555
Example 72
Probability of solving specific problem independently by James and Tom are
1 1
and respectively. If both try to solve the problem independently, find the
2 4
probability that
(a) The problem is solved
(b) Exactly one of them solves the problem.
Solution
Let A  Event that the problem is solved by James, P  A 
1
2
Let B  Event that the problem is solved by Tom, P B  
1
4
(a) The problem is solved if at least one of them solve the problem,
P A  B   P A  PB   P A  B  and P A  B   P A  PB 
1 1 1 1 5
 P A  B   P A  PB   P A  PB       
2 4 2 4 8

(b) Probability of solving exactly one of them,

Either James solve the problem but not Tom or Tom solve the problem but
not James;
Probability  P APB  P APB   P A1  PB   1  P APB 
1 3 1 1 1
 Probability         
2 4 2 4 2

Example 73
Salome speaks truth in 90% of cases and Moses in 60% of cases. Find the
probability that, while stating the same fact, Salome and Moses contradict each
other.
Solution
Let A  Salome speaks truth
B  Moses speak truth
P( A)  90%  0.9 and P( B)  60%  0.6
P(A and B contradict)  P(A and B) or P(A and B)  P( A).P( B)  P( A).P( B)
 P(A and B contradict)  0.9  0.3  0.1 0.6  0.33

556
Example 74
2
The probability of Ronaldo to pass an examination is and that of Lukaku is
5
1
.Find the probability that
3
(a) Only Ronaldo passes
(b) Only one of them passes
Solution
(a) Only Ronaldo passes
2
Let R  Ronaldo passes, P ( R) 
5
1
L  Lukaku passes, P ( L) 
3
2 2 4
 P(R  L)  P( R) P( L)   
5 3 15
(b) Only one of them passes
P(R  L) or P(R  L)  P( R) P( L)  P( R) P( L)
2 2 3 1 7
 P(R  L)  P(R  L)     
5 3 5 3 15

Example 75
A student takes up physics, chemistry and mathematics. His chance of getting
A grade in these subjects are 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 respectively and the chances are
independent. Find the probability that he gets
(a) All A' s
(b) No A' s
(c) Exactly two A' s
Solution
Let H  Chance of getting A in Physics
C  Chance of getting A in Chemistry
M  Chance of getting A in Mathematics
(a) P(All A' s)  P( H  C  M )  P( H )  P(C )  P( M )  0.2  0.3  0.4  0.024

(b) P( No A' s)  P( H   C   M )  P( H )  P(C )  P( M )  0.8  0.7  0.6  0.336

(c) P(Exactly two A' s)  P( H  C  M )  P( H  C   M )  P( H   C  M )

P(Exactly two A' s)  P( H )  P(C )  P( M )  P( H )  P(C )  P( M )  P( H )  P(C )  P( M )
 P(Exactly two A' s)  0.2  0.3  0.6  0.2  0.7  0.4  0.8  0.3  0.4  0188

557
 Exercise 8.3

1. A jar contains 3 red marbles, 7 green marbles and 10 white marbles. If a

marble is drawn from the jar at random, what is the probability that this
marble is white?
2. The blood groups of 200 people is distributed as follows: 50 have type A
blood, 65 have B blood type, 70 have O blood type and 15 have type AB
blood. If a person from this group is selected at random, what is the
probability that this person has O blood type?
3. A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards. Find the probability of
getting the King of heart.
4. A card is drawn from a deck of 52 cards. Find the probability of getting a
club or ace or a black card.
5. A bag contains 4 white and 5 black balls and another bag contains 3 white
and 4 black balls. A ball is taken out from the first bag and without seeing
its colour it is put in the second bag. A ball is taken out from the later.
Find the probability that the ball drawn is white.
6. ‘Roshin’ can solve 50% of problems given and Sidate can solve 80%. If a
problem is given to both Roshin and Sidate at random, find the
probability that the problem is solved.
7. A problem is given to three students whose chance of solving it are
0.25, 0.4 and 0.5 respectively. Find the probability that the problem is
solved.
8. There 7 sweets in a bag. Three are lemon flavoured and four are
strawberry flavoured. Two sweets are selected at random. Calculate the
probability that
(a) Both sweets are strawberry flavoured
(b) All sweets are of same flavours
(c) All sweets are of different flavours
9. What are the odds in favour of getting a 2 in a throw of a die?
10. If the odds in favour of an event are 3 : 4 , find the probability that it will
occur.
11. A bag contains 4 white balls, 5 yellow balls and 3 black balls. If 3 balls
are drawn one by one without replacement, find the probability that none
is yellow.

558
 12. A lot consists of six good pencils, 4 with minor defects and 2 with major
defects. A pencil is chosen at random. What is a probability that this
pencil is not defective?
13. In a class of 24 students with roll numbers 1 to 24, a student is picked up
at random to answer a question. Find the probability that the roll number
of the selected student is either a multiple of 4 0r 6.
14. Three cards are drawn at random from a pack of well shuffled 52 cards.
Find the probability that
(a) All the three cards are of the same suit
(b) One is Ace, the second is a king and the third is a jack.
15. A committee of 6 principals is to be selected from a group of 9 male
principals and 7 female principals. If the selection is made randomly, find
the probability that there are 4 male principals and 2 female principals.
16. In an interview for a job in mining centre 5 boys and 3 girls appeared. If 4
persons are to be selected at random from the group. Find the probability
that 3 boys and 1 girl or 1 boy and 3 girls are to be selected.
17. At second hand car room 20% of the cars have no engine, 40% have
bald tyres and 15% have no engine and bald tyres. What is the probability
that a car chosen at random has good tyres and an engine.

8.3 CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY

Conditional probability is the probability in which occurrence of one event
depends on the occurrence of another event, or Conditional probability is the
probability of an event given some other event has already occurred.
Consider the probability of an event B given that an event A has already
occurred. The probability of an event in relation to the other event is called
conditional probability of B given A. Conditional probability of B given A is
denoted by PB A that is A occurs before B. In a case where events A and B
are independent (where event A has no effect on the probability of event B), the
conditional probability of event B given event A is simply the probability of
event B, that is P ( A)
If events A and B are dependent, the probability of the intersection of A and B
(the probability of both events occurs) is defined by P( A  B)  P APB A
from this definition the conditional probability is easily obtained by dividing by
P ( A)
The conditional probability of an event B given that A has already taken place
is defined mathematically as P( A  B) note P( A)  0
P  B A 
P ( A)

559
Example 76
In a class, 40% of the students study math and science. 60% of the students
study math. What is the probability of a student studying science given he/she is
already studying math?
Solution
Let A  Students who study Math
B  Students who study Science
P( A and B)  40%  0.4
P( A)  60%  0.6
 
Required, P B ?
A
 
P B 
A
P ( A  B) 0.4 2
P( A)
 
0.6 3

Example 77
In an exam, two reasoning problems, 1 and 2, are asked. 35% students solved
problem 1 and 15% students solved both the problems. How many students
who solved the first problem will also solve the second one?
Solution
Let A  students who solved problem1
B  students who solved problem 2
P( A)  35%  0.35
P( AandB)  P( A  B)  15%  0.15
Requaired, PB A?
P( A  B) 0.15 3
From, PB A     0.4286  42.86%
P( A) 0.35 7
 The number of students is approxitely 43%

560
Example 78
Out of 50 people surveyed in a study, 35 smoke in which there are 20 males.
What is the probability that if the person surveyed is a smoker then he is a
male?
Solution
Let A=Smoker, and B=Male

Probability of the person being male and a smoker,

20 2
P ( AandB)  P ( A  B )  
50 5
35 7
P ( A)    0 .7
Probability of person being smoker, 50 10

 
Required, P B ?
A
From, P B  
A
P( A  B) 2 5 4
P( A)
 
0.7 7
4
 Probability of a person being male if he is smoker 
7
Alternative
Given that 20 persons are males out of 35 smokers

 
PB 
20 4
A 35 7


4
 Probability of a person being male if he is smoker 
7

Example 79
The probability of raining on Sunday is 0.07. If today is Sunday then find the
probability of rain today.
Solution:
Probability that it is raining and the day is Sunday, P(A and B)=0.07
1
P( B) 
Probability that is Sunday, 7

Probability that it will rain if today is Sunday,


P A
B
  P(PA(
B)
B)

0.07
1
 0.49
7

Hence, the compound probability of raining if it is Sunday is 0.49.

561
Example 80
In a school the third language has to be chosen between Hindi and French. If a
student has taken French then what is the probability that he will take Hindi, if
the probability of taking French is 0.34?
Solution:
Probability of taking French and Hindi, P(A and B)=0 as they are mutually
exclusive events.

Probability of taking French, P(B)=0.34

Probability of taking Hindi if French has been opted,

PA B   P(PA(B)B)  0.034  0

Compound probability of mutually exclusive events is 0.

Example 81
When two dice are rolled, find the probability of getting a greater number on
the first die than the one on the second, given that the sum should equal 8.
Solution
When two dice are tossed, n( S )  36
Let A  Sum equal to 8
G  Greater number on the first die
Event  (2,6), (3,5), (4,4), (5,3), (6,2) n( A)  5
n( A) 5
P ( A)  
n( S ) 36
G and A   (5,3), (6,2) nG and A  2
nG and A 2
PG and A  
n( S ) 36
PG  A 2 36 2
 
Required, P G 
A P( A)

5

5
36

 
P G 
A 5
2

562
Example 82
A die is rolled. If the outcome is an even number, what is the probability that it
is a prime number?
Solution
Let A  getting an even number, 2,4,6, n A  3, P A  
3 1
6 2
A  getting an prime number, 2,3,5, nB   3, PB   
3 1
6 2
 A  B   2, n A  B   1, P A  B   6
1

Required, P B  A
 A  PPAAB 
1
1
P B 6
1

2 3

P B A  13
Example 83
The probability that a student selected at random from a class will pass
1
Mathematics is and the probability he/she will pass in mathematics and
3
1
Physics is . What is the probability that he/she will pass in Physics if it is
4
known that he/she has passed in Mathematics?
Solution
1
Let A  Pass in Mathematics, P ( A) 
3
B  Pass in Physics
1
P( A  B) 
4
Required, P B  
A
 
P B 
A
P( A  B) 14
P ( A)
  0.75
1
3

Example 84
A family has two children. What is a probability that both the children are girls
given that
(a) The youngest is a girl
(b) At least one is a girl?
563
Solution
Let B stands for Boy and G stands for Girl`
Sample space(S)  B, B , (G, B ), ( B, G ), (G, G ) , n(S)  4
(a ) The youngest is a girl
Let A  both are girls  (G, G )
D  The youngest is a girl   ( B, G ), (G, G ), n( D)  2
n( D ) 2 1
P( D)   
n( S ) 4 2

( A  D)  (G, G ), P( A  D) 
1
4
 
Required, P A 
D
P( A  D) 14 1
P( D)
 
1 2
2

 
P A 
D 2
1

(b) Let E  At least one girl  (G, B), ( B, G ), (G, G ) , n( E )  3

n( E ) 3 1
P( E )   , P( A  E ) 
n( S ) 4 4

 
Required, P A 
E
P( A  E )
P( E )
1
 4
3
1
3
4

 
P A 
E 3
1

Example 85
An urn contains 6 white, 8 yellow and 10 black marbles. A marble is chosen at
random from the urn, and is noted that it is not one of black marbles. What is
the probability that it is yellow?
Solution
Let W  White marble  6
Y  Yellow marble  8
B  Black marble  10
n( S )  6  8  10  24marbles
Required, P Y   B
) PY  (Y  W )  PY 
 
PY  
B
P (Y  B
P ( B )

1  P( B)

1  P( B)
Note : If it's not Black it's either Yellow or White
PY 
 
P Y  
8
 24 
B 1  P ( B ) 1  10 24 7
4

564
Example 86
At Marian 70% of the students read English newspaper, 30% read Swahili
newspaper and 20% read both English and Swahili newspapers. A student is
selected at random.
(a) Find the probability that she read neither English nor Swahili newspapers.
(b) If she read English newspapers, find the probability that she reads also
Swahili newspaper.
(c) If she reads Swahili newspaper, find the probability that she reads also
English newspaper.
Solution
Let E  Students read English newspaper
S  Students read Swahili newspaper
P( E )  70%  0.7, P( S )  30%  0.3 and P( E  S )  20%  0.2
(a) Probability of neither English nor Swahili newspaper (i.e. P( E  S ))
From, P( E  S )  1  P( E  S )  1  P( E )  P( S )  P( E  S )
 P( E  S )  1  P( E )  P( S )  P( E  S )  1  0.7  0.3  0.2  0.2

 E   P(PE(E)S )  00..72  72
(b) P S

 S   P(PE(S )S )  00..23  32
(c ) P E

Exercise 8.4
1. A couple has 2 children. Find the probability that both are boys, if it’s
known that the older child is a boy? (ans. 0.5)
2. A couple has 3 children. Find the probability that both are girls, if it’s
known that the second child is a girl?
3. A jar contains black and white marbles. Two marbles are chosen without
replacement. The probability of selecting a black marble and then a white
marble is 0.34, and the probability of selecting a black marble on the first
draw is 0.47. What is the probability of selecting a white marble on the
second draw, given that the first marble drawn was black?

565
4. A math teacher gave her class two tests. 20% of the class passed both
tests and 40% of the class passed the first test. What percent of those who
passed the first test also passed the second test?
5. The probability that it is Friday and that a student is absent is 0.06. Since
there are 5 school days in a week, the probability that it is Friday is 0.2.
What is the probability that a student is absent given that today is Friday?
6. At Marian Middle School, the probability that a student takes IT and
Mathematics is 0.08. The probability that a student takes IT is 0.6. What
is the probability that a student takes Mathematics given that the student
is taking IT?
7. In New York State, 50% of all teenagers own a skateboard and 40% of all
teenagers own a skateboard and roller blades. What is the probability that
a teenager owns roller blades given that the teenager owns a skateboard?
8. At a middle school, 18% of all students play football and basketball and
72% of all students play football. What is the probability that a student
plays basketball given that the student plays football?
9. In the United States, 81% of all children get an allowance and 27% of all
children get an allowance and do household chores. What is the
probability that a child does household chores given that the child gets an
allowance?
10. In Tanzania, 90% of all households have a television. 42% of all
households have a television and a VCR. What is the probability that a
household has a VCR given that it has a television?
11. In New Zealand, 80% of the houses have a garage and 62% of the houses
have a garage and a back yard. What is the probability that a house has a
backyard given that it has a garage?
12. In my town, it’s rainy one third of the days. Given that it is rainy, there
1
will be heavy traffic with probability 2 , and given that it is not rainy, there
1
will be heavy traffic with probability 4 . If it’s rainy and there is heavy
1
traffic, the probability that I will arrive late for work is 2 . On the other
1
hand, the probability of being late is reduced to 8 if it is not rainy and
there is no heavy traffic. In other situations (rainy and no traffic, not rainy
and traffic) the probability of being late is 0.25 .(Pick any day)
(a) What is the probability that it's not raining and there is heavy traffic and I
am not late?
566
 (b) What is the probability that I am late?
(c) Given that I arrived late at work, what is the probability that it rained that
day?

13. If P  A  , P  A B   and P B A   . Verify whether A and B are

1 1 2
4 4 3
independent or mutually exclusive events

8.4 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

Random Variable is a variable whose possible values are outcomes of a random
phenomenon. These outcomes depend on the physical variable that are not well
understood.

There are two random variables namely;

8.4.1 Discrete Random Variable

Discrete Random Variable is random variable which takes countable or finite
number of values eg 1,2,3,  
Discrete random variable may take on only a countable number of distinct
values.

The probability distribution of a discrete random variable is a list of

probabilities associated with each of its possible values. It is also sometimes
called the probability function or the probability mass function. Let X be a
random variable which can take at most a finite number of values x1 , x2 , x3   
If the probability that X takes the values x i is P( xi ) then
(i) P( xi )  0
(ii)  P( x ) 1
i

All random variables (discrete and continuous) have a cumulative distribution

function. It is a function giving the probability that the random variable X is
less than or equal to x , for every value of x . For a discrete random variable, the
cumulative distribution function is found by summing up the probabilities.

567
MATHEMATICAL EXPECTATION
The expectation or expected value of the random variable is the mean (average)
of the probability distribution.
If X is a discrete random variable which can take values x1 , x2 , x3 ,  , xn with
their probabilities Px1 , Px2 , Px3 ,  , Pxn  respectively.
Then the mathematical expectation is denoted by E ( X )
Expectation of X is given by
n
E  X   x1 P( x1 )  x2 P( x2 )      xn P( xn )   xi P( xi )
i 1
n
E  X    xi P( xi )
i 1

Properties of Expectation
(i) E a   a
(ii) Eax  aE(x)
(iii) Eax  b  aE( x)  b
(iv) Eg ( x)  h( x)  Eg ( x)  Eh( x)
(v) E f ( x) g ( x)  E f ( x) Eg ( x)
Proofs of some basic Expectation Properties
(i ) E (a)  a
From E ( x)   xP( X  x)
E (a)   aP( X  x)  a P( X  x) but  P( X  x)  1
 E (a)  a

(ii) E (ax)  aE( x)

From E ( x)   xP( X  x)
E (ax)   axP( X  x)  a  xP( X  x)  aE( x)
 E (ax)  aE( x)

(iii) E (ax  b)  aE( x)  b

From E ( x)   xP( X  x)
E (ax  b)   ax  b P( X  x)   axP( X  x)   bP( X  x)  a  xP( X  x)  b P( X  x)
 E (ax  b)  aE( x)  b

568
VARIANCE OF DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLE
In probability and statistics, the variance of a random variable is the average
value of the square distance from the mean value. It represents the how the
random variable is distributed near the mean value. Small variance indicates
that the random variable is distributed near the mean value. Big variance
indicates that the random variable is distributed far from the mean value.
The variance of random variable X is the expected value of squares of
difference of X and the expected value μ
The discrete random variable X with mean  . The variance of X is denoted by
and is defined as Var X   Ex    where
2
Var  X  x is the random variable of
the distribution and  is the mean.
From Var X   Ex    we can deduce the useful variance formula as,
2

Var  X   E x   
2


Var  X   E x 2  2 x   2 
Var  X   E x 2
  E 2 x   E   2

Var  X   E x 2
  2E x    but E x   
2

Var  X   E x 2
  2   2 2

Var  X   E x 2
  2

Var  X   E x   E x 
2 2

Var  X   E x 2
  E x 
2

 
Var X   E x 2  E(x)
2

Properties of Variance
(i) Vara   0 (' a' is constant and never vary)
(ii) Var ax  a 2Var x 
(iii) Varax  b   a 2Varx 
(iv) Var f ( x)  g ( x)  Var f ( x)  Varg ( x)

569
Proofs of some basic Variance Properties
(i ) Var (a)  0
From Var ( x)  E ( x 2 )  E ( x)
2

Var (a)  E (a 2 )  E (a)  a 2  a 2  0

2

Var (a)  0

(ii) Var (ax)  a 2Var ( x)

From Var ( x)  E ( x 2 )  E ( x)
2

2 2

Var (ax)  E (a 2 x 2 )  E (ax)  a 2 E ( x 2 )  a 2 E ( x)  a 2 E ( x 2 )  E ( x)  a 2Var ( x)
2

Var (ax)  a Var ( x)
2

(iii) Var (ax  b)  a 2Var ( x)

From Var ( x)  E ( x 2 )  E ( x)
2

 
Var (ax  b)  E (ax  b) 2  E (ax  b)
2

Var (ax  b)  E a x  2abx  b  aE( x)  b

2 2 2 2

Var (ax  b)  a E ( x )  2abE( x)  b  a E ( x)   2abE( x)  b 2 

2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2

Var (ax  b)  a E ( x )  a E ( x)   a E ( x )  E ( x)   a Var ( x)
2 2 2
 2

Var (ax)  a Var ( x)

2

Example 87
The p.d.f of a discrete random variable X is given by P( X  x)  cx 2 for
x  0,1,2,3. Find the value of the constant c .
Solution
X x 0 1 2 3
P X  x  0 c 4c 9c
Consider P( X  x)  cx 2
3

 P( X  x )  1
i 0
i

0  c  4c  9c  1
14c  1
 The value of c  114

570
Example 88
A random variable X has the following probability function,
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P (x ) 0 k 2k 2k 3k k 2
2k 2
7k 2  k

(a) Find k
(b) Calculate P ( x  2) , P ( 2  x  4) , P ( 2  x  4) and P ( x  5)
Solution
(a) Required value of k
7
From  P( x)  1
x 0

k  2k  2k  3k  k 2  2k 2  (7k 2  k )  1
10k 2  9k  1  0
 The value of k  0.1

(b) Required P ( x  2) , P ( 2  x  4) , P ( 2  x  4) and P ( x  5)

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P (x ) 0 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 3 0 01 0 02 017

P( x  2)  0  0.1  0.2  0.3

P(2  x  4)  0.2  0.3  0.5
P(2  x  4)  0.2
P( x  5)  0.02  0.17  0.19

Example 89
A random variable X has a probability distribution as shown below;
X -2 -1 0 1 2
P ( X  x ) 0.3 0.1 0.15 0.4 0.05

Find the expectation

Solution
Expectation of E ( x)
n
E ( x)   xi P( xi )  (2  0.3)  (1 0.1)  (0  0.15)  (1 0.4)  (2  0.05)  0.2
i 1

 Expectation, E ( x)  0.2

571
Example 90
A random variable X has a p.d.f for x  1,2,3 as shown below;
x 1 2 3
P (x ) 0 1 0 6 0 3

(a) E ( x)
(b) E (5)
(c) E (4 x)
(d) E (3 x  2 )
2
(e) E ( x )
2
(f) E (2 x )
(g) E (2 x  3)
2

Solution
3
(a) E ( x)   xi P( xi )  (1 0.1)  (2  0.6)  (3  0.3)  2.2
x 1

(b) E (5)  5
(c) E (4 x)  4 E ( x)  4  2.2  8.8
(d ) E (3x  2)  E (3x)  E (2)  3E ( x)  2  3(2.2)  2  8.6
3
(e) E ( x 2 )   xi P( xi )  (12  0.1)  (2 2  0.6)  (32  0.3)  5.2
2

x 1

 
3
( f ) E (2 x 2 )  2 xi P( xi )  2 (12  0.1)  (2 2  0.6)  (32  0.3)  10.4
2

x 1

 
3
( g ) E (2 x 2  3)  2 xi P( xi )  2 (12  0.1)  (2 2  0.6)  (32  0.3)  3  13.4
2

x 1

Example 91
X is the number of heads obtained when 2 coins are tossed, find E ( x ) ,
E (10 x ) , E ( x  1) , E ( x 2 ) and E ( x  x )
2

Solution

572
When two coinare tossed the possible sample space are HH, HT, TH, TT, n( s)  4
Let x be number of head(s)
1 2 1
P( x  0)   0.25, P( x  1)   0.5, P( x  2)   0.25
4 4 4
By using table
x 0 1 2
P ( X  x ) 0.25 0.5 0.25
Required;
2
E ( x)   xi P ( xi )  (0  0.25)  (1 0.5)  (2  0.25)  1
x 0
2
E (10x)  10 xi P ( xi )  10(0  0.25)  (1 0.5)  (2  0.25)  10
x 0
2
E ( x  1)   xi P( xi )  (0  0.25)  (1 0.5)  (2  0.25)  1  2
x 0
2
E ( x 2 )   xi P ( xi )  (0 2  0.25)  (12  0.5)  (2 2  0.25)  1.5
2

x 0

Example 92
The random variance X has probability distribution as shown below;
x 1 2 3 4 5
P (x ) 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1
Find;
(a) E (x)  
2
(b) E ( x )
(c) Var(x)
(d) Standard Deviation of x
Solution
5
(a) E ( x)     xi P( xi )  (1 0.1)  (2  0.3)  (3  0.2)  (4  0.3)  (5  0.1)  3
x 1
5
(b) E ( x 2 )   xi P( xi )  (12  0.1)  (2 2  0.3)  (32  0.2)  (4 2  0.3)  (5 2  0.1)  10.4
2

x 1

(c) Var ( x)  E ( x   )  E ( x 2 )   2  E ( x 2 )  E ( x)   10.4  (3) 2  1.4

2

(d ) Standard Deviation (SD)  Var ( x)  1.4  1.18

573
Example 93
A discrete random variable X has a probability function given by;
kx 2 x  1,2,3.
P( x)  
0 otherwise
(a) Find k
(b) E (x ) ?
2
(c) E ( x ) ?
(d) Var (x ) ?
(e) S.D of x
Solution
(a) Required value of k
By using table
x 1 2 3
P( x)  kx 2 k 4k 9k

From,
3

 P( x )  1
i 1
i

k  4k  9k  1
1
k 
14
Now,
x 1 2 3
P( x)  141 x 2 1
14
2
7
9
14

3
(b) E ( x)     x P( x )  (1
x 1
i i
1
14 )  (2  72 )  (3  149 )  187
3
(c) E ( x ) 
2
x
x 1
i
2
P( xi )  (12  141 )  (2 2  72 )  (32  149 )  7
2
 18 
(d) Var ( x)  E ( x   )  E ( x 2 )   2  E ( x 2 )  E ( x) 2  7    
19
7 49
(e) Standard Deviation (SD)  Var ( x)  19
49  0.6227

574
Exercise 8.5
The discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution,
x 0 1 2 3 4
P (x ) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Find;
(i) Work down the name of the distribution.
(ii) P (1  x  3)
(iii) P (1  x  4)
(iv) P (1  x  3)
(v) E ( x )

8.4.2 Continuous Random Variable

Continuous Random Variable is a random variable which takes an infinite
number of possible values.
Continuous random variables are usually measurements. Examples includes
height, weight, the amount of sugar in an orange, the time required to run a
mile.
A continuous random variable is not defined at a specific values, instead it is
defined over an interval of values, and is represented by the area under a curve
known as integral.
The probability of observing any single value is equal to 0 , since the number of
values which may be assumed by the random variable is infinite.
(i) P ( x )  0

x2
(ii)  f ( x)dx  1
x1

EXPECTATION OF A CONTINUOUS RANDOM VARIABLE

The expectation of a continuous random variable X is defined as

Properties of Expectation E  X    xf ( x)dx

(i) E a   a
(ii) Eax  aE(x)
(iii) Eax  b  aE( x)  b
(iv) Eg ( x)  h( x)  Eg ( x)  Eh( x)
(v) E f ( x) g ( x)  E f ( x) Eg ( x)

575
Proofs of some basic Expectation Properties
(i ) E (a )  a
From E ( x)   xf ( x)dx
E (a)   af ( x)dx  a  f ( x)dx but  f ( x)dx  1
 E (a)  a

(ii) E (ax)  aE( x)

From E ( x)   xf ( x)dx
E (ax)   axf ( x)dx  a  xf ( x)dx  aE( x)
 E (ax)  aE( x)

(iii) E (ax  b)  aE( x)  b

From E ( x)   xf ( x)dx
E (ax  b)   ax  b  f ( x)dx   axf ( x)dx   bf ( x)dx
 E (ax  b)  aE( x)  b

VARIANCE OF CONTINUOUS RANDOM VARIABLE

In probability and statistics, the variance of a random variable is the average
value of the square distance from the mean value. It represents the how the
random variable is distributed near the mean value. Small variance indicates
that the random variable is distributed near the mean value. Big variance
indicates that the random variable is distributed far from the mean value.
The variance of random variable X is the expected value of squares of
difference of X and the expected value μ
Var  X   E x   
2


Var  X   E x 2  2 x   2 
Var  X   E x 2
  E 2 x   E   2

Var  X   E x 2
  2E x    but E x   
2

Var  X   E x 2
  2  
2 2

Var  X   E x 2
 
2

Var  X   E x   E x 
2 2

Var  X    x f ( x)dx   xf ( x)dx

2
2

576
Properties of Variance
(i) Vara   0
(ii) Var ax  a 2Var x 
(iii) Varax  b   a 2Varx 
(iv) Var f ( x)  g ( x)  Var f ( x)  Varg ( x)

Proofs of some basic Variance Properties

(i) Var (a)  0
From Var ( x)  E ( x 2 )  E ( x)
2

Var (a)  E (a 2 )  E (a)  a 2  a 2  0

2

Var (a)  0

(ii) Var (ax)  a 2Var ( x)

From Var ( x)  E ( x 2 )  E ( x)
2

2 2

Var (ax)  E (a 2 x 2 )  E (ax)  a 2 E ( x 2 )  a 2 E ( x)  a 2 E ( x 2 )  E ( x)  a 2Var ( x)
2

Var (ax)  a Var ( x)
2

(iii) Var (ax  b)  a 2Var ( x)

From Var ( x)  E ( x 2 )  E ( x)
2

 
Var (ax  b)  E (ax  b) 2  E (ax  b)
2

Var (ax  b)  E a x  2abx  b  aE( x)  b

2 2 2 2

Var (ax  b)  a E ( x )  2abE( x)  b  a E ( x)   2abE( x)  b 2 

2 2 2 2 2


Var (ax  b)  a 2 E ( x 2 )  a 2 E ( x)   a 2 E ( x 2 )  E ( x)   a 2Var ( x)
2 2

Var (ax)  a Var ( x)
2

577
Example 94

A continuous random variable X has a p.d.f f ( x)  kx 2 for 0  x  4 ;

a) Find the value of the constant k
b) Find P (1  x  3)

Solution
b
(a ) From  f ( x)dx  1
a
4

 kx dx  1
2

kx
3
 3 04  1
3
x  
k 3 4
0
1

3
k 
64
3
(b) P(1  x  3)   kx2 dx  
1
3

1
3 2
64
x dx 
3

64 1
3
x 2 dx 
3 x3
64 3
   641 x   1332
3

1
3 3
1

13
 P(1  x  3) 
32

Example 95

X is a delay in hours of a flight from Chicago where f ( x)  0.2  0.02 x ,

0  x  10 . Find;
a) The probability that the delay be less than 4 hours.
b) The probability of the delay be between 2 and 6 hours.

Solution

Given f ( x)  0.2  0.02x, 0  x  10

 
4
(a) Pless than 4  P( x  4)  P(0  x  4)   0.2  0.02x dx  0.2 x  0.01x 2
4
0  0.64
0

 P( x  4)  0.64

 
6
(b) P(2  x  6)   0.2  0.02x dx  0.2 x  0.01x 2
6
2  0.48
2

578
Example 96
X is a continuous variable, the mass in kg of a substance produced per minute
in industrial process where;
1
 x6  x  0 x6
f ( x)   36

0 otherwise
Find the probability that the mass is more than 5kg.
Solution

     272
6 6 6
P( x  5)  P 5  x  6   f ( x)dx   361 x6  x dx  361  6 x  x 2 dx  361 3x 2  x3
3 6
5
5 5 5

2
 P( x  5) 
27

Example 97
1 2
The p.d.f of X where f ( x)  x for 0  x  3 . Find
9
a) The mean of x
b) P( x   )

Solution

   x dx  x 
b 3 3
9
(a ) E ( x)     xf ( x)dx   x 1
9 x 2 dx  1
9
3 1
36
4 3
0   2.25
a 0 0
4

x 
2.25
27
(b) P( x   )  P( x  2.25)  P(0  x  2.25)  
3 2.25
1
9 x 2 dx  1
27 0 
0
64

Example 98

A continuous random variable X has a p.d.f f ( x ) where f ( x) 

1
 x  3 ,
20
0  x  4 . Find;
a) E ( x )
b) E ( 2 x  5)
c) E ( x 2 )
d) E ( x 2  2 x  3)

579
Solution

 x 3 3x 2  34
 x 
b 4 4
(a) E ( x)   xf ( x)dx   x ( x  3) dx 
1
20
1
20
2
 3x dx  1
20  3  2   15
a 0 0  
 34  143
(b) E (2 x  5)  2 E ( x)  5  2   5 
 
15 15
 x4 3
 x 
b 4 4
(c) E ( x 2 )   x`2 f ( x)dx   x 2  201 ( x  3) dx  1
20
3
 3x 2 dx  1
20  4  x   6.4
a 0 0  
 34  119
(d ) E ( x 2  2 x  3)  E ( x 2 )  2 E ( x)  3  6.4  2   3 
 15  15

Example 99
1
The continuous random variable X has a p.d.f f ( x ) where f ( x)  x , 0  x  4 .
8
Find;
a) E ( x ) (d) Standard Deviation
2
b) E ( x ) (c) Var (3 x)
c) Var (x) (d) Var (3 x  10)

Solution
4
1  x3 
4 4 4
(a) E ( x)   xf ( x)dx   x x dx   x dx    
1 1
8 2
8 8
0 0 0
8  0 3
3
4
1  x4 
4 4 4
(b) E ( x )   x f ( x)dx   x
2 2

2 1
8 x dx   x dx     8
1
8
3

0 0 0
8  4 0
2
8
(c) Var ( x)  E ( x 2 )  E ( x)   8    
2 8
 
3 9
8 2 2
(d ) Standard Deviation (SD)  Var ( x)  
9 3
8
(e) Var (3 x)  32 Var ( x)  9   8
9
8
( f ) Var (3x  10)  32 Var ( x)  9   8
9

580
Example 100

A continuous random variable x having values only between 0 and 4 has a

density function given by P x  
1
 rx where r is a real number. Find
2

(a) The value of r

(b) Expectation of x
(c) Variance of x
(d) P1  P  2

Solution

Given that P  x  
1
 rx in the interval 0  x  4
2
4
(a )From  P ( x)dx  1
0

1 
4

  2  rx dx  1
0
4
1 r 2
 2 x  2 x   1
0

1
2
 4

x  rx 2 0  1

4  16r   2
1
r
8
(b) Expectation of x
4
1 1  1 1 3 4
4
E  x    x  x dx   x 2  x 
0 
2 8  4 24  0 3
4
 Expectation of x is
3

581
  
(c) Var ( x)  E x 2  E x 
2

  1 1  1 1  1 1 
4 4
8
E x   x   x dx    x 2  x 3 dx   x 3  x 4  
2 2

0 2 8  0
2 8  6 32  0 3
2
8 4 8
Var ( x)     
3 3 9

2
1 1  1 1 
2
5
(d )    x dx   x  x 2  
1
2 8  2 16 1 16

Exercise 8.6
1. A continuous random variable X has a p.d.f f ( x) where;
k x  22 2  x  0

 1
f ( x)  4k 0 x
 3
0 otherwise

Find;
a) The value of k
b) P (1  x  0)
c) P ( x  0)
d) Sketch f ( x )

2. A continuous random variable has a p.d.f f ( x) where;

0.25x 0 x2

f ( x)  1  0.25x 2 x4
0
 elsewhere
Sketch f ( x ) and find E ( x )
3. A teacher of young children is thinking of asking her class to guess her
height in metres. The teacher considers that guessed by a randomly
selected child can be modelled by a random variable H with the
probability density function.

582
 3

f (h)  16

4h  h 2  0h2

0 otherwise
a) PH  1
b) Show that E ( H )  1.25

4. The continuous random variable X has probability density function


0 x0

f ( x)  6kx(1  x) 0  x 1
k
 2 x 1
x
 1
Find k and P x  
 2

5. The random variable X has the distribution given below by the table
R 1 2 3 4
P( X  r ) k k l l
2 3 4
In addition it’s known that; P ( x  2)  2 P ( x  2)
Find;
a) k and l
b) P ( x  2)

8.5 SOME SPECIAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

8.5.1 Binomial Distribution

Binomial distribution is the discrete probability distribution of the number of
successes in a sequence of n independent yes/no experiments, each of which
yields success with probability p. Such a success/failure experiment is also
called a Bernoulli experiment or Bernoulli trial. In fact, when n  1, the binomial
distribution is a Bernoulli distribution. The binomial distribution is the basis for
the popular binomial test of statistical significance.

583
Bernoulli’s Distribution satisfy the following trials;
(i) The number of trials should be finite.
(ii) The trials should be independent.
(iii)There should be exactly 2 outcomes in each trial which are success or
failure.
(iv) The probability of success and that of failure remain constant throughout
all experiment.

Binomial Distribution is the distribution with the probability function given as;

 nC p r q nr r  0, 1, 2,  
P X  r    r
 0 elsewhere

Or let rx

 n C p x q n x x  0, 1, 2,  
P X  x    x
 0 elsewhere

Note:
(i) P( X  x)  0
n
(ii) 
x 0
n
C x p x q n x  1

EXPECTATION OF BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

Expectation value of Binomial Distribution is derived as follow,
n
Consider general expectation formula E ( x)   xP( X  x)
x 0
x n x
But P( X  x)  Cx p q
n

n
E ( x)   xP( X  x)
x 0
n
E ( x)   x nC x p x q n  x
x 0

584
 n
 n!  x n x
E ( x)   x  p q
x 0  ( n  x )! x! 

n
 n(n  1)! 
E ( x)   x  p. p x 1q n x
x 0  ( n  x )! x ( x  1)! 
n
 (n  1)!  x 1 n x
E ( x)  np   p q
x 0  ( n  x )!( x  1)! 
n n
E ( x)  np n1C x 1 p x 1q n x but  n 1
C x 1 p x 1q n x  1
x 0 x 0

E ( x)  np

VARIANCE OF A BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

Consider variance of Discrete Random Variable Var( x)  E( x 2 )  E( x)2
But we have found that E ( x)  np , thus let’s find the E x 2 
 
n
E x 2   x 2 nC x p x q n  x but x 2  x( x  1)  x
x 0

 
n
E x 2   x( x  1)  x  nC x p x q n x
x 0

 
n n
E x 2   x( x  1) n C x p x q n  x   x nC x p x q n x
x 0 x 0

 n(n  1)(n  2)!  2 x 2 n x

 
n
E x 2   x( x  1)  p p q  np
x 0  (n  x)!x( x  1)( x  2)! 
 (n  2)!  x 2 n x
 
n
E x 2  n(n  1) p 2    p q  np
x 0  ( n  x )!( x  2)! 

 
n n
E x 2  n(n  1) p 2  n2 C x 2 p x 2 q n x  np but  n 2 C x 2 p x 2 q n x  1
x 0 x 0

E x   n(n  1) p
2 2
 np
 
 E ( x)  np and E x 2  n(n  1) p 2  np
 
Var ( x)  E x  E ( x) 
2 2

Var ( x)  n(n  1) p 2  np  np

2

Var ( x)  n 2 p 2  np 2  np  n 2 p 2
Var ( x)  np  np 2  np(1  p ) let 1  p  q
Var ( x )  npq

585
Example 101
The random variable X distributed B (7,0.2) , find
(a) P ( x  3)
(b) P (1  x  4)
(c) P ( x  1)
Solution
B(n, p)  B(7,0.2) but q  1  p  1  0.2  0.8
n  7, p  0.2 and q  0.8
From P( X  x) n C x p x q n x
(a) P( x  3) 7 C3 0.2  0.8  7 C3 0.2 0.8  0.115
3 7 3 3 4

(b) P(1  x  4)  P( x  2)  P( x  3)  P( x  4)
P(1  x  4) 7 C 2 0.2  0.8  7C3 0.2  0.8  7C 4 0.2 0.8  0.419
2 5 3 4 4 3

(c) P( x  1)  P( x  2)  P( x  3)  P( x  4)  P( x  5)  P( x  6)  P( x  7)
or P( x  1)  1  P( x  1)  1  P( x  1)  P( x  0) 

 P( x  1)  1  P( x  1)  1  7 C1 0.2  0.8  7C0 0.2 0.8  0.423
1 6 0 7

Example 102
A fair coin is tossed 6 times; find,
(a) The probability of getting 4 heads.
(b) The probability of getting at least 3 heads.
(c) The probability of getting at most 2 heads.
(d) The probability of getting more than 3 heads.
(e) The probability of getting less than 1 head.
(f) The probability of getting heads between 2 and 4 inclusive.
Solution
Data n  6, when the coin is fairly tossed p  12 and q  12
By using Binomial Formula P( X  x) n C x p x q n x
(a) P( x  4) 6C4 0.5 0.5
6 4
 0.234
4

(b) P( x  3)  P( x  3)  P( x  4)  P( x  5)  P( x  6)
P( x  3) 6C3 0.5 0.5  6C 4 0.5 0.5  6C5 0.5 0.5  6C6 0.5 0.5  0.656
3 3 4 2 5 1 6 0

(c) P( x  2)  P( x  0)  P( x  1)  P( x  2)
P( x  2) 6C0 0.5 0.5  6C1 0.5 0.5  6C2 0.5 0.5  0.344
0 6 1 5 2 4

586
(d ) P( x  3) 6C 4 0.5 0.5  6C5 0.5 0.5  6C6 0.5 0.5  0.344
4 2 5 1 6 0

(e) P( x  1)  P( x  0) 6C0 0.5 0.5  0.016

0 6

( f ) P(2  x  4) 6C 2 0.5 0.5  6C3 0.5 0.5  6C 4 0.5 0.5  0.781
2 4 3 3 4 2

Example 103
Five cards are drawn successfully with replacement from a well shuffled deck
of 52 cards. What is the probability that,
(a) All the 5 cards are spades.
(b) Only 3 cards are spades.
(c) None is a spade.
(d) At least 4 spades.
(e) At most 2 spades.
Solution
Number of sample space n( S )  52 cards
Number of spades n( E )  13 cards
n( E ) 13 1
Probability of Events P( E )   
n( S ) 52 4
1 3
Therefore; n  5, p  and q  ; from P( X  x) n C x p x q n x
4 4
5 5 5
1 3 1
(a ) P( x  5) C5    
5

4 4 1024
3 53
1 3 45
(b) P( x  3) 5C3     
4 4 512
0 5 0
1 3 243
(c) P( x  0) C0    
5

4 4 1024
4 5 4 5 55
1 3 1 3 1
(d ) P( x  4) 5C 4      5C5     
4 4 4 4 64
2 5 2 1 51 0 5 0
1 3 1 3 1 3
(e) PP( xx 52) 5C    
459
2  C1      5C0    
5

4 4 4 4 4 4 512

587
Example 104
In a store, out of all the people who came there thirty percent bought a shirt. If
four people came in the store together then find the probability of one of them
buying a shirt.
Solution
The probability of buying a shirt will be p  0.3 and not buying a shirt is given
as q  1  p  1  0.3  0.7 . Now, if one person will buy a shirt out of four, then
the probability for this event will be:
 P( x  1) nC x  p  q   4C1 0.3 0.7
n x 41
 0.4116
x 1

Example 105
In a hospital sixty percent of patients are dying of a disease. If on a certain day,
eighth patients got admitted in the hospital for that disease what are the chances
of three to survive?
Solution
The probability of the patient dying because of the disease is 0.6. So, the
probability of the patient being cured is 1 - 0.6 = 0.4. Out of the 8 patients, the
probability survival of 3 patients will be,
 P( x  3) nC x  p  q  8C3 0.4 0.6  0.27869184
x n x 3 5

Example 106
Suppose we are throwing a dice thrice. Find the probability of finding a
multiple of 3 in one of the throws.
Solution
There are two cases of getting a multiple of 3, that is, 3 and 6. Hence, the
p  62  13
probability of getting a multiple of three will be

q  1  13  23
The probability of not getting a multiple of 3 is .

Hence, the probability of getting a multiple of 3 in one out of three events will
be,

 P( x  1) nC x  p  q   3C1  13   23  
x n x 1 2 4
9

588
Example 107
In a restaurant seventy percent of people order for Chinese food and thirty
percent for Italian food. A group of three persons enter the restaurant. Find the
probability of at least two of them ordering for Italian food.
Solution
The probability of ordering Chinese food is 0.7 and the probability of ordering
Italian food is 0.3. Now, if at least two of them are ordering Italian food then it
implies that either two or three will order Italian food.

Probability for two ordering Italian food,

P( x  2)  P( x  2)  P( x  3)
 P( x  2) n C x  p  q   3C2 0.3 0.7   3C3 0.3 0.7   0.216
x n x 2 1 3 0

Example 108
In an exam only ten percent students can qualify. If a group of 4 students have
appeared, find the probability that at most one student will qualify?
Solution
For at most one student to qualify, either 1 student will qualify or none of the 4
will qualify.
Probability for a student to qualify p  0.1
Probability for a student to disqualify q  1  p  0.9
P( x  1)  P( x  0)  P( x  1)
 P( x  1) nC x  p  q   4C0 0.1 0.9  4C1 0.1 0.9  0.9477
x n x 0 4 1 3

Example 109
In the old days, there was a probability of 0.8 of success in attempts to make a
telephone call. (This often depended on the importance of the person making
the call, or the operator’s curiosity). Calculate the probability of having
7 success in 10 attempts.
Solution
Data p  0.8, q  0.2
n  10, x  7
 P( x  7) n C x p x q n x 10C7 0.8 0.2  0.20133
7 3

589
Example 110
A manufacturer of metal pistons finds that on the average, 12% of his pistons
are rejected because they are either oversize or undersize. What is the
probability that a batch of 10 pistons will contain
(a) No more than 2 rejects?
(b) At least 2 rejects?
Solution
Data p  0.12, q  0.88, n  10
(a) P( x  2)  P( x  2)  P( x  1)  P( x  0)
P( x  2) n C x p x q n x 10C 2 0.12 0.88 10C1 0.12 0.88 10C0 0.12 0.88
2 8 1 9 0 10

 P( x  2)  0.89132

(b) P( x  2)  1  P( x  2)  1  P( x  0)  P( x  1)

 P( x  2)  1  
10 0 10 1 9

C0 0.12 0.88 10C1 0.12 0.88  0.342

Example 111
A doctor claims that 40% of the patients he examines are allergic to dust. What
is a probability that
(a) Exactly 3 of his next 4 patients are allergic to dust.
(b) None of the next 4 patients are allergic to dust.
Solution
p  40%  0.4, q  60%  0.6 and n  4
(a) Exactly 3 out of 4 patients are allergic to dust
From, P( X  x) n C x p x q n x
 P( x  3) 4C3 0.4 0.6
4 3
 0.1536
3

(b) None of the next 4 patients are allergic to dust

 P( x  0) 4C0 0.4 0.6
40
 0.1296
0

590
Example 112
1
The probability that a teacher will give a surprise test during any class is 4 . If
a student is absent twice, what is a probability that he will miss at least one test.
Solution
1 3
n  2, p  and q 
4 4
Required, P( x  1)  P( x  1)  P( x  2)
1 21 2 2 2
n x 1 3 1 3 7
 P( x  1) C x p q
n x
 C1  
2
   C2    
2

4 4 4 4 16

Exercise 8.7
1. A bag consists of 10 balls each marked with one of the digits 0 to 9. If
four balls are drawn successively with replacement from the bag, what is
the probability that none is marked with the digit 0?
2. How many times must a man toss a fair coin, so that the probability of
having at least one head is more than 80%
3. On a multiple choice examination with three possible answers for each of
the five questions. What is the probability that a candidate would get four
or more correct answers just by guessing?
4. In a hurdle race a player has to cross 10 hurdles. The probability that he
5
will clear each hurdle is 6 . What is the probability that he will knock
down fewer than 2 hurdles.
5. Assuming that 20% of the population of a city are literate, so that the
1
chance of an individual being literate is 5 and assume that 100
investigators each take 10 individual to see whether they are literate, how
many investigators would you expect to report 3 or less were literate?
6. 8 eggs are drawing successively with replacement from a lot containing
20% defective eggs. Find the probability that there is at least one
defective egg.
7. The probability of a shooter hitting a target is 23 . How many minimum
number of times must she fire so that the probability of hitting the target
at least once is more than 90% .

591
 8.5.2 Poisson Distribution
The binomial distribution converges towards the Poisson distribution as the
number of trials goes to infinity while the product np remains fixed or at least p
tends to zero. Therefore, the Poisson distribution with parameter λ = np can be
used as an approximation to B(n, p) of the binomial distribution if n is
sufficiently large and p is sufficiently small.
Properties of Poisson Distribution
(i) p is very small
(ii) n is very large
(iii) np is finite
The Poisson distribution is given by the probability density function

 e   x
 x  0,1,2,3,  

P X  x    x!


 0 otherwise

Poisson distribution is a discrete random variable just like Binomial distribution

since variable x can take only integral values 0,1,2,3,  
EXPECTATION OF POISSON DISTRIBUTION
Consider the general expectation of discrete random variable
n
E ( x)   xP( X  x) where x  0,1,2,3,4,  
x 0
n n
 e  x 
E ( x)   xP( X  x)   x 
x 0 x 0  x! 
n
 e   x   e  1   e  2   e  3   e   n 
E ( x)   x   0  1   2   3       n 
x 0  x!   1!   2!   3!   n! 
 e  1   e  2   e  3   e   n 
E ( x)     2   3       n 
 1!   2!   3!   n! 
e  1 e  2 e  3 e   n
E ( x)      
1 1! 2! (n  1)!
 1 2
 n1 
E ( x )   e 1       
 
 1! 2! (n  1)! 
 
E ( x )  e   e   
E (x)  

592
VARIANCE OF POISSON DISTRIBUTION
Consider the general variance of discrete random variable
Var( x)  E( x 2 )  E( x)
2

But we have found that E (x)   , thus let’s find the E x   2

2 e  
n n  x
E ( x )   x P( X  x)   x 
2 2

x 0 x 0  x! 
n
 e   x   e  1  2  e  2  2  e  3  2  e  3   e   n 
E ( x 2 )   x 2    0  12    2    3    4        n 2  
x 0  x!   1!   2!   3!   4!   n! 
 e  1  2  e  2  2  e  3  2  e  3   e   n 
E ( x 2 )  12    2    3    4        n 2  
 1!   2!   3!   4!   n! 
 nn1 
E ( x 2 )  e   1  2  32 2  23 3      
 (n  1)!
 n1 n  1n1 
E ( x 2 )  e   1      12 2  2  16 3  12 3       
 (n  1)! (n  1)! 
 2 3
E ( x 2 )  e    1         
n1   3
     2      
n  1n1  
 2 6 (n  1)!   2 (n  1)!  
   2 3 n1    2 n2  
E ( x 2 )  e    1            1        
  1! 2! 3! (n  1)!   1! 2! (n  2)! 

E ( x 2 )  e   e   e  
E ( x 2 )  e   e 
 e      2

E ( x 2 )    2
Therefore E ( x 2 )    2 and E ( x)  
Var ( x)  E ( x 2 )  E ( x)     2     
2 2

Var (x )  

Example 113
A shop sells five pieces of shirt every day, then what is the probability of
selling three shirts today?
Solution
Data,   5, x  3
e   x
From P( X  x) 
x!
e 5
5 3
 P ( x  5)   0.1404
3!
593
Example 114
Number of calls coming to the customer care center of a mobile company per
minute is a Poisson random variable with mean 5. Find the probability that no
call comes in a certain minute.
Solution
Data,   5, x  0
e   x
From P( X  x) 
x!
e 5
5 0
 P( x  0)   0.006738
0!

Example 115
There are five students in a class and the number of students who will
participate in annual day every year is a Poisson random variable with mean 3.
What will be the probability of more than 3 students participating in annual day
this year?
Solution
Data,   3, x  3
e   x
From P( X  x) 
x!
e 3 3 e 3 3
4 5
 P( x  3)  P( x  4)  P( x  5)    0.2689
4! 5!

Example 116
If electricity power failures occur according to a Poisson distribution with an
average of 3 failures every twenty weeks, calculate the probability that there
will not be more than one failure during a particular week.
Solution
3
The average number of failures per week is    0.15
20
" Not more than one failure" means we need to include the probabilities for "0 failures
plus 1 failures".
e  x e 0.15 0.15 e 0.15 0.15
0 1
P( x  1)  P( x  0)  P( x  1)     0.98981
x! 0! 1!
 P( x  1)  0.98981

594
Example 117
A life insurance salesman sells on the average 3 life insurance policies per
week. Use Poisson's law to calculate the probability that in a given week he will
sell
(a) Some policies
(b) 2 or more policies but less than 5 policies
(c) Assuming that there are 5 working days per week, what is the probability
that in a given day he will sell one policy?
Solution
(a) P(some policies)  P( x  1)  1  P( x  0)
e   x
From P( x) 
x!
 e 3 3 0 
 P( x  1)  1  P( x  0)  1     0.9502
 0! 
e  3 3 2 e  3 33 e  3 3 4
(b) P(2  x  5)  P( x  2)  P( x  3)  P( x  4)     0.616
2! 3! 4!
3
(c) Average number sold per day   0.6
5
e 0.6 0.61
 So on a given day P( x  1)   0.329
1!

Example 118
Vehicle pass through a junction on a busy road at an average rate of 300 per
hour.

(a) Find the probability that none passes in a given minute.

(b) What is the expected number passing in two minutes?
(c) Find the probability that this expected number actually pass through in a
given two-minute period.

Solution

300
The average number of cars per minute is   5
60
e   x e 5 (5) 0
(a ) P ( x  0)    0.00673795
x! 0!
(b) Expected number each 2 minutes = E ( x)    2  5  2  10
e   x e 10 (10)10
(c)  P ( x  10)    0.1251
x! 10!
595
Example 119
A company makes electric motors. The probability an electric motor is
defective is 0.01. What is the probability that a sample of 300 electric motors
will contain exactly 5 defective motors?
Solution
The averege number of defectives in 300 motors is   0.01 300  3
e   x
The probability of getting 5 defectives is P( x  5) 
x!
e 3 (3) 5
 P( x  5)   0.10082
5!
Alternative
This problem looks similar to a binomial distribution problem,
n  300, x  5, p  0.01 and q  0.99
From P( x  5) n C x p x q n x  300C5 0.01 0.99
3005
 0.100985
5

 P( x  5)  0.100985
Note : We see that the result is very similar. We can use binomial distribution
to approximat e Poisson distribution (and vice - versa) under certain circumstances.

Exercise 8.8
1. If the probability a person suffers bad reaction from an injection serum is
0.2% . Determine the probability that out of 1000 persons
(a) At least one person will suffer a bad reaction
(b) At most one person will suffer a bad reaction
2. A company makes electric motors. The probability an electric motor is
defective is 0.02. What is the probability that a sample of 200 electric
motors will contain exactly 10 defective motors?
3. If electricity power failures occur according to a Poisson distribution with
an average of 3 failures every twenty weeks, calculate the probability that
there will not be any failure during a particular week.
4. Number of calls coming to the customer care center of a mobile company
per minute is a Poisson random variable with mean 5. Find the probability
that there will be at least one call in a certain minute.

596
 8.5.3 Normal Distribution
A random distribution is a set of continuous random variables in which the
mean, median and mode are all equal. The normal distribution for a continuous
random variable x where    x   , with probability density function given
by f ( x) or f x :  , 

 x 
2
Probability density function is given by 1  12  
 
f ( x)  e 
 2

Note:   0 , where  is mean and  standard deviation and x is a random

variable.
 x 
2
   12 
1 
NB:
  2 
 
f ( x )dx  e dx  1

A random variable x with a mean  and variance  2 under normal distribution

is expressed as x ~ N  , 2 

The normal distribution is the most important in statistics because;

(i) It provides a suitable model for a wide range of data
(ii) It provide the theoretical basis for statistical inferences
The parameter of the distribution are actually the mean and variance of the
distribution i.e. E ( x)   and Var ( x)   2

A random variable which is normally distributed will typically exhibit “bell

shape” and symmetrical about the mean, as shown below;

597
Standard Normal Distribution

The conversion from normal distribution to standard normal distribution is

x
achieved by the substitution z  which effectively moves the distribution

curve along the x  axis and reduces the scale of horizontal units by dividing
by  to keep the total area under the curve at unity we multiply the y-values by
 , the equation of the standard normal curve therefore becomes;
 z2 
 
1  2  x
y  Q( z )  e  
where z  is known as the standard normal
2 
variable or z  score and Q ( z ) is the probability density function.

Z-score’s distribution with mean of 0 and variance 1 is what is termed as a

standard normal distribution. The curve retains its bell shape as shown below

Characteristics of standard normal curve

(i) The curve never touch the x  axis

(ii) The curve is symmetrical about the mean i.e.   0
(iii)Total area under the curve is unit.
(iv) The variable x ranges from   to 
(v) Area between z  a and z  b represent the probability that z lies
between the values z  a and z  b , i.e. Pa  z  b

598
Example 120

If Z ~ N 0,1 find;

(a) Pz  2

(b) Pz  2
(c) P 2  z  3
(d) P1  z  2
(e) P 2  z  0

(f) P z  3 
Solution

(a) Pz  2

 P z  2  0.0228

(b) Pz  2

 P z  2   0.0228

(c) P 2  z  3

 P 2  z  3  0.9759

599
 (d) P1  z  2

 P 1  z  2   0.8186

(e) P 2  z  0

 P 2  z  0   0.4773


(f) P z  3 

 P z  3  P0  z  3  0.4987

Example 121

The mean weight of 200 students in a certain school is 46kg and the standard
deviation is 12kg . Assuming that the weight is normally distributed. How
many students weigh

(a) Between 30kg and 60kg

(b) Between 24kg and 92kg
(c) More than 50kg
(d) Less than 40kg

600
Solution

Mean    46kg
Standard Deviation    12kg
Let x be weight of students
x   x  46
From, z  
 12

(a ) P 30kg  x  60kg 
 30  46 60  46 
P z 
 12 12 
P 4 3  z  7 6 

P 4 3  z  7 6   0.7871
Number of students 0.7871 200  157.42  157
157 students weigh between 30kg and 60kg

(b) P 24kg  x  92kg 

 24  46 92  46 
P z 
 12 12 
P 11 6  z  23 6 

P 11 6  z  23 6   0.9666
 Number of students 0.9666 200  193
601
(c) P  x  50
 50  46 
P z  
 12 
Pz  13 

Pz  13   0.3694
 Number of students 0.3694 200  73

(d ) P  x  40
 40  46 
P z  
 12 
P  z  0.5

Pz  0.5  0.3085

 Number of students 0.3085 200  61

Example 122

A radar unit is used to measure speeds of cars on a motorway. The speeds are
normally distributed with a mean of 90 km/hr and a standard deviation of 10
km/hr. What is the probability that a car picked at random is travelling at more
than 100 km/hr?

Solution

602
Mean (  )  90 km hr
Standard Deviation ( )  10 km hr
Let x be the speed travelled by a car
x   x  90
From z  
 10
Required, Probability x  100
 100  90 
P z    P z  1
 10 

 P z  1  0.1587

Example 123

For a certain type of computers, the length of time between charges of the
battery is normally distributed with a mean of 50 hours and a standard
deviation of 15 hours. Peter owns one of these computers and wants to know
the probability that the length of time will be between 50 and 70 hours.

Solution

Mean    50 hrs
Standard Deviation    15 hrs
Let x be random variable representing length of time between charges of the battery
x   x  50
From z  
 15
Probability50  x  70
 50  50 70  50 
P z   P0  z  4 3 
 15 15 

603
 P0  z  4 3   0.4088

Example 124

Entry to a certain University is determined by a national test. The scores on

this test are normally distributed with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation
of 100. Tom wants to be admitted to this university and he knows that he must
score better than at least 70% of the students who took the test. Tom takes the
test and scores 585. Will he be admitted to this university?

Solution

Mean    500
Standard Deviation    100
Let x be random variable representing scores
x   x  500
From z  
 100
Probabilityx  585
 585  500 
P z    Pz  0.85
 100 
We must find the probability of students scored below 585 in order to test whether Tom qualify or not
 585  500 
i.e. P z    Pz  0.85  0.8023  80.23%
 100 
80.23% of students scored below Tom' s scores,thereforethe score of Tom is better than 70% of
the students who took the test. Tom will be admitted to university.

604
Example 125

The random variable X has a normal distribution with mean 20 and standard
deviation 4.

(a) P ( X  25)
(b) Find the value of d such that P20  X  d   0.4641

Solution

Mean    20
Standard Deviation    4
x   x  20
But, z  
 4
(a) Px  25
 x  20   25  20 
Px  25  P z    P z    Pz  1.25
 4   4 

 P z  1.25  0.1057

(b) Required the value of d such that P20  X  d   0.4641

 20  20 d  20 
P z   0.4641
 4 4 
 d  20  d  20
P 0  z    0.4641 let z 2 
 4  4
P0  z  z 2   0.4641

605
 By using z - score sheet, z 2  1.8
d  20
But z 2  1.8 
4
 d  1.8(4)  20  27.2

Example 126
The measure of intelligence, IQ, of a group of students is assumed to be
normally distributed with mean 100 and standard deviation 15.
(a) Find the probability that a student selected at random has an IQ less than
90
(b) The probability that a random selected student has an IQ of at least 100  k
is 0.2090 , find to the nearest integer, the value of k

Solution

 P z  2 3   0.2525

(b) The probability of randomly selectedstudent has IQ at least 100  k is 0.2090, determine k
Px  100  k   0.2090
 100  k  100 
Px  100  k   P z    0.2090
 15 
 k  k
P z    0.2090 Let z 2 
 15  15
Pz  z 2   0.2090 since 0.2090  0.5 z 2 its on right hand half side

606
By using z - score table z 2  0.81
k
But z 2   0.81
15
k  15  0.81  12.15  12 to the nearest integer
 The value of k  12

Example 127

The height of a group of athletes are modelled by a normal distribution with

mean 180cm and standard deviation 5.2cm . The weights of this group of
athletes are modelled by a normal distribution with mean 85 kg and standard
deviation 7.1 kg . Find the probability that a randomly chosen athlete,

(a) Is taller than 185cm

(b) Weighs less than 90kg
(c) Assuming that for these athletes height and weight are independent, find
the probability a randomly chosen athlete is taller than 185cm and
weighs more than 90kg .

Solution

(a) P( x  185cm)
Mean    180
Standard Deviation    5.2cm
 x   185  180   25 
P z    P z    P z  
    5.2   26 

607
  25 
 P z    0.1681
 26 

(b) P( x  90kg )
Mean    85kg
Standard Deviation    7.1kg
 x   90  85   50 
P z    P z    P z  
    7.1   71 

 50 
 P z    0.7594
 71 

(c) P( x  185) height and P( x  90) weight

P( x  185) height and P( x  90) weight  P( z  25 26) height  P ( z  50 71) weight
 
 P( z  25 26) height  1  P ( z  50 71) weight  0.1681 1  0.7594  0.0404
 The probability of athlete taller than 185cm and weighs more than 90kg is 0.0404

608
Exercise 8.9

1. X is a normally distributed variable with mean μ = 30 and

standard deviation σ = 4. Find
a) P(x < 40)
b) P(x > 21)
c) P(30 < x < 35)

2. The length of similar components produced by a company are

approximated by a normal distribution model with a mean of 5
cm and a standard deviation of 0.02 cm. If a component is
chosen at random
a) What is the probability that the length of this component is
between 4.98 and 5.02 cm?
b) What is the probability that the length of this component is
between 4.96 and 5.04 cm?

3. The length of life of an instrument produced by a machine has a

normal distribution with a mean of 12 months and standard
deviation of 2 months. Find the probability that an instrument
produced by this machine will last
a) less than 7 months.
b) between 7 and 12 months.

4. The time taken to assemble a car in a certain plant is a random

variable having a normal distribution of 20 hours and a standard
deviation of 2 hours. What is the probability that a car can be
assembled at this plant in a period of time
a) less than 19.5 hours?
b) between 20 and 22 hours?

5. A large group of students took a test in Physics and the final

grades have a mean of 70 and a standard deviation of 10. If we
can approximate the distribution of these grades by a normal
distribution, what percent of the students
a) scored higher than 80?

609
 b) should pass the test (grades≥60)?
c) should fail the test (grades<60)?

6. The annual salaries of employees in a large company are

approximately normally distributed with a mean of $50,000 and
a standard deviation of $20,000.
a) What percent of people earn less than $40,000?
b) What percent of people earn between $45,000 and $65,000?
c) What percent of people earn more than $70,000?

7. The lifespan of light bulbs is normally distributed, with a mean

life of 850 hours, and a standard deviation of 20 hours.
(a) What would be the expected lifespan of approximately 99%
of the light bulbs?
(b) What percentage of light bulbs should last for at least 830
hours?

8. It is known that P79  a  z  79  b  0.6463 . This

information is shown in the figure below,

Given that P ( z  79  b)  2 P ( z  79  a ) .
(a) Show that the area of the shaded region is 0.1179
(b) Find the value of b

610
8.6 APPLICATIONS OF PROBABILITY
Reasoning based on probability and statistics gives modern societies the ability
to cope with uncertainty. It has astonishing power to improve decision-making
accuracy and test new ideas. Within probability and statistics there are certain
amazing applications which stand out for their profound or unexpected results.

The Probability of Penalizing the Innocent Due to Bad Test Results

Tests used for detecting things like drug abuse, intoxication, disease, genetic
and birth defects, etc. often lead to life changing situations including job
termination, incarceration, surgery, and abortion. We like to think these tests are
accurate, yet, horror stories seem to abound. This article explores why a good
test can give bad results.

How to Set Up Small Groups for Decision Making

Everyone believes in teamwork. Yet, anyone who has attended a meeting

probably feels that a camel is indeed a horse designed by a committee.
Probability and statistics can shed a great deal of light on how to set up decision
making groups with real horsepower.

GENERAL EXAMPLES
Example 128
What is the probability of getting 53 Mondays in a leap year?
Solution
1 year = 365 days . A leap year has 366 days
A year has 52 weeks. Hence there will be 52 Sundays for sure.
52 weeks = 52 x 7 = 364days
366 – 364 = 2 days
In a leap year there will be 52 Sundays and 2 days will be left.
These 2 days can be:
611
1. Sunday, Monday
2. Monday, Tuesday
3. Tuesday, Wednesday
4. Wednesday, Thursday
5. Thursday, Friday
6. Friday, Saturday
7. Saturday, Sunday
Of these total 7 outcomes, the favourable outcomes are 2.
Hence the probability of getting 53 days = 2/7

Example 129
If two letters are taken at random from the word HOME, what is the probability
that none of the letters would be vowels?
Solution
P(first letter is not vowel) =2/4
P(second letter is not vowel) = 1/3
So, probability that none of letters would be vowels is = 2/4×1/3=1/6

Example 130
Three houses are available in a locality. Three persons apply for the houses.
Each applies for one house without consulting others. Find the probability that
all the three apply for the same house.
Solution
3
One person can select one house out of 3= C1 =3 ways
Hence, three persons can select one house out of 3 in 3 x 3 x 3 =9.
Therefore, probability that all three apply for the same house is 1/9

Example 131
The diameter of the electric cable is assumed to be a continuous random
variable with a probability density function f x   6 x1  x , 0  x  1
(c) Verify that its probability density function
(d) Find the mean and variance
Solution

612
Given that f x   6 x1  x , 0  x  1
x2

a  If its probability density function, then  f x dx  1

x1

 6 x1  x dx   6 x  6 x dx  3x 

1 1
1
2 2
 2 x 3 0  1 verified
0 0
x2 1
(b)Mean, E  x    xf x dx   x  6 x1  x dx  0.5
x1 0
2
 x2 
 
x2

Var x   E x  E x    x f x dx    xf  x dx  .......... .(i )

2 2 2
x 
x1  1 
x2 1

 x f x dx   x  6 x1  x dx  0.3.......... .......... (ii)

2 2
Consider
x1 0

 
 Var x   E x 2  E  x   0.3  0.5  0.05
2 2

Example 132
A manufacturer knows from experience that the resistance of resistors he
produce is normal with mean   100 and the standard deviation   2 .
What percentage of resistor will have resistance in between 97 and 103 ?
Solution
Data
  100,   2
x   x  100
From, z  
 2
Required percentage in between 97  x  103
 97  100 103  100 
p z 
 2 2 
p 1.5  z  1.5  0.866
 The percentage of resistoris 86.6%

613
Example 133
If A and B are independent events, prove that:
(a) A and B  are also independent.
(b) A and B are also independent.
(c) A and B  are also independent.
Solution
Consider the table below;
B B
A A B A  B
A A  B A  B

(a) A and B  are independent.

P  A  P  A  B   P  A  B  
P  A  P  A   P  B   P  A  B  
P  A  B    P  A  P  A  P  B 
P A  B  P A1  PB 
 P A  B  P A  PB are independent

(b) A and B are independent.

PB   P A  B   P A  B 
P  B   P  A  P  B   P  A  B  
P A  B   PB   P A  PB 
P A  B   1  P APB 
 P A  B   P A  PB  are independent

(c) A and B  are also independent.

PB  P A  B  P A  B
PB  P A  PB  P A  B
P A  B  PB  P A  PB
P A  B  1  P APB
 P A  B  P A  PB are independent

614
 REVISION EXERCISE 8.1
1. A bag contains 6 white and 4 black balls .2 balls are drawn at
random. Find the probability that they are of same colour.
2. A problem is given to three students whose chances of solving it
are 1/2, 1/3 and 1/4 respectively. What is the probability that the
problem will be solved?
3. Two cards are drawn at random from a pack of 52 cards. What is
the probability that either both are black or both are queen?
4. Tickets numbered 1 to 20 are mixed up and then a ticket is drawn
at random. What is the probability that the ticket drawn has a
number which is a multiple of 3 or 5?
5. A man and his wife appear in an interview for two vacancies in the
same post. The probability of husband's selection is (1/7) and the
probability of wife's selection is (1/5). What is the probability that
only one of them is selected ?
6. A bag contains 4 white, 5 red and 6 blue balls. Three balls are
drawn at random from the bag. Find the probability that all of
them are red.
7. In a lottery, there are 10 prizes and 20 blanks. A lottery is drawn at
random. What is the probability of getting a prize?
8. In a class, there are 15 boys and 10 girls. Three students are
selected at random. Find the probability that 1 girl and 2 boys are
selected.
9. One card is drawn at random from a pack of 52 cards. What is the
probability that the card drawn is a face card (Jack, Queen and
King only)?
10. Two cards are drawn together from a pack of 52 cards. Find the
probability that one is a spade and one is a heart.
11. A bag contains 6 black and 8 white balls. One ball is drawn at
random. What is the probability that the ball drawn is white?
12. In a class, 30% of the students offered English, 20% offered Hindi
and 10% offered both. If a student is selected at random, what is
the probability that he has offered English or Hindi ?
13. A basket contains 10 apples and 20 oranges out of which 3 apples
and 5 oranges are defective. If we choose two fruits at random,
what is the probability that either both are oranges or both are non-
defective?
14. Four dice are thrown simultaneously. Find the probability that all
of them show the same face.
15. Three unbiased coins are tossed. What is the probability of getting
at most two heads?

615
16. Moses speaks truth in 75% of cases and Simon in 80% of cases.
In what percentage of cases are they likely to contradict each
other, narrating the same incident.
17. In a simultaneous throw of pair of dice. Find the probability of
getting the total more than 7.
18. In a box, there are 8 red, 7 blue and 6 green balls. One ball is
picked up randomly. What is the probability that it is neither red
nor green?
19. A word consists of 9 letters; 5 consonants and 4 vowels. Three
letters are chosen at random. What is the probability that more
than one vowel will be selected?
20. A bag contains 4 red and 3 black balls. A second bag contains 2
red and 4 black balls. One bag is selected at random. From the
selected bag, one ball is drawn. Find the probability that the ball
drawn is red.
21. A bag contains 2 red, 3 green and 2 blue balls. Two balls are
drawn at random. What is the probability that none of the balls
drawn is blue?
22. A letter is taken out at random from 'ASSISTANT' and another is
taken out from 'STATISTICS'. Find the probability that they are
the same letter.
23. A box contains 10 bulbs, of which just three are defective. If a
random sample of five bulbs is drawn, find the probability that the
sample contains exactly one defective bulb.
24. From a pack of 52 cards, 3 cards are drawn. What is the
probability that one is ace, one is queen and one is jack?
25. An urn contains 4 white 6 black and 8 red balls. If 3 balls are
drawn one by one without replacement, find the probability of
getting all white balls.
26. Two cards are drawn from a pack of well shuffled cards. Find the
probability that one is a club and other in King.
27. In a race, the odd favour of cars P,Q,R,S are 1:3, 1:4, 1:5 and 1:6
respectively. Find the probability that one of them wins the race.
28. A number X is chosen at random from the numbers -3, -2, -1, 0, 1,
2, 3. What is the probability that |X|<2.
29. In a simultaneous throw of two dice, what is the probability of
getting a doublet?
30. If a box contains 10 bulbs, of which just three are defective. If a
random sample of five bulbs is drawn, find the probability that the
sample contains no defective bulbs.

616
31. The probability of success of three students X, Y and Z in the one
examination are 1/5, 1/4 and 1/3 respectively. Find the probability
of success of at least two.
32. If an unbiased dice is rolled once, the odds in favour of getting a
point which is multiple of 3 is?
33. From a pack of 52 cards, two cards are drawn together at random.
What is the probability of both the cards being kings?
34. If x is chosen at random from the set {1,2,3,4} and y is to be
chosen at random from the set {5,6,7}, what is the probability that
xy will be even?
35. The probabilities that a student will receive an A, B, C or D grade
are 0.4, 0.3 , 0.2 and 0.1 respectively. Find the probability that a
student will receive at least B grade.
36. A bag contains 7 green and 5 black balls. Three balls are drawn
one after the other. The probability of all three balls being green, if
the balls drawn are not replaced will be?
37. Out of 17 applicants 8 boys and 9 girls. Two persons are to be
selected for the job. Find the probability that at least one of the
selected persons will be a girl.
38. A brother and a sister appear for an interview against two vacant
posts in an office. The probability of the brother’s selection is 1/5
and that of the sister’s selection is 1/3. What is the probability that
only one of them is selected?
39. Out of first 20 natural numbers, one number is selected at random.
The probability that it is either an even number or a prime number
is ?
40. fifteen persons are sitting around a circular table facing the centre.
What is the probability that three particular persons sit together ?
41. The probability of occurrence of two events A and B are 1/4 and
1/2 respectively. The probability of their simultaneous occurrence
is 7/50. Find the probability that neither A nor B occurs.
42. If p:q are the odds in favour of an event, then the probability of
that event is?
43. Four persons are to be chosen from a group of 3 men, 2 women
and 4 children. Find the probability of selecting 1 man,1 woman
and 2 children.
44. The first 8 alphabets are written down at random. what is the
probability that the letters b,c,d,e always come together ?
45. If P(A)=4/9; then the odd against the event A is?
46. The odds favouring the event of a person hitting a target are 3 to 5.
The odds against the event of another person hitting the target are

617
 3 to 2. If each of them fire once at the target, find the probability
that both of them hit the target.
47. The probabilities that A and B will tell the truth are 2 / 3 and 4 / 5
respectively . What is the probability that they agree with each
other ?
48. Find the probability of selecting exactly 2 children when four
persons are chosen at random from a group of 3 men, 2 woman
and 4 children.
49. The probabilities that drivers A, B and C will drive home safely
after consuming liquor are 2 / 5, 3 / 7 and 3 / 4, respectively. What
is the probability that they will drive home safely after consuming
liquor ?
50. One lady has 2 children, one of her child is boy, what is the
probability of having both are boys ?
51. A room contains 3 brown, 5 black and 4 white chairs. Two chairs
are picked and are put in the lawn. What is the probability that
none of the chairs picked is white ?
52. Find the probability of selecting 2 woman when four persons are
chosen at random from a group of 3 men, 2 woman and 4 children.
53. There are 26 balls marked with alphabetical order A to Z. What is
the probability of selecting vowels listed balls?
54. (a) Twelve percent of a batch of transistors are defective. Determine
the probability distribution that a packet of five transistors will
contain up to 5 defectives. Calculate the mean and standard
deviation of the distribution.
(b) A machine produces an average of 2 percent good product. In a
random sample of 60 products, determine the probability of there
being three good products.
(c) A random variable has a probability density function given by
f x   
 
kx 1  x 2 if 0  x  1
 0 elsewere
Where k is a constant. Find the
(i) value of k
(ii) mean
(iii) variance

618
 REVISION EXERCISE 8.2

1. Find the number of arrangements of heads and tails of a coin being

tossed two times.
2. Find the number of arrangements of heads and tails of a coin being
tossed three times.
3. Find the number of arrangements of heads and tails of a coin being
tossed four times.
4. Find the number of arrangements of heads and tails of a coin being
tossed five times.
5. If a die is rolled once, determine the number possible outcomes.
6. If a die is rolled two times, determine the number possible
outcomes.
7. If a die is rolled three times, determine the number possible
outcomes.
8. If a die is rolled four times, determine the number possible
outcomes.
9. If a die is rolled n-times, determine the number possible outcomes.
10. Out of 4 mathematicians, a committee of 2 mathematicians has to
be made. In how many ways can this be done.
11. Out of 2 mathematicians, a committee of 2 mathematicians has to
be made. In how many ways can this be done.
12. Out of 10 mathematicians, a committee of 5 mathematicians has to
be made. In how many ways can this be done.
13. Out of 5 mathematicians and 7 chemists, a committee of 2
mathematicians and 3 chemists has to be made. In how many ways
can this be done:
(a) If any mathematician and chemist can be included?
(b) If one particular chemist must be in the committee?
(c) If two particular mathematicians cannot be in the committee?
(d) If two particular mathematicians and two chemists cannot be in
the committee?
(e) If two particular mathematicians and three particular chemists
cannot be in the committee?
(f)If two particular mathematicians cannot be in the committee and
two particular chemists must be in the committee?

619
 (g) If one particular mathematicians must be in the committee and
one particular chemists must be in the committee?
14. Find the possible permutations of the letters M, P, Q, R, S, T
15. If there are m ways for one event to occur, and n ways for the
second event to occur, in how many ways will both events occur?
16. In how many different ways can the letters of the word
“MAYOMBYA” be arranged without repetition?
17. Six drivers run in a race. How many ways are there of predicting
the first three places?
18. How many different colors can be formed from mixing any two
out of red, orange, yellow, green and blue if no color is repeated in
any mixture?
19. How many different three-letter words can be formed from the
letters B,A,S,H,I,T,E,R without repetition provided that the order
matters.
20. Suppose n objects are to be permuted taking r objects at a time.
What will happen as r increases?
21. A meeting was held to elect a leader. A proposal of 10 people to
contest for leadership was passed. In how many ways can;
(a) Any person step up stage at a time for self-introduction?
(b) Two people step up stage at a time for self-introduction?
(c) All 10 people step up stage at a time for self-introduction?
22. In how many ways can four interviewees be permuted taking two
at a time for an interview?
23. In how many ways can we combine 6 elements taking one at
once?!
24. In how many ways can we combine 6 elements taking two at
once?
25. In how many ways can we combine 6 elements taking four at
once?
26. In how many ways can 3 singers be chosen from a group of 15
singers
27. In a class there are 20 boys and 16 girls. The teacher wants to
select a boy and a girl to represent the class in a function. In how
many ways can the teacher make this selection?

620
28. How many three digit odd numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5 . If the digits cannot be repeated.
29. How many three digit odd numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5 . If the digits can be repeated.
30. How many three digit even numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5 . If the digits cannot be repeated.
31. How many three digit even numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5 . If the digits can be repeated.
32. How many three digit numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5 . If the numbers starts with even number and ends
with odd number.
33. How many three digit numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5 . If the numbers starts with odd number and ends
with even number.
34. How many three digit numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5 . If the middle digit of the numbers is even.
35. How many three digit numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5 . If the middle digit of the numbers is odd.
36. How many three digit numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5 . If the numbers starts with small digit and ends with
large digit.
37. How many three digit numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5 . If the numbers starts with even number and ends
with odd number.
38. How many four digit numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5,6 . If the first two digits are even and the last two
digits are odd.
39. How many four digit numbers can be formed from the
digits 1,2,3,4,5,6 . If the first two digits are even.
40. Find the number of four letter words with or without meaning
which can be formed out of the letter BOKE, where the repetition
of the letters is not allowed.
41. In how many ways can 3 students be seated in a row containing 7
seats.
42. Six children are to be seated on a bench.
621
 a) In how many ways can the children be seated
b) How many arrangements are possible if the youngest child sits at
the left hand end to the bench.
c) How many arrangements are possible if the youngest child sits at
the left hand end to the bench and the oldest child sits at the
right hand end to the bench.
43. How many 10 digit telephone numbers can be constructed using
the digits 0 to 9 if each number starts with 0765 and no digit
appears more than once?
44. How many 8 digit telephone numbers can be constructed using the
digits 0 to 9 if each number starts with 0765 and no digit appears
more than once?
45. How many 5 digit telephone numbers can be constructed using the
digits 0 to 9 if each number starts with 0765 and no digit appears
more than once?
46. How many 8 digit telephone numbers can be constructed using the
digits 0 to 9 if each number starts with 07 and ends with 59, if no
digit appears more than once?
47. Find the number of different signals that can be made by arranging
at least four flags in order on a vertical pole, if 6 different flags are
available.
48. How many 3 letter code can be formed using the first 8 letters of
the English alphabet, if no letter can be repeated.
49. The digit from 0 to 9, are written on slip of paper and placed in a
box. Three of the slips of paper are drawn and placed in order.
How many different outcomes are possible?
50. How many three-digit numbers more than 500 can be formed from
the digit 1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
51. How many three-digit numbers les than 300 can be formed from
the digit 1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
52. How many numbers are there between 300 and 500 can be formed
from the digit 1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
53. How many numbers are there between 100 and 1000 such that
every digit is either 2 or 9.
54. How many odd numbers less than 1000 can be formed using the
digits 0,1,8,9 (with repetition of digits).
622
55. How many different signals can be generated from 6 flags of
different colors if each signal makes use of all the flags at a time,
placed one below the other.
56. Four books, one each in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and
Biology, are to be arranged in a shelf. In how many ways can this
be done?
57. From a committee of 8 persons, in how many ways can we choose
a chairman and a vice chairman assuming one person cannot hold
more than one position?
58. How many four digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 0
to 9 with no digit repeated?
59. Mayombya wants to arrange 3 mathematics, 2 physics and 4
chemistry books on a shelf. If the books of the same subject are
different, determine the number of possible arrangements.
60. From a pool of 12 candidates, in how many ways can we select
president, vice president, secretary and a treasurer if each of the 12
candidates can hold any office?
61. The letters of the word FRIDAY are arranged in a line, each
arrangement ending with letter R. How many different
arrangements are possible? How many of them start with letter F?
62. How many different 4-digit numbers can be formed from the digits
2,3,4, and 6 if each digit is used only once in a number. Further,
how many of these numbers
a) End with 4
b) End with 2 or 3
63. How many different words can be formed of the letters of the
word ‘COMBINE’ so that vowels always remain together.
64. Find the number of different arrangements of the word
MATHEMATICS that are possible,
a) It begins with M and ends with S?
b) The two M’s stay together?
c) The letters ‘THE’ stay together?
65. In how many ways can 5 boys and 4 girls be arranged on a bench
if;
a) There are no restrictions?
b) Boys and girls alternate?
c) Boys and girls are in separate groups?
d) Jeremiah and Joan wish to stay together?
623
66. A coin is tossed once, find the probability that it will show a head.
67. A coin is tossed once, find the probability that it will show a tail.
68. A coin is tossed twice, what is the probability at least one head
will occur.
69. A coin is tossed twice, what is the probability that at least one tail
will occur.
70. A coin is tossed twice, what is the probability that at most one tail
will occur.
71. A coin is tossed treble, what is the probability that at least one
head will occur.
72. A coin is tossed treble, what is the probability that at least two
head will occur.
73. A coin is tossed treble, what is the probability that at most two
head will occur.
74. A die is rolled once, find the probability of getting a number
greater than three.
75. A die is rolled once, find the probability of getting even number.
76. A die is rolled once, find the probability of getting odd number.
77. A die is rolled twice, find the probability of getting the sum greater
than 10.
78. A pair of dice is thrown, find the probability of getting the sum of
even number.
79. A pair of dice is thrown, find the probability of getting the sum of
odd number.
80. A pair of dice is thrown, find the probability of getting the sum
greater than or equal 10 if 5 appears on the first die.
81. A pair of dice is rolled, find the probability of getting even number
on the 1st die and odd number on the 2nd die.
82. A pair of dice is rolled, find the probability of getting even number
on the 1st die and a number greater than 3 on the 2nd die.
83. A pair of dice is rolled, find the probability of getting the sum
which is divisible by two.
84. A pair of dice is rolled, find the probability of getting the sum
which is divisible by the smallest sum of even number.
85. A coin and a die are thrown once, find the probability of getting a
head and a number greater than 4 appears.

624
 86. A coin and a die are thrown once, find the probability of getting a
tail and an even number.
87. A coin and a die are thrown simultaneously, find the probability of
getting a head and an odd number.
88. From a collection of 9 light balls of which 5 are not good, a person
selects 3 light balls at random and puts them in a socket. What is
the probability that he will have light?
89. A word has 9 letters, consisting of 5 consonants and 4 vowels.
Three letters are chosen randomly. What is the probability that
more than one vowel will be selected?
90. Two cards are drawn at a time from a pack of 52 playing cards.
Find the probability of getting 2 cards of the same number.
91. The probability that a student will pass the final examination in
Physics and Mathematics is 0.4 and the probability of passing
neither is 0.2. If the probability of passing Physics examination is
0.7. What is the probability of passing mathematics?
92. If the letters of the word LOGARITHM are arranged at random in
a row what is the probability the letters GARI must remain
together as a unit?
93. The letters of the word ACCOMODATION are arranged at
random. Find the probability that three O’s come together.
94. The mean diameter of holes produced by a drilling machine is
4.05 mm and the standard deviation of the diameter is
0.0028mm . For twenty holes drilled by using machine, determine
how many are likely to have diameters;
(a) Between 4.048mm and 4.0553mm
(b) Between 4.052mm and 4.056 mm
(c) Less than 4.056 mm

GROUP DISCUSSION
1. A packing plants fill bags with cement. The weight X kg of a bag
of cement can be modelled by a normal distribution with mean
50kg and standard deviation 2 kg .
(a) Find P X  25
(b) Find the weight that is exceeded by 99% of the bags

625
 (c) Three bags are selected at random, find the probability that two
weigh more than 53kg and one weighs less than 53kg .

2. The random variable X has a distribution with mean 20 and

standard deviation 4 .
(a) Find Px  25
(b) Find the value of d such that P20  X  d  =0.4641

3. From experience a high-jumper knows that he can clear a height of

at least 1.78m once in 5 attempts. He also knows that he can clear a
height of at least 1.65m on 7 out of 10 attempts. Assuming that
heights the high-jumper can reach follow a Normal Distribution,
(a) Draw a sketch to illustrate the above information
(b) Find to three decimal places, the mean and standard deviation of
the heights the high-jumper can reach.
(c) Calculate the probability that he can jump at least 1.74m .

4. A health club lets member use, on each visit, its facilities for as long
as they wish. The club’s records suggest that the length of a visit can
be modelled by a normal distribution with mean 90 minutes. Only
20% of members stay for more than 125 minutes.
(a) Find the standard deviation of the normal distribution
(b) Find the probability that a visit lasts less than 25 minutes
(c) The club introduce a closing time of 10 : 00 pm . Joyce arrives at
the club at 8 : 00 pm . Explain whether or not this normal
distribution is still a suitable model for the length of her visit.

5. The random variable X ~ N  ,   . It is known that

2

P X  66  0.0359 and P X  81  0.1151

(a) In the space below, give a clearly labelled sketch to represent
these probabilities on a Normal Curve.
(b) (i) Show that the value of  is 5
(ii) Find the value of 
(c) Find P69  X  83

626
6. Cooking sauces are sold in jars containing a stated weight is 500g of
sauce. The jars are filled by a machine. The actual weight of sauce in
each jar is normally distributed with mean 505g and the standard
deviation 10 g .
(a) Find the probability of a jar containing less than the stated
weight.
(b) In a box of 30 jars, find the expected number of jars containing
less than the stated weight.
(c) The mean weight of sauce is changed so that 1% of the jars
contains less than the stated weight. The standard deviation stays
the same. Find the new mean weight of sauce.
7. The lifetime of batteries used for a computer game have a mean of
12 hours and standard deviation of 3 hours. Battery lifetime may be
assumed to be normally distributed. Find the lifetime ‘t’ hours, of a
battery such that 1 battery in 5 will have a lifetime longer than ‘t’.

8. A drinks machine dispenses coffee into cups. A sign on the machine

indicates that each cup contains 50ml of coffee. The machine
actually dispenses a mean amount of 55ml per cup and 10% of the
cups contains less than the amount stated on the sign. Assuming that
the amount of coffee dispensed into each cup is normally
distributed, find;
(a) The standard deviation of the amount of coffee dispensed per
cup in mil,
(b) The percentage of cups that contains more than 61 mil
(c) Following complaints, the owners of the machine make
adjustments. Only 2.5% of cups now contain less than 50ml .
The standard deviation of the amount dispensed is reduced to
3ml . Assuming that the amount of coffee dispensed is still
normally distributed, find the new mean amount of coffee per
cup.

9. Strips of metal are cut to length L cm , where L ~ N ,0.5  .

2

(a) Given that 2.5% of the cut lengths exceed 50.98cm , show that
  50

627
 (b) Find P49.25  L  50.75
(c) Those strips with length either less than 49.25 cm or greater than
50.75 cm cannot be used. Two strips of metal are selected at
random. Find the probability that both strips cannot be used.
10. A random variable X has a normal distribution.
(a) Describe two features of the distribution of X

A company produces electronic components which have life spans

that are normally distributed. Only 1% of the components have life
span less than 3500 hours and 2.5% have a life span greater than
5500hours.
(b) Determine the mean and standard deviation of the life spans of
the components.
(c) The company gives warranty of 4000 hours on the components.
Find the proportion of components that the company can expect
to replace under the warranty.

11. The duration of pregnancy of a certain breed of cow is normally

distributed when mean  days and standard deviation  days.
Only 2.5% of the pregnancies are shorter than 235 days and 15%
are longer than 286 days.
(a) Show that   235  1.96
(b) Obtain a second equation in  and 
(c) Find the values between which the middle 68.3% of
pregnancies lie.
12. There are 10 Letters and 10 correspondingly 10 different Address. If
the letter are put into envelope randomly, then find the Probability
that Exactly 9 letters will at the correct Address ?
13. The probability that a bowler bowled a ball from a point will hit by
the batsman is ¼. Three such balls are bowled simultaneously
towards the batsman from that very point. What is the probability
that the batsman will hit the ball ?
14. In how many ways can seven people be seated at a round table, if
two particular people must not seat next to each other?

628
 NECTA FORMAT EXAMINATIONS

ADVANCED MATHEMATICS 1

INSTRUCTIONS TIME: 3:00 Hours

This paper consists of ten (10) questions, each carrying ten (10) marks

Answer all questions

All necessary working and answers of each question must be shown clearly

Mathematical tables and non-programmable calculators may be used

Cellular phones and any unauthorized materials are not allowed in the examination
room

1. Using a non-programmable scientific calculator evaluate the following into 2

decimal places.

  0.003419
3 
 457  3   
  0.07283   log 6.43
(a) sin 
243   log 2.12
 
 
 

458.4 3  0.00274  7560  35673

(b)
458.4 3  0.00274  9681 15162

8 9 3  3 
   
(c) If R  9 8 3  and P  1  Find RP
2 6 2 0 

(d) Find mean and standard deviation of the distribution given below

X 12 17 22 27
Commulative frequency 3 4 12 16

629
 1 2  3x
2. (a) If tan h 1 x  tan h 1 y  In 5 prove that y 
2 3  2x

(b) Find in logarithmic form the solution of 2 cosh y  10 sinh y  10

(c) Sketch the graph of tanh 1 x and state its domain and range

(d) Use an appropriate hyperbolic substitution to evaluate  x 2  2 x  1 dx

3. (a) Define the following terms

(i) Decision variable

(ii) Constraints

(iii) Non-negative constraints

(b) A water supply company has two sources S1 and S 2 with a capacity of
50,000 litres and 30,000 litres respectively. The company is to supply water to
three water pumps P1 , P2 and P3 whose requirements are 35,000 litres,
20,000 litres and 25,000 litres respectively. The cost of transportation in Tsh are
as summarized below;
From S1 S2

To

P1 70 30

P2 60 40

P3 30 20

How should the delivery be scheduled at a minimum cost of transportation?

State the maximum cost.

4. (a) The mean and standard deviation of 20 observations are found to be 10 and 2
respectively. On rechecking it was found that an observation 8 was incorrect if the
wrong item is replaced by 12 then calculate the new mean and standard deviation.

(b) A random of 100 maize seeds were collected as follows.(Grouped in term of

weight)

630
 Weight in grams Number of seeds
1.10 – 1.29 7
1.30 – 1.49 24
1.50 – 1.69 32
1.70 – 1.89 t+7
1.90 – 2.09 14
2.10 – 2.29 5
2.30 – 2.49 1
Find

(i) The value of t

(ii) The mean and standard deviation using coding method with A=1.795 correct to 4

decimal places.

5.(a)If set A  a , b, B  1,3, C  4,6 verify that A  B  C    A  B   A  C 

(b) Use laws of algebra of sets simplify the following expression

(i) B  A  A  B 

(ii)  A  B  A  C  A'

(c) Out of twenty six students of Moshi Secondary School, 2 students take
chemistry and Biology only, the number of students taking just Physics and biology
were double of those taking chemistry and biology only. The number of students
taking chemistry and physics only were triple those taking chemistry and biology
only, the number of students taking just one type of subject is divide equally
between the three types of subjects. The number of students taking all three subjects
is 5. By using Venn diagram find the number of students who take

(i) Physics or Biology but not chemistry

(ii) At least two subjects

(iii) Just one subject if only five take all three subjects.

6. (a) Given f  3, 6, 5, 7, 9 , 0, 1,4 and g 1  3,6, 3,2, 5,4, 1,6

Find the composite function for;

(i) fogx 

(ii) g 1 o f 1
x 

631
 (b) Given f ( x)  2  x find ;

(i) fof (x)

(ii) Domain and range of f ( x )

x 3  3x 2  4 x
(c) Given that f ( x) 
x 2  3x
(i) Find the asymptotes

(ii) Sketch the graph

(iii) State the domain and range of f ( x )

7. (a) (i) Derive the secant method formula for approximating the roots of the function
f x   0 .

(ii) Use the formula obtained in 7 (a) (i) above to obtain the root of
x 2  4 x  10  0 using four iterations given x1  4 and x2  5.2
1
1
(b) Evaluate  1 x
0
2
dx

(i) By Trapezoidal rule with 5 ordinates

(ii) By Simpson’s rule with 4 strips

(iii) Find the approximate value of  referring to your better result from the two
methods above.

8.(a) Find the equation of the circle which intersects the circles

x 2  y 2  2 x  2 y  1  0 and x 2  y 2  4 x  4 y  3  0 orthogonally and its

centre lies on the line 3 x  y  2  0

(b) (i) Find the equation of bisectors to two intersecting lines whose equations are
6 x  8 y  7 and 4 x  3 y  12
(ii) Find the equation of the locus of points which is equidistant from the lines
y  2 x and 2 x  4 y  3  0 .

(c) Find the value of k if the line 12 x  5 y  k  0 is a tangent to the circle

x 2  y 2  6 x  10 y  9  0
632
9. (a) Evaluate the following Integrals
3
xe
3 x2
(i) dx
1

2 200 cos x  3 sin x

(ii)  0 cos x  sin x
dx

(b) Integrate the following

sin 2 x
(i)  sin 2
x
dx

(ii)  e x dx

(c) Find the volume of the solid of revolution obtained by revolving about the
y-axis the region bounded by the parabola y  4x and the lines x  0 and
2

y  16

dy
10. (a) Find given that;
dx

(i) y 

In 2 x 2  e  x 
x3
3
e x sin x
(ii) y 
x 3
(b) Using definition differentiate x 2  e  x

(c) A wire of length L units is to be cut into two pieces. One piece is to be bent to
form a circle and the other piece is to be bent to form a square if the sum of the
areas of the circle and the square is to be at minimum. What length of the
wire should be used to form the circle?

633
 NECTA SAMPLE EXAMINATION
MARKING SCHEME ADVANCED MATHEMATICS 1
1. (a) 3.43
(b) 1.00
33
(c) RP  35
 
12
(d) Mean  21.06 , Standard Deviation  5.07

1 1 2  3x
2. (a) Given that tanh x  tanh y  12 In5 , show that y
3  2x
Consider tanh 1 x  tanh 1 y  12 In 5
A  tanh 1 x, tanh A  x
B  tanh 1 y, tanh B  y
so;
A  B  12 In 5
tanh  A  B   tanh  12 In5
tanh A  tanh B
1  tanh A tanh B
 tanh In 5 
x y 2

1  xy 3
3 x  y   21  xy 
3 x  3 y  2  2 xy
2  3x
y  hence proved
3  2x

(b) 2 cosh y  10 sinh y  10

 e y  e y   e y  e y 
2   10   10
 2   2 
 
e y  e  y  5 e y  e  y  10
6e y  4e  y  10
3e 2 y  5e y  2  0
e y  2, e y   13
 The valid value is y  In 2
634
(c) For tanh 1 x
Sketch

Domain  x : x  ,1  x  1
Range  y : y  

(d)  x 2  2 x  1dx

 x 2  2 x  1dx
By completing the square
x 2  2 x  1   x  1  2
2

2
 x 1
so;  x 2  2 x  1dx   x  12  2dx  2    1 dx
 2 
x 1
Let  cosh , x  1  2 cosh , dx  2 sinh d
2
2
 x 1
2    1 dx  2  cosh2   1  2 sinh d
 2 

 x 2  2 x  1dx  2 sinh 2 d

 x 2  2 x  1dx  2 12 cosh 2  1d

1 
 x 2  2 x  1dx   sinh 2     c
2 
1   x 1  x  1 
  x 2  2 x  1dx   sinh 2 cosh1     cosh1    c
2   2   2 

635
3. (a) (i) Decision variable is a variable, say x and y , chosen to represent the
quantity of something transported or supplied from a certain
point of manufacture to a recipient point.
(ii) Constraints are linear inequalities involved in linear programming
problem.
(iii) Non-negative constraints are the constraints which make a linear
programming problem to have non-negative values, they include
x  0 and y  0 provided the decision variables are x and y .
(b) Consider the transportation diagram below;

Objective function

f  x, y   70x  60 y  3050000 ( x  y )  3035000 x   4020000 y 

 20 x  y  25000
f  x, y   30x  10 y  2850000
Constraints :
(i ) x  35000
(ii) y  20000
(iii) 50000 x  y   25000
x  y  25000
(iv) x  0
(v ) y  0
(vi) x  y  50000

636
Graph

Corner Points 30x  10 y  2,850,000

A5000,20000 3,200,000

B30000,20000 3,950,000

C 25000,0 3,600,000

D35000,15000 4,050,000

E 35000,0 3,900,000

The optimal point is 5000,20000

The maximum cost is 4050000/=

S1 should transport 3200litres to P1

S1 should transport 20,000 litres to P2

637
 S1 should transport 25,000 litres to P3

S 2 should transport 30,000 litres to P1

S 2 should transport 0 litre to P2

S 2 should transport 0 litre to P3

4. (a) Data given

Mean x   10
Standard Deviation  2
n  20

From, x 
x, 10 
x
n 20
 x  200
After rechecking 8 was incorrect replaced by 12
 x  200  8  12
New  x  204

New x 
 x  204  10.2
n 20

x x
2 2

From, SD    

n  n 

SD 
 x  x 
2
2

2
 x  10
2
2
, 4
 x  102
2

20 20
 x  2080
2

New  x 2  2080  8 2  122  2160

New SD 
 x  x 
2
2160
 10.2  1.98997  1.99
2

2

n 20
 The new mean is 10.2 and the new standard deviation is 1.99

638
(b) Consider the distribution below;

Weighting f X d X A u  dc fu u2 fu 2

1.10 1.29 7 1.195  0.6 3  21 9 63

1.30 1.49 24 1.395  0.4 2  48 4 96

1.50 1.69 32 1.595  0.2 1  32 1 32

1.70 1.89 17 1.795 0 0 0 0 0

1.90  2.09 14 1.995 0.2 1 14 1 14

2.10  2.19 5 2.195 0.4 2 10 4 20

2.30  2.49 1 2.395 0.6 3 3 9 9

 f  100,  fu  74,  fu 2
 234
(i )The value of t
7  24  32  t  7   14  5  1  100
t  10
 The value of t is 10
c  fu
(ii) Mean by coding method, x  A  but c  0.2 and A  1.795
N
0.2 74
x  1.795   1.647
100
 Mean by coding method is 1.647

Standard Deviation by coding method;

 fu   fu 
2
234   74 
2 2

SD  c  
N   0.2 100   100   0.2678
 N 
 The standard Deviation by coding method is 0.2678

639
5. (a) A  a, b
B  1,3
C  4,6
A  B  C    A  B    A  C 
B  C  1,3
A  B  C   a,1, a,3, b,1, b,3.......... .......... (i )
A  B  a,1, a,3, b,1, b,3
A  C  a,4 , a,6 , b,4 , b,6
 A  B    A  C   a,1, a,3, b,1, b,3.......... ....( ii)
 A  B  C    A  B    A  C  verified

(b) (i) B  A   A  B 
B  A   A  B.......... .....from definition
M  B  A
M   A  B 
M  A  B.......... .......... ...associative law
B  A  A  B
B   A  A  B.......... .....associative law
B     B.......... .......... ....complement law
  B.......... .......... ............id entity law
 .......... .......... .......... ..........id entity law

(ii)  A  B   A  C  A
 A  B   A  C  A.......... ...from definition
A  B  C  A.......... .......... ..distributive law
 A  A  B  C .......... .......... associative law
  B  C .......... .......... .......... complement law
 .......... .......... .......... .......... ........identity law

(c)
nC  B  only  2
nP  B  only  2nC  B 
nC  P  only  3nC  B 
nC  B  P   5
nC  B  P   26
640
 Diagram;

x  2  5  6  4  x  x  26
x3
(i )P  B   C   x  x  4  3  3  4  10
10 students take Physics or Biology but not Chemistry

(ii)2  6  4  5  17
17 students take at least two subjects

(iii) x  x  x  3x  3(3)  9
9 students take just one subject

6. (a) g 1  3,6, 3,2, 5,4, 1,6

f  3,6, 5,7 , 9,0, 1,4
g  6,3, 2,3, 4,5, 6,1
f 1  6,3, 7,5, 0,9, 4,1
(i ) fog( x)  6,6, 2,6, 4,7 , 6,4
(ii) g 1of 1 ( x)  6,6, 7,4, 4,6

641
(b) Given that y  2  x
(i ) fof ( x)  2  2  x

(ii)The domain and range of y  2  x

2 x  0
2  x  0, 2  x
x  2.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
Also from y  2  x
x  2  y 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( ii)
Domain  x : x  2
Range  y : y  

(c) Consider the function below;

x 3  3x 2  4 x x 2  3x  4
y 
x 2  3x x3
Vertical asymptote, x  3
Slant asymptote,
x6
x  3 x 2  3x  4
x 2  3x
 6x  4
 6 x  18
14
Slant asymptote is x  6

x  intercepts, x  1 and x  4
y  intercept, y   43

642
7. (a) (i) Consider the figure below;

From the figure above, assume points P and N are two initial conditions converging to M
Here we have two possibilities either, slope NP  slope MP or slope NP  slope NM
consider slope NP  slope MP
f ( xn1 )  f ( xn ) f ( xn1 )  0

xn1  xn xn1  xn 2
xn1  xn2  f ( xn1 )  f ( xn )  xn1  xn  f ( xn1 )
x  x  n1 n
x  x  f ( xn1 )
n 1 n 2
f ( xn1 )  f ( xn )
 xn1  xn 
x
 n 2  xn1    f ( xn1 ) Hence derived
 n1
f ( x )  f ( x n 
)

643
(ii) Given that f x   x 2  4 x  10  0
x0  4, f  x0   10
x1  5.2, f  x1   3.76
 xn1  xn 
From, xn 2  xn1  f  xn1  
 f  xn1   f  xn 
1st iteration, n  0
 x1  x0   5.2  4 
x2  x1  f  x1    5.2   3.76   5.92
 f  x1   f  x0     3.76  (10) 
2 nd iteration, n  1
 x2  x1   5.92  5.2 
x3  x2  f  x2    5.92  1.3664   5.73
 f  x2   f  x1   1.3664  (3.76) 
3rd iteration, n  2
 x3  x 2   5.73  5.92 
x4  x3  f  x3    5.73   0.0871  5.74
 f  x3   f  x 2     0.0871 1.3664
4 rd iteration, n  3
 x 4  x3   5.74  5.73 
x5  x4  f  x4    5.74   0.0124  5.74
 f  x 4   f  x3     0.0124  0.0871
 x5  5.74

b  a 1 0
1
1
(b) Given  1 x
0
2
dx , determine h 
n

5 1
 0.25

x y  11x2 1st  last

 middle  odd  even
0 1 1

0.25 0.9412 0.9412 0.9412

0.5 0.8 0.8 0.8

0.75 0.64 0.64 0.64

1 0.5 0.5

  1.5   2.3812   1.5812   0.8

644
 (i) Trapezoidal rule
h

A  1st  last  2 middle 
2
0.25
2

1.5  22.3812  0.7828
 A  0.7828
(ii) Simpson rule
h

A  1st  last  2 even  4 odd 
3
0.25
3

1.5  22.8  41.5812  0.7854
 A  0.7854

 
1
1
 1 x
1
(iii) 2
dx  tan 1 x 0
0

 
1
1
 1 x
0
2
dx  tan 1 1  tan 1 0

1
1 
 1 x
0
2
dx 
4
Equate analytic solution with numerical solution to obtain the value of 
By using Simpson rule;

 0.7854
4
  3.1416

8. (a) Consider the figure below;

645
 From circle1 and 2, g1  1, f1  1, c1  1, g 2  2, f 2  2, c2  3
Circle1 and required circle are orthogonal;
From, 2 g1 g  2 f1 f  c1  c
2g  2 f  1 c
2 g  2 f  c  1.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
Circle 2 and required circle are orthogonal;
From, 2 g 2 g  2 f 2 f  c2  c
4g  4 f  3  c
4 g  4 f  c  3.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (ii)
Centre  g , f  satisfies the equation 3 x  y  2  0
 3g  f  2  0
3g  f  2  0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(iii)
Solve equations (i), (ii) and (iii) simultaneously
2 g  2 f  c  1

4 g  4 f  c  3
3 g  f  2  0

g  12 , f   12 , c  1
Substitute the values of g , f and c into x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0
 The equation of the circleis x 2  y 2  x  y  1  0

(b) (i) The equations of bisectors of lines 6 x  8 y  7  0 and

4 x  3 y  12  0
a xb yc  a xb yc 
From,  1 1 1 
  2 2 2 
   
 a1  b1  a2  b2 
2 2 2 2

 6x  8 y  7 
    4 x  3 y  12 
 6 2  (8) 2   
 4 3 
2 2
 
 6x  8 y  7   4 x  3 y  12 
    
 100   25 
 6x  8 y  7   4 x  3 y  12 
    
 10   5 
 6x  8 y  7 
   4 x  3 y  12
 2 
646
 6x  8 y  7
For  ve,  4 x  3 y  12
2

6 x  8 y  7  24 x  3 y  12
 2 x  14 y  31  0
6x  8 y  7
For  ve,  4 x  3 y  12
2
6 x  8 y  7  24 x  3 y  12
14x  2 y  17  0
 The equations of angle bisectorsare 2 x  14 y  31  0 and 14x  2 y  17  0

ax  by  c
(ii) d 
a2  b2
2x  y 2x  y
d1   .......... .......... .......... .......... (i )
2  (1)
2 2
5

2x  4 y  3 2x  4 y  3 2x  4 y  3
d2    .......... ......( ii)
2 4 2 2
20 2 5
Since, d1  d 2
2x  y 2x  4 y  3

5 2 5
2x  y 2x  4 y  3

1 2
2( 2 x  y )  2 x  4 y  3
4x  2 y  2x  4 y  3
2x  6 y  3  0
 Equation of locus is 2 x  6 y  3  0

647
 (c) If the line 12 x  5 y  k  0 is a tangent to the circle
x 2  y 2  6 x  10 y  9  0
The given line y   15 12x  k  satisfies the equation of the circle
x 2   15 12x  k   6 x  10 15 12x  k   9  0
2

Simplify and collectlike terms

169x 2  24k  450x  k 2  50k  225  0
Condition for tangency, b 2  4ac
24k  4502  4169k 2  50k  225
100k 2  12200k  50400  0
 k  4 or k  126

3
9. (a) (i) Given  x 3e x dx
2

1
du
Let u  x 2 , du  2 xdx, dx 
2x
3 3 3
du 1 2 u
 x e dx   x e 2 x 2 1
 x e du but u  x 2
2
3 x 3 u

1 1

From u  x when x  1, u  1 and when x  3, u  9

2

3 9
1
 x e dx  
2
3 x
ueu du
1
21
Apply integration by parts

 
3
1 u u
x e
9
3 x2
dx  ue  e 1
1
2

   
3
1
  x 3e x dx  9e 9  e 9  e1  e1  4e 9
2

1
2

648
 
2 cos x  3sin x
2

(ii) Given 
0
cos x  sin x
dx

Express, Numerator  ADenominator   B Denominator 

d
dx
so; 2 cos x  3 sin x  Acos x  sin x   B cos x  sin x 
d
dx
2 cos x  3 sin x  Acos x  sin x   Bcos x  sin x 
A  B  2
On comparing; 
A  B  3
A  52 , B   12
2 cos x  3 sin x  52 cos x  sin x   12 cos x  sin x 

2 cos x  sin x   2 cos x  sin x 

 
2 cos x  3 sin x
2 2 5 1

0 cos x  sin x dx  0 cos x  sin x

dx
  
2 cos x  3 sin x
2
5 cos x  sin x
2 2
cos x  sin x
0 cos x  sin x dx  2 
0
cos x  sin x
dx  2 
1

0
cos x  sin x
dx

2 cos x  3 sin x 5
dx  52 x  12 In cos x  sin x 0 2 
2




0
cos x  sin x 4

2 cos x  3 sin x
2
5
 dx 
0
cos x  sin x 4

sin 2 x
(b) (i) Given  sin2
x
dx

sin 2 x 2 sin x cos x cos x

 sin 2
x
dx   2
sin x
dx  2
sin x
dx

u  sin x, du  cos xdx

sin 2 x 1
 sin 2 x dx  2 u du  2Inu  c
  2 dx  2 In sin x   c
sin 2 x
sin x

649
 (ii) Given  e x dx
Let p  x , p 2  x, 2 pdp  dx

e dx  2  pe p dp.......... .......... .....( i )

x

Apply integration by parts

Let u  p, du  dp
dv  e p dp,  dv   e p dp, v  e p

 pe dp  pe p   e p dp
p

 pe dp  pe p  e p .......... .......... .....( ii)

p

Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)

 e dx  2 pe  e   c
x p p

 e dx  2 xe  e  c
x x x

  e dx  2 x  1e  c
x x

(c) Consider the figure below;

16
 16   y2   2
  
16 
y2
 y
16
V   x dy     dy   ydy     0  32
16
2
y 0  2

0
y1
4 40 4  2 0 8 8
Volume  32 cubic.units

650
 In (2 x 2  e  x )
10. (a) (i) Given y 
x3
y  x 3 In (2 x 2  e  x )
By product rule;
dy du dv
v u
dx dx dx
dy  4x  ex 
  3x 4 In (2 x 2  e  x )  x 3  2 x

dx  2x  e 

3
ex sin x
(ii) Given that y  3
x
Apply In both sides
 e x sin x 
3

Iny  In  
 x 3 
 

Iny  In e x
3

sin x  Inx 3
Iny  Ine x  In sin x  3Inx
3

Iny  x 3 Ine  In sin x  2  3Inx

1

Iny  x 3  In sin x   3Inx

1
2
1 dy 1 cos x 3
 3x 2  
y dx 2 sin x x
dy  2 1 cos x 3 
  3x   y
dx  2 sin x x 
3
dy  2 1 cos x 3  e x sin x
   3x   
dx  2 sin x x  x 3

651
(b) Differentiate by first principle, f x   x 2  e  x
f x   x 2  e  x
f  x  h    x  h   e  x  h 
2

lim f x  h   f x 
f x  
h0 h

f x  

lim x  h 2  e  x  h   x 2  e  x 
h0 h
lim x 2  2hx  h 2  e  x e  h  x 2  e  x
f x  
h0 h
lim 2hx  h  e e  e  x
2  x h
f  x  
h0 h
lim 2hx  h  e h  1e  x
2
f  x  
h0 h
 h 2 h3 
2hx  h 2  1  h        1e  x
f  x  
lim  2! 3! 
h0 h

 h 2 h3 
2hx  h 2    h       e  x
f x  
lim  2! 3! 
h0 h
lim  h h2 
f x   2 x  h    1       e  x
h0  2! 3! 
 f x   2 x  e  x

(c) Consider the sketch below;

x is the length to be cut to form circle and L  x is the length to form square
x
so; circumference x  2r , r  radius of a circle
2

652
Perimeter  L  x
Lx
Side of square 
4
A  Area of circle area of square
 x  Lx
2 2

A    
 2   4 
x 2 L  x 
2
A 
4 16
dA 2 x 2L  x  x L  x 
   
dx 4 16 2 8
dA x L  x  dA
  but 0
dx 2 8 dx
x L  x 
 0
2 8
4 x  L  x 
0
8
4 x  L  x   0
4 x  L  x  0
4   x  L
  
x   L
 4 

653
 ADVANCED MATHEMATICS – 2
FORM SIX EXAMINATION

CODE: 142/2
TIME: 3:00 HOURS

INSTRUCTIONS

1. This paper consists with two (2) section A and B

2. Answer all question in section A and only two questions from section B
3. All work done in answering each question must be shown clearly
4. Mathematical tables and non-programmable scientific calculators may
be used

SECTION A (60 MARKS)

Answer all questions in this section
(1  i) 5
1. (a) Given a complex number Z  Express Z in exponential form
(3  2i) 2
(b) Describe geometrically the locus a complex number Z such that
 z i  
Arg  
 z 1 4
(c) Given that one of
the roots of the equation
z  6 z  23z  34z  26  0 is 1  i , find the product of the other
4 3 2

roots.
(d) Solve the equation x 3  3  3i  0 (Express your answer in exponential
form)

2. (a) Define the following terms as used in logic

i. Premises
ii. Valid argument

(b) Simplify the following using laws of the proposition of logic

(i) ( ( p  q )  q

654
 (ii) [ p  (q  ~ q )]  ( p  q )

(c) Given the statement “If two vectors are orthogonal then their scalar

product is zero” Write down its contrapositive of the inverse.

(d) (i) Find a simplified sentence having the following truth table:

p q r

T T T T

T T F T

T F T T

T F F T

F T T T

F T F F

F F T F

F F F F

(ii) Draw a simple electrical network that corresponds to the compound

statement obtained in (d) (i).

3. (a) The scalar product of the vector i  j  k with a unit vector along the
sum of vectors 2i  4 j  5k and xi  2 j  3k is equal to one. Find the value of x .
 
(b)If O is the origin where OA  3i  j  2k , OB  i  2 j  3k and

OC  i  4 j  2k

 
(i) Show that AB is orthogonal to OC

(ii) Calculate the area of ABC

2
(c) If a  i  mj  3k and b  4i  3 j The projection of a onto b is find
~ ~   3

655
 the value of m .
2
(e) If the velocity of a body at time “t” is given by V  3t i  2t j  4 k find
  

the expression for acceleration “a” and displacement “s” of the body at
time “t” given that when t  1, S  3 i  j  2 k .
  

x 1
4. (a) (i) Find the value of x that satisfy the in equality 
x  8 x 1

(ii) Solve simultaneously


2  4  12
x y

 x
32   22  16
 2y

Hence show that 4 x  43  100

2y

(b) (i) State the principle of mathematical induction

n
(ii) Prove by mathematical induction 2
r 1
r 1
 2n  1

(c) If the equation x  2 px  q  0 and x 2  2 px  2q  0 have a common

2

root show that either q  0 or 24 p 2  q  0

SECTIN B: (40 MARKS)

(Answer any two questions)
5. (a) (i) Express Sin(2 tan 1 x  cot 1 x) in its most simplified form.

B C  bc
(ii) In any triangle ABC, Prove that tan 
 A
cot 
 2  bc 2

(b)(i) find the general solution of the equation sin x  sin 5x  sin 2x  sin 4x

(ii) Find the maximum and minimum values of the expression

3sin  5 cos  7

656
 (c) (i) Prove that sin4   cos4   14 3  cos 4 

 x  x
(ii) If tan   cosecx  sin x, prove that tan    2  5
2

2 2
1 1
(d) If Sin y  2 cos x Show that y  4 x (1  x )
2 2 2

6. (a) Bag one contains 3 red and 4 black balls and bag two contain 5 red and
6 black balls. One ball is drawn at random from one of the bags and is
found to be red. Find the probability that it was drawn from bag two.

(b) (i) State four conditions for a random experiment to follow a binomial

distribution.

(ii) If the random variable x is such that x ⁓Bin n, p  then prove that

E ( x)  np and Var ( x)  npq where q  1  p

(c) The random variable x has the following probability distribution

k if x0
2 k X 1
 if
P( x)  
3k if X 2
0 Otherwise

(i) Determine the value of K

(ii) Find P ( X  2)  P ( X  1)

(d) The time taken by a milkman to deliver milk to the street is normally
distributed with mean 12 minutes and variance 4 minutes. He
deliver milk everyday. Estimate the number of days when he takes;

(i) longer than 17 minutes

(ii) Less than 10 minutes

(iii) Between 9 and 13 minutes

657
 B
7. (a) Form a differential equation, y  Ax 
x
(b) Solve the following differential equations.

(i)  y  xydx  x  xy 2 dy  0

(ii)  x  1  y  e x 1  x 
dy 2

dx

(c) Find the particular solution for the differential equation

y   3 y   2 y  e 2 x given y0  2 and dy  4 .

dx

(d) For a postmortem report, a doctor requires to know approximately the

time of death of the diseased person. He recorded the first temperature at
10 : 00am to be 93.4  F . After two hours he finds the temperature to be
91.4  F . If the room temperature which is constant was 72 F . Estimate time
of death assuming that the normal temperature of human body to be 98.6  F .

8. (a) Given the parametric equation for a curve as x  1 5 cos and

y  2  3 sin .
(i) Show that the curve represents an equation of ellipse.
(ii) Determine the coordinate of the centre, vertex and foci of the ellipse.
(b) (i) Find the equation of parabola with latus rectum joining points 3,5
and 3,3

6
(ii) Convert the following polar equation r  into cartesian
1  2 sin
coordinate system and state what type of curve it represents.
Find the centre and focus of the curve.
(c) (i) Show that 8 x 2  8 y 2  32x  64 y  105  0 represent a rectangular

hyperbola. Find the centre and equation of directrix.

(ii) Draw a sketch graph of the polar curve r  1 cos

(d) Find the equation of ellipse with its centre at 1,2 , focus at 6,2 and
passes through 4,6 .

End
658
MARKING SCHEME ADVANCED MATHEMATICS 2
1. (a) soln

z
1  i 5
1  2i 2
(1) 5  5(1) 4 i  10(i ) 3 i 2  10(1) 2 i 3  5(1)i 4  (i) 5
z
1  4i  4
1  5i  10  10i  5  i
z
4i  3

 4i  4 4i  3
z 
4i  3 4i  3

 (16i 2 )  12i  16i  12

z
16i 2  9
4  18i
z
 25

4 28
z i
25 25

Argz   tan 1  28
25  25 
4

Arg z   tan 1  7

  81.7 

32
z 
25

From z  re iu

z  32
25 e i ( 81.7 )

659
(b) soln


Arg  z  i   Arg  z  1 
4

Arg  x  iy  i   Arg  x  iy  1 
4

Arg x  i y  1  Arg  x  1  iy  
4
 y 1 1  y  
tan 1    tan  
 x   x 1 4

tan A  tan B
1
1  tan A tan B

Y 1 Y

x x 1  1
y y
2
1 2
x x

 y  1x  1  yx   1
x2  x  y2  y
yx  y  x  1  yx  x 2  y 2  x  y

x2  y2 1  0
x2  y2 1  0

The locus is a circle with centre (0, 0) and radius 1. Satisfying the
shaded region

Im(z)

Re(z)

X 2 Y 2 1

660
(c) Solution

If z  1  i and its conjugate is a root z  1  i ;

Then z  1  i z  1  i   z 2  2 z  2

z 2  4 z  13

z 2  2 z  2 z 4  6 z 3  23z 2  34z  26

 z 4  2z 3  2z 2

 4 z 3  21z 2  34 z  26

 4 z 3  8z 2  8z

13z 2  26 z  26

13z 2  26 z  26

The other roots are: z  1  i, z  2  3i, z  2  3i


The product of the other roots is 1  i 2  3i 2  3i   13 13i

(d) Solution

x 3  3  3i  0
x 3  3  3i

x  3  3i 3
1


arg x   tan 1  1 
4
r  18
  2k     2k   
1
X k 1  r n cos   i sin 
  n   n. 

661
 In exponential form
 2k    8k  
i 
 18  e i 
1 1

x k 1  r n e  n 
 3  12 

  

 18  e i 
1

k  0, x1  3  12 

 7 

  18  e
1 i 
k  1, x2 3  12 

 15 

x   18  e
1 i 
 k  2, 3
3  12 

2. (a) (i) Premises are assumption given to a statement such that it can be
true or false.
(ii)Valid argument is an argument in which its conclusion is always true

(b) (i)  p  q q Given

  p  q   q   q   p  q  From p  q   p  q   q  p 

 ~ ~ p  q   q   ~ q  ~ p  q  From p  q ~ p  q

  p ~ q   q   ~ q  q  ~ p  Demorgan’s and Commutative law

 q  p   q ~ q   T  ~ p  Distributive and Complement law

 q  p   T   T Complement and Identity law

q p Identity law

(ii)  p  q ~ p    p  q  Given

~ ~ p  q ~ p    p  q  From p  q ~ p  q

~ ~ p ~ p   q    p  q  Commutative law

~ ~ p  q    p  q  Idempotent law

 p ~ q    p  q  Demorgan’s law

  p  ~ q  q  Distibutive law

 p T Complement law

662
 p Identity law

(c) Let p=Two vectors are orthogonal

q=Their scalar product is zero

statement p  q

Inverse ~ p ~ q

Contrapositive of the inverse q  p

 Their scalar product is zero if two vectors are orthogonal

(d) (i) Let z be the statement:

z   p  q  r    p  q  ~ r    p  ~ q  r    p  ~ q  ~ r   ~ p  q  r 
Thus
 p  q  r    p  q  ~ r    p  ~ q  r    p  ~ q  ~ r   ~ p  q  r  statement
 p  q   r  ~ r    p  ~ q   r  ~ r   ~ p  q  r .......fac torization law
 p  q   T    p  ~ q   T   ~ p  q  r  .......... .......... .....negat ion law
 p  q    p  ~ q   ~ p  q  r  .......... .......... .......... .......... identity law
 p  q  ~ q  ~ p  q  r  .......... .......... .......... ........ ......factorization law
 p  T   ~ p  q  r  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....negati on law
p  ~ p  q  r  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..identity law
 p ~ p    p  q    p  r  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......dis tributive law
T   p  q    p  r  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......nega tion law
 p  q    p  r  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..identity law
p  q  r  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........f actorization law
Simplified sentence is p  q  r 

(ii) Electrical network

663
3. (a) sum

2 i  4 j 5k  x i  2 j 3k
     

2  x i  6 j  2k


Dot product  1
i  j  k .(2  x i  6 j  2k )  1
2  x  6  2 1
x  5

(b) AB  i  2 j  3k   3i  j  2k 

___
AB  2i  3 j  5k
___
OC  i  4 j  2k

From a.b  a b cos

a.b
cos 
ab

cos 
 2  1   3  4  5  2
 38 21
0
cos 
798

cos  0

  cos1 0

(i)   90
___
Since the angle between the two vectors is 90 , AB is orthogonal

____
to OC .

664
 __ __
(ii) Area  1 AB BC
2
___
AB  2i  3 j  5k
___
BC  2i  6 j  k

i j k
1
 2 3 5
2
2 6 1

1
  57
2

57

2

The area of the triangle is 28.5 square units

(c) Pr ojb a  a.b

b

a.b 2

b 3

110  mx  4  1
Given
a  i  m j  3k
~ ~ ~

b  4i  3 j
~

2
If projection of a onto b is , find the value of m
3

From;
a.b
Pr ojb a 
b
~

665
 1   4 
   
But a.b   m   3 
3  0
   

a.b  4  3m

And b  4 2  3 2  5
~

4  3m
Pr ojb a 
5

2 4  3m

3 5

10
 4  3m
3

2
m
9

(d) v  3t 2 i  2tj  4k


Acceleration  6t i  2 j

ds  3t i  2tj  4k
2
dt
 ds   3t i  2tj  4k dt 
2

s  t 3i  t 2 j  4tk  c
But s  3i  j  2k when t  1
3i  j  2k  i  j  4k  c
c  2i  2 j  2k
s  t 3i  t 2 j  4tk  2i  2 j  2k
  
Displacement  t 3  2 i  t 2  2 j  4t  2 K 
From, v  3t i  2t j  4k 2


dv
 6t i  2 j
dt 

 a  6t i  2 j


666
 x 1
4. (a) (i) Given 
8  x x 1
x 1
 0
8  x x 1
x x  1  8  x 
0
8  x x  1
x2  2x  8
0
8  x x  1
x  4x  2  0
8  x x  1
x  8, x  2, x  1, x  4

 8  x  2 and 1  x  4

(ii) Consider the given set of equations;


2  4  12.......... .......... .......... ....( i )
x y


32   22   16.......... .......... .....( ii)
 x 2y

From, 2 x  4 y  12
2 x  12  4 y.......... .......... .......... ........( iii)
Substitute equation (iii) into equation (ii)
312  4 y   22 2 y   16
312  2 2 y   22 2 y   16
36  32 2 y   22 2 y   16
 52 2 y   20
22 y  4
22 y  22
y 1
From equation (iii) 2 x  12  4 y
2 x  12  41
2x  8
2 x  23
x3
 x  3, y  1

667
 Then;
4 x  43  100
2y

4  43  100
3 2

100  100 shown

(b) (i) Mathematical induction “If the basis step and inductive steps are
proven (or proved) to
be true, then the statement is true for all natural numbers”

n
(ii) To prove 2
r 0
r 1
 2n 1

k 1

2
r 0
r 1
 2k 1  2k

 
k 1

2
r 0
r 1
 2 2k 1
k 1

2
r 0
r 1
 2 k 1  1 but n  k  1
k 1
  2 r 1  2 n  1
r 0

668
(c) Consider the pair of equation.
 x 2 2 px  q  0
 2
 x 2 px  2q  0
4 px  q  0
q
x
4p
From, x 2 2 px  q  0
 q 2  q 
  2 p   q  0
 4p   4p 
q 2  24 p 2 q  0

q q  24 p 2  0
 q  0, q  24 p 2  0

SECTION: B
5. (a) (i) Let P  sin2 tan x  cot1 x 
1


P  sin 2 tan 1 x  cot 1 x 
x 1
Let A  tan 1 x, tan A  x, sin A  , cos A 
1 x 2
1 x2
1 x
B  cot 1 x, cot B  x, sin B  , cos B 
1 x2 1 x2
so; P  sin2 A  B 
P  sin 2 A cos B  cos 2 A sin B

P  2 sin A cos A cos B  1  2 sin 2 A sin B 
 x  1  x    x 2  1
P  2 



  1  2
 
2 
 1 x
2
 1  x
2
 1  x
2
   1  x  1  x 2
2x 1 2x
P  
1 x2 1 x2 1 x2
1
P
1 x2

 sin 2 tan 1 x  cot 1 x  1
1 x2

669
 (ii) Consider R.H.S
b  c k sin B  k sin C
 (From sine rule)
b  c k sin B  k sin C
b  c sin B  sin C

b  c sin B  sin C
 B C   B C 
2 cos  sin 
bc  2   2 

bc  B C   B C 
2 sin  cos 
 2   2 
From sum angles of a triangle, A  B  C  180
 BC   A
cos   sin 
 2  2
 BC   A
sin   cos 
 2  2
 A  B C 
sin  sin 
bc  2  2 

bc  A  B C 
cos  cos 
2  2 
bc  A  B C 
 tan   tan  
bc 2  2 
bc  A  B C 
 cot   tan   Proved
bc  2   2 

(b) (i) Given that sin x  sin 5x  sin 2x  sin 4x

sin 5 x  sin x  sin 4 x  sin 2 x
2 sin 3x cos 2 x  2 sin 3x cos x
sin 3x cos 2 x  sin 3x cos x  0
sin 3xcos 2 x  cos x   0
sin 3x  0 or cos 2 x  cos x  0

670
 Consider sin 3x  0
3x  sin 1 0
3x  0    0  
From,  n   1 
n

3x  180 n
x  90 n .......... .......... .......... ......( i )
Also consider
cos 2 x  cos x  0
2 cos2 x  1  cos x  0
2 cos2 x  cos x  1  0
cos x  1, cos x  1.5
Consider cos x  1
x  cos1 1
x  0   0 
From,  2n  
x  2n.......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
n
x  and x  2n
2

(ii) Let 3sin  5 cos  R sin   

3 sin   5 cos  R sin   
3 sin   5 cos  R sin  cos  R cos sin 
Equate
R sin   5.......... .......... .......... .......... .......( i )
R cos  3.......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
Square equations (i) and (ii) then add
R 2 sin 2   R 2 cos2   52  32

R 2 sin 2   cos2   34 
R  34
2

R   34

671
 By considering 3 sin  5 cos  7
Then, R   34  7
 The maximum value is 34  7 and minimum value is  34  7

  cos  
(c) (i) Consider sin 4   cos4   sin 2   2 2 2

sin   cos   sin    cos  

4 4 2 2 2 2

From, a 2  b 2  a  b   2ab
2


sin 4   cos4   sin 2   cos2   2
 2 sin 2  cos2 
sin 4   cos4   1  2 sin 2  cos2 
sin 4   cos4   1  212 1  cos 2   12 1  cos 2 
sin 4   cos4   1  12 1  cos2 2  
sin 4   cos4   1  12 1  12 1  cos 4 
sin 4   cos4   1  12 12  12 cos 4 
sin 4   cos4   1  14  14 cos 4
sin 4   cos4   34  14 cos 4
 sin 4   cos4   1
4 3  cos4  Proved
(ii) Given tan  2x   cosecx  sin x

tan  2x  
1
 sin x
sin x
1  sin 2 x
tan  2x  
sin x
Let tan  2x   t , sin x 
2t
1 t 2
2
 2t 
1  
1 t2 
tan  2x   
2t
1 t 2

tan   
1  t   2t 
2 2 2

2t 1  t 
x
2 2

1  2t 2  t 4  4t 2
t
2t  2t 3
672
  
t 2t  2t 3  1  2t 2  t 4  4t 2
2t  2t  1  2t 2  t 4  4t 2
2 4

t 4  4t 2  1  0
 4  42  4
t2 
2
 4  20  4  2 5
t2    2  5
2 2
 tan 2  2x   2  5

(d) Given sin 1 y  2 cos1 x

Let A  cos1 x, cos A  x, sin A  1  x 2
sin 1 y  2 A
y  sin 2 A
y  2 sin A cos A
y  2x 1  x 2

 y 2  4x 2 1  x 2  proved

6. (a) Consider the given two bags

Bag 1; 3 red balls and 4 black balls  7 balls
Bag 2; 5 red balls and 6 black balls  11 balls

Probability of the second ball to red, it is either RR  or BR 

3 5  4 5  5
Probability         
 7 11   7 11  11
5
 Probability of the second ball to red is
11

673
(b) (i)  The number of trials should be finite
 The trials should be independent.
 The outcomes of the trials should be exact either success or failure.
 The probability of the outcomes should be constant.

n
(ii) Consider general expectation formula E ( x)   xP( X  x)
x 0
x n x
But P( X  x)  Cx p q
n

n
E ( x)   xP( X  x)
x 0
n
E ( x)   x nC x p x q n  x
x 0
n
 n!  x n x
E ( x)   x  p q
x 0  ( n  x )! x! 

n
 n(n  1)! 
E ( x)   x  p. p x 1q n x
x 0  ( n  x )! x ( x  1)! 

n
 (n  1)!  x 1 n x
E ( x)  np   p q
x 0  ( n  x )!( x  1)! 
n n
E ( x)  np n1C x 1 p x 1q n x but  n 1
C x 1 p x 1q n x  1
x 0 x 0

 E x   np

Also from, Var( x)  E( x 2 )  E( x)2

674
  
n
E x 2   x 2 nC x p x q n  x but x 2  x( x  1)  x
x 0

 
n
E x 2   x( x  1)  x  nC x p x q n x
x 0

 
n n
E x 2   x( x  1) n C x p x q n  x   x nC x p x q n x
x 0 x 0

 n(n  1)(n  2)!  2 x 2 n x

 
n
E x 2   x( x  1)  p p q  np
x 0  (n  x)!x( x  1)( x  2)! 
 (n  2)!  x 2 n x
 
n
E x 2  n(n  1) p 2    p q  np
x 0  ( n  x )!( x  2)! 

 
n n
E x 2  n(n  1) p 2  n2 C x 2 p x 2 q n x  np but  n 2 C x 2 p x 2 q n x  1
x 0 x 0

E x   n(n  1) p
2 2
 np
 
 E ( x)  np and E x 2  n(n  1) p 2  np
 
Var ( x)  E x 2  E ( x) 
2

Var ( x)  n(n  1) p 2  np  np

2

Var ( x)  n 2 p 2  np 2  np  n 2 p 2
Var ( x)  np  np 2  np(1  p ) let 1  p  q
Var ( x)  npq

(c) (i) From  Px 1

k  2k  3k  1
6k  1
k  16

(ii) To find Px  2  Px  1

Px  2  Px  1  Px  0  Px  1  Px  2  P x  0  P x  1

Px  2  Px  1  16   16  2   16  3   16  2   16  3
 Px  2  Px  1  1.8333

675
 x
(d) Given   12 and   4 , from z 

 x   17  12   5
(i) Px  17  P z    P z    P z    0.1057
    4   4
 x   10  12   1
(ii) Px  10  P z    P z    P z     0.3085
    4   2
9  12 13  12 
(iii) P9  x  13  P  3 1
z   P   z    0.3721
 4 4   4 4

B
7. (a) Given y  Ax 
x
xy  Ax 2  B
dy
y  x  2 xA
dx
y dy
  2 A.......... .......... .......... ....( i )
x dx
dy dy d2y
  x 2  2A
dx dx dx
2
dy d y
2  x 2  2 A.......... .......... .......( ii)
dx dx
Substitute equation (i) into equation (ii)
dy d 2 y y dy
2 x 2  
dx dx x dx
2
d y dy
 x2 2  x  y  0
dx dx

676
(b) (i) Given  y  xydx  x  xy 2 dy  0
 y  xydx  xy 2  x dy
y 1  x dx  x y 2  1dy
1 x y 2 1
 x dx   y dy
 1  1
 1  x dx    y  y dy
y2
x  Inx  c   Iny
2
 y 2  2 Iny  2 x  2 Inx  A  0

(ii) Given  x  1  y  e x 1  x 
dy 2

dx
 e x 1  x Integrating factor D.E .......... .(i )
dy y

dx 1  x
1
  dx 1
I .F  e 1 x 
1 x
Multiply equation (i) by I.F
 1  dy
 e x Exact D.E 
y
  
 1  x  dx 1  x 
2

d  y 
 e
x

dx  1  x 
 y 
 d  1  x    e dx
x

y
 ex  c
1 x
 y  1  x e x  c1  x 

(c) Consider y   3 y   2 y  e 2 x
Consider complementary function (c.f)
y  3 y  2 y  0
Write its A.Q.E
m 2  3m  2  0
m  1, m  2
  1,   2

677
From, y  Ae x  Be x
y c. f  Ae  x  Be 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......( i )
Consider Particular Integral (P.I)
y  ke 2 x
y   2ke 2 x
y   4ke 2 x
From, y   3 y   2 y  e 2 x
4ke 2 x  6ke 2 x  2ke 2 x  e 2 x
4k  6k  2k  1
12k  1
k  121
y P. I  121 e 2 x .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( ii)
y  y c. f  y P. I
y  Ae  x  Be 2 x  121 e 2 x
y 0  2
A  B  121  2
12 A  12B  23.......... .......... .......... .......... ..(iii)
From, y  Ae  x  Be  2 x  121 e 2 x
dy
  Ae  x  2 Be 2 x  16 e 2 x
dx
1
4   A  2B 
6
24  6 A  12B  1
6 A  12B  23.......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iv)
Solve equations (i) and (ii) simultaneously
12 A  12B  23

6 A  12B  23
A 23
3 , B   234
y  23
3 e  x  234 e  2 x  121 e 2 x

678
(d) Consider data given.
The first temperature at 10 : 00 a.m 1  93.4  F
After 2 hours, the temperature  2  91.4  F
If room temperature, R  72 F
  R 
From Newton' s Law of Cooling, In 2   kt
 
 1 R 
1   R  1  91.4  72 
k   In 2    In   0.049
t  1   R  2  93.4  72 
Estimate the time of death when  2  98.04 F
1   R  1  98.04  72 
t   In 2    In   4hrs
k  1   R  0.049  93.4  72 
t  4hrs
The time of death  10 : 00 a.m  (4hrs)  6 : 00 a.m
 The approximate time of death is 6 : 00 a.m

8. (a) (i) Given x  1 5 cos and y  2  3 sin

x  1  5 cos
x 1
cos  .......... .......... .......... .........( i )
5
Also from, y  2  3 sin
y2
sin  .......... .......... .......... .........( ii)
3
From, cos2   sin 2   1
 x 1   y  2 
2 2

    1
 5   3 


x  12   y  22  1 shown
25 9

(ii) Centre h, k   1,2

Vertice,  a  h, k    5  1,2
 Vertice are 6,2 and  4,2

679
 Foci,  ae  h, k 
b2  a 2 1 e2  
9  25 1  e 2 
e 4
5

Foci,  5  54 ,2 
 Foci are 5,2 and  3,2

(b) (i) Consider

d  4a where d  distance of Latus rectum
3  32  5  32  4a
8  4a
a2
Focus  ae  h, k   3,1 but e  1
2  h  3, h  1, k  1
h, k   1,1
From,  y  k   4ax  h 
2

  y  1  8x  1
2

6
(ii) Consider r 
1  2 sin
y
But sin  
r
6
r
1  2 sin 
6
r
 y
1  2 
r
6r
r
r  2y
r 2  2 yr  6r
r 2  2 y  6 r  0

680
 r r  2 y  6  0
r  0 or r  2 y  6  0
Consider r  2 y  6  0 but r  x 2  y 2
x 2  y 2  2 y  6  0
x 2  y 2  2 y  6
x 2  y 2  2 y  6
2

x 2  y 2  4 y 2  24 y  36
x 2  3 y 2  24 y  36

x 2  3 y 2  8 y  36 
x 2  3 y  4  48  36
2

x 2  3 y  4  12
2

3 y  4  x 2  12
2


 y  42 
x2
1
4 12

(c) (i) Given 8 x 2  8 y 2  32x  64 y  128  0

8 x 2  32x  8 y 2  64 y  128  0
  
8 x 2  4 x  8 y 2  8 y  128  0 
8 x  2  32  8 y  4  128  128  0
2 2

8 x  2  8 y  4  32
2 2


x  22   y  42
 1 it is rectangular hyperbola since a  b  2
4 4
Equation of directrix;

 y  k    b x  h 
a
y  4   x  2
2
2
y  x  2  4
 y  x  2 and y   x  6

681
 (ii) Given r  1 cos
Table of values
 0 45 90  135 180 225 270 315 360

r 0 0.29 1 1.7 2 1.7 1 0.29 0

The curve of r  1 cos

(d) Consider

From,
x  h 2   y  k 2 1
a2 b2
h, k   1,2, x, y   4,6
4  12  6  22 1
a2 b2
9 16
 1
a2 b2
9b 2  16a 2  a 2 b 2 .......... .......... ........( i )
From, c 2  a 2  b 2
c 6  12  2  22 5
25  a  b 2 2

a 2  25  b 2 .......... .......... .......... ........( ii)

Substitute equation (ii) into equation (i)

9b 2  16 25  b 2  25  b 2 b 2   
b 4  400
b 2  20.......... .......... .......... .......... ....( iii)
Substitute equation (iii) into equation (ii)
a 2  25  20  45.......... .......... .......... .....( iv)


x  12   y  22 1
45 20

682
 ANSWERS
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Exercise 1.1
1. sinh x  34 and sinh x  1
2. x  In 13
3. In3 and In 1  2 
4. In 2 and In1  2 
5. x  12 In 2
6. tanh x  29 21

7. x  In2 or x  In2

Exercise 1.3
1
1.
x2  a2
1
2.
x2  a2
dy 2
3. 
dx x 2 1  x 4
dy
4.   cos ecx
dx
dy
5.  sec x
dx
1 5 
6. sinh 1  x   c
10 4 
1  11 
7. sinh 1  x   c
11  3 
1  5 
8. cosh1  x   c
5  2 
1  7 
9. tanh 1  x   c
14  2 

683
 REVISION EXERCISE 1
01.
(a) x  3.51 or x  0.488
(b) x  5.74 or x  0.597
(c) x  3.5

02.
(a) 2.6
2 5
(b)  0.8944
5
03.
1295
(a)  17.986
72
35
(b)  0.9459
37
04. Show
05. Show
06. Prove
07. Show
08. Show
09. Show
10. Prove
11. a  x  x  1
2

12. (a) c 2  a 2  b 2
(b)Show
13. Prove
14. Show
15. Show
16. Show
17. The critical values are (0,1)
18. Prove
19. Show
   
20. ( x, y)  In 2  5 , In 3  2 2     
or ( x, y)  In 3  10 , In 2  3 
29. x  In  43 

684
 VECTORS

Exercise 2.1

2
1.
2
2. 2
3. m8
4. 3
5. 4 :1: 5
6. 2 3 4
, ,
29 29 29

Exercise 2.3
dr
1.  2i  2 j
dt
dr
2. r  i  j ,  2i  j
dt
dr
3. r  5k ,  2 j
dt
4. r  i  j  k
5. r  2i  4 j  8k
6. r  i  4 j

REVISION EXERCISE 2
1. x  2 , y  3
3 1 2
2. 3 :1: 2 , , ,
14 14 14
 
3. a  b  5
 2
4. 6 a 2  11a  b  35 b
5  
5. OR  a , OR  4b  a
3
6. A, B and C are collinear
 
7. a  b  b  c  c  a  
3
2

685
  1 1 1
8.   60 or   120 , a  i  j k
2 2 2
9. Area= 1 61 sq. units
2
10. Area= 605 sq. units, unit vector is 3 i  6 j  2 k
7 7 7
11. Verify
12.
(a) t (t 3  2t 2  14)
(b) 3t 2 i  7k
(c) i  2t j
13. Area  0.5sq.units
82
14. workdone  joules
7
15. Force  (0.096t  0.128)i  0.192t 2 k
1
16. (i) (13i  26 j  13k )
31.84
(ii) 64.862
1
17. Pr ojb a 
3
18. Verify
19. Show
20. Show
50
21. workdone  joules
3
22. workdone  26 joules
28
23. workdone  joules
17
27
24. workdone  joules
7
25. 17.75
3 2 6
26. i j k
7 7 7
27. Angle  63.11 , Area  8.874sq.units
28. (5t 2  5)  j  (3t  2t 3 )k
41
29. r (t )  28i  j and r (t )  10i  7 j s
3
30. 75sq.units

686
31. velocity  2i  4 j and acceleration  14i  2 j  12k
32. Show
33. magnitude  1
34. r  (2i  j  3k )  2(3i  2 j  4k )  2(i  3 j  2k )
35. Magnitude  18.37 N , Direction  12.58
3 4 6
36. (a) i j k (b).   9
61 61 61
37. (a) Acceleration  4i (constant).
19
(b) (i) i  4 j  3k units (ii) 65i units (iii) 20i N
8
38. workdone  80 joules
39. velocity  43 units and acceleration  228 units
40. 2 :1: 2
41. Prove
42. Show
1 1.4 0.4
43. (i) f (t )  i 2 j k (ii)
20t 2
t (1  2t ) 2
1 
 Int i  7 Int  j  In1  2t k  c
1
4  2
44. prove , speed  2 and velocity  2 cos(2 )i  2 sin(2 ) j
 10
45. (i)   (ii)   14
7
46. Prove
47. momentum  (10t 3  5t )i  (15t 4  5t 2  40) j  60t 2 k ,
Force  (30t 2  5)i  (60t 3  10t ) j  120tk
48. cos  0.6325
49. Prove
50. Force  74N , Direction  54.5

687
 NUMERICAL METHODS
Exercise 3.1
1. 1.11106 105 and 1.60291 105
2. 9.906  104 and 1.540  104
3. 3.041 103 and 1.756  103

Exercise 3.2
1. 0.196
2.  0.2628
3. 0.3748
4. x1  1, x2  2 3 and x3  13 21

Exercise 3.3
1. 0.7828 sq.units
2. 1.5504 sq.units
3. 2.4473 sq.units , 2.4641sq.units
4. 10.774 sq.units , 10.822 sq.units
5. (a) 15.01 sq.units (b) 14.94 sq.units (c) 14.94 sq.units

REVISION EXERCISE 3
1. 3.1424
2. 1.0122sq.units
3. 0.9688sq.units
4. 1.0192sq.units , 1.0093sq.units
5. 0.69325sq.units
6. 1.1015sq.units , 1.0986sq.units
7. x1  1.1797 sq.units , x2  1.1795 sq.units x3  1.1795 sq.units
8. 0.7921sq.units
9. 0.0769sq.units
10. 2.285sq.units
11. 0.73881sq.units
12. refer  to  your  notes
13. (a) 0.3925sq.units (b) (ii) 3.0809
14. 1.9129
15. (a) 0.6427 sq.units (b) 0.6427 sq.units
16. refer  to  your  notes

688
17. refer  to  your  notes
(a) refer  to  your  notes
(b) refer  to  your  notes
(c) 12
5
18. 2.4146 , 0.0004
19.  0.2628
20. (i) 1.1102sq.units (ii) 1.048sq.units
21. 7.982km
22. 258m 3
23.
24. (a) 0.196 (b) 1.587
25. (a) 0.3096sq.units (b) Absolute error  4.17  103
26. 310.3cm 3
27. (i) 1.8961sq.units , (ii) 2.005sq.units
28. 0.09965sq.units

COMPLEX NUMBERS
Exercise 4.1
(a) 1
(b) 1
(c)  1
(d)  i
(e)  i
(f) i
Exercise 4.3
1. z  2cos 60  i sin 60  
or z  2 cos 300  i sin 300 
  
2. z  2 3 cos30  i sin 30 or z  2 3 cos330  i sin 330
   

3. z  2 3cos 210  i sin 210 

4. z  4 2 cos 45  i sin 45
 

5. z  cos 90  i sin 90

6. z1 z2  6 cos15  i sin15
 

 2cos 21  i sin 21 
z1
7.
z2
8. 
z1 z 2  15 cos 50  i sin 50 
689
 54 
9. z  2e
i

 43 
10. z1 z 2  20e
i

z1 i  
11.  2e 4
z2
z i  
12. 2  0.5e 4
z1
REVISION EXERCISE 4
1.
(a) cos(37.1)  0.825
(b) e 5 x cos12 x
 2
 
 2 
 
(c) e
2. ( x  iy)( x  iy)
3. Show
4. Prove
5. Prove
6. Show
7. Prove
8. Show
9. Prove
10. Prove
11. n  4
12. 3  2i
13. 7  2 cos  0
14. Show
15. z1 z 2  3(cos50  i sin 50 )
16. z  2  3i , z  1 and z  1
P ( z )  ( z  2  3i )( z  2  3i )( z  1)( z  1)
17. p  4 , q  13
 2  2
18. a   2 , b   2 , x    1i
 
2 2  2  2
19. Show
20. Show
21. t  0.199, t  1.50, t  5.03, t  0.668
22. t  0.225, t  1.1376, t  10.745, t  1.69 , t  0.431
23.
(a) i
690
 (b)  1
(c)  1
(d) 1
24.
(a) z 3 i , z   3 i , z  2i
(b) z  4 3  4i , z  8i , z  4 3  4i

25. z  2  i 2 , z   2  i 2 , z   2  i 2 , z   2  i 2
26. z  2  i 2 , z   2  i 2 , z   2  i 2 , z  2  i 2
27. Show
28. Show
29. Show
30.
(a) cos x  coshix or cosix  cosh x
(b) sin x  i sinh ix or sinh x  i sin ix
(c) tan x  i tanh ix or i tanh x  tan ix
31.
(a) z  2n  In(3  2 2 ) where..n  0,1,2,3.......

(b) z  2n   iIn (5  2 6 ) where..n  0,1,2,3.......
2
32. x  y  6x  1  0
2 2

33.
(a) x 2  y 2  9
(b) y  0
(c) x 2  y 2  6 x  0
34.
(a) y  x  1  0
(b) x 2  y 2  2 y  1  0
4 2
35. z  4  2i and z   i
5 5
36. Show
37. Greatest value  13 and Least value   13
38.
1 1 1 3
(a) z    i , w    i
2 2 2 2
(b) z  2  4i , w  5  i
39. 15x 2  15 y 2  68x  96 y  204  0
2
40. x  , y2
3

691
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Exercise 5.1
1. y  4e 4 x  c
 15 x
2. y   15 e c
3. y  7e c
7x

 y 1 
4. In   x  c
 y 
 y 1
5. In    x 1  c
 y 
6. y 2  2 x 2  1  2c
1
7. coth y  e  c
x

8. y  e x  3x cos x  3 sin x  c
9.   Incos  sin   r  c
10. et cost  sin t   2 x  c  0
11. 1
2 tan 1   e
y
2
x
c
12. y  x Inx  12 x  2c
2 2 2

13. 12 In 2 y  3  In x  2  c
14. Iny  coth1 x  c
15. y  xInx  x  c

Exercise 5.2
1
 12 x
y  Ae 2  Be
x
1.
2
 2
y  Ae
x
 Be
x
2. 3 3

1
y  Ae 3 x  Be 2
x
3.
5
y  Ae 3 x  Be 2
x
4.
5. y   Ax  B e9 x
6. y   Ax  B e 3x

7. y   Ax  B e 0.1x
y   Ax  B e 4
1
x
8.

692
REVISION EXERCISE 5:1
1.
(a) y  cx
(b) y  2 cos x  c
(c) y  sin(sin1 x)  c
(d) y  tan( x  c)  x
(e) 2( y  x)  sin 2( y  x)  c
(f) x  Insin( y  x)  c
(g) y  x  In ( y  x)  c
(h) y  2 x  c1 , y  3x  c2
(i) y  c1 x 2 , y  c2 x
2.
(a) y 2  x 2 Inx 2  cx 2
(b) x 2  2 xy  y 2  B
(c) y  x sinh(InAx)
(d) y  x sinh(InAx)
(e) y  xe Ax
x
(f) y 
Inx  c
(g) y  A( x 2  y 2 )
(h) ( y  x) y  2x2  c
(i) 2 3 tan 1  2 y  x   Inx  c
3  3x 
3.
(a) x 2  y 2  2 xy  2 x  2 y  c
(b) x 2  y 2  2 xy  4 x  c
(c) x 2  y 2  2 xy  4 x  8 y  c
4.
(a) yx 2  sin x  c
(b) y  x(tan x  c)
(c) y 2 x 2 1  cx
1 4
(d) yx 2  x c
4

5.
1
(a) ye 2 x  e 3 x  c
3

693
 x  sin x  c
(b) y 
cos ecx  cot
xc
(c) y 
sin 2 x
cx  2
(d) xy  2 
Inx
(e) y sec x  x 2 sec x  c
x
(f)  2y  c
y
6.
1 1
(a) y 1  x   ce 2 x
2 4
1
(b) y 2  x   ce 2 x
2
(c) 4 xy  y 4  c
7.
(a) y  A x 3  B
3
1
(b) y  In ( 2 x  C )  D
2
(c) y 2  Ax  B
8.
(a) y  Ae  x  Be 2 x
(b) y  Ae 3 x  Be 5 x
(c) x  Ae t  Be 6t

9.
(a) y  ( Ax  B)e 2 x
(b) y  ( Ax  B)e x
(c) y  ( Ax  B)e  x
10.
(a) y  ( A cos x  B sin x)e 3 x
(b) y  A cos3 x  B sin 3 x
(c) y  ( A cos x  B sin x)e  x
(d) y  ( A cos x  B sin x)e 2 x
11.
5
(a) y  ( Ax  B)e 2 x 
4
(b) y  Ae x  Be 2 x  x  3

694
 5 15
(c) y  ( Ax  B )e 2 x  x
4 4
1 3 13
(d) y  Ae  x  Be 4 x  x 2  x 
4 8 32
3 4
(e) y  e ( Ax  B )  sin 2 x  cos 2 x
x

5 5
(f) .The question is inconsistent.
(g) . The question is inconsistent
1
(h) y  Ae x  Be 2 x  e 4 x
6
(i) y  Ae x  Be 2 x  xe2 x
(j) y  ( Ax  B)e 2 x  e 3 x
(k) y  ( Ax  B)e 2 x  0.5 x 2 e 2 x
(l) . y  ( Ax  B)e 2 x
(m) y  ( Ax  B)e 2 x
(n) . y  Ae x  Be 2 x  xe x
1
(o) . y  Ae x  Be 2 x  e 4 x
6

12.
d2y
(a)  4y  0
dx 2
2
(b) d 2y  3 dy  2 y  0
dx dx
(c) y   6 y   10 y  0
(d) y   9 y  0
(e) y   2 y   2 y  0
(f) y   4 y   13 y  0
(g) y   4 y   4 y  0
(h) y   2 y   y  0
(i) y   2 y   y  0
(j) y   4 y   4 y  5
(k) y   3 y   2 y  2 x  3
(l) y   2 y   y  5 sin 2 x

695
13. Show

14.
(a) x  A sin(2t   ) or x  A cos(2t   ) or x  Acos2t  B sin 2t
(b) x  A sin(3t   ) or x  A cos(3t   ) or x  Acos3t  B sin 3t
(c) x  A sin(9t   ) or x  A cos(9t   ) or x  Acos9t  B sin 9t
(d) x  A sin(10t   ) or x  A cos(10t   ) or x  Acos10t  B sin10t
(e) x  A sin(6t   ) or x  A cos(6t   ) or x  Acos6t  B sin 6t
(f) x  A sin(7t   ) or x  A cos(7t   ) or x  Acos7t  B sin 7t
(g) x  Asin( 3t   ) or x  A cos( 3t   ) or
x  A cos 3t  B sin 3t
(h) x  Asin( 5t   ) or x  A cos( 5t   ) or
x  A cos 5t  B sin 5t
(i) x  A sin(2t   )  1 or x  A cos(2t   )  1
(j) y  A sin(3   )  2 or y  A cos(3   )  2
(k)   Asin( 2t   )  3 or   A cos( 2t   )  3

15.
1 4 1
(a) x  3 xy  y 2  y  c
2 2
(b) x 3 y  2 x 2  2 xy 3  5 y  c
1 3 1
(c) x  xy 3  2 x 2 y  y 5  c
3 5
(d) x5  x3 y 2  x 2 y 3  y 5  c

16.
2 3x
y  Ae 2 x  Be  2 x  2 x 2  e 1
5
17.
dy
(a) 3 x  3 y  2 3 xy
dx
d2y dy
(b) 2
2  3y  0
dx dx
d 2 y dy
(c) x 2   0
dx dx
2
(d) d 2y  5 dy  6 y  30x  7
dx dx

696
 d2y
(e) 2
 16 y  20e 2 x
dx
2

(f) xy 2  x   y  0
d2y dy dy
dx  dx  dx

18.
(a) (2 x  y  2)  2 In (2 x  y  2)  x  1
(b) x  2 cos3t  3sin 3t  4
2

19. y 2     1  0
d2y dy
dx  dx 
1
20. ye3 x  ( 4 x  1)e 4 x  C
16
25 25
21. x   e kt   20
k k
22.
d2y
(a) y0
dx 2
(b) d3y d2y dy
3
3 2
3 y0
dx dx dx
23.
x 3  3c
(a) y 
3(1  x 2 )
1
(b) y  C1e 2 x  C 2 e x  e 4 x
6
(c) x5  y5  x3 y 2  x 2 y3  C
24. 79.25 years
25. 2 x 2  9 y 2  18x  18 y  2 xy  1  0
26. (4 x  y  1)( y  x  4)2 
c
x 1
d 2x
27. (a)  64x  0 (b) x  Acos8t  B sin8t (c) x  cos8t
dt 2
2
28. (a) 2 d 2x  14 dx  12x  0 (b) x  Ae 6t  Be  t
dt dt
29. 1.106hrs
dm
30.  k (100  m)
dt
31. prove
32. 77.92 c
697
33. 4.493 1046 kg
x
 
34. ye  y
 A x
35. 3 x  12 y  9 In ( x  y  1)  In (3 x  3 y  1)  A
36. y   14x  17e 4( x1)
37. y  4 cos3x  sin 3x e x
38. y  3x 2  2 x  3
39. x  Inx  12 y 2  Iny  c
40. x tan y  e x  c
2

REVISION EXERCISE 5:2

1.
(a)
1
2 y  14 sin 2 y  x  c
 5
(b) y  5 x  1  3 x  1  c
1 2
 
3

(c) In y  3   x  c
1

2.
(a) y  3xIn Ax 
1   y 2 
(b) x  In 1  2  2   c
4   x 
(c) y  x tanIn Ax 
3 1
 B
(d) y x
(e) x  2 y In  Ay 
2 2

3.
 2x   y  2x 


(a) 2 x  y 
  In    In Ax 
   x 
(b) sin  x   In Ax 
1 y

(c) y  xIn Ax 
4.

(a)
xy 2   x 1  c
(b) xIny  sec x  c
(c) 2 x y  2 tan 2 x  c
1 2 2 1

698
 (d) 1  2 x e  tan x  c
y

(e) t 2e u  t sin t  c
2 s

(f) r e  cot u  c
5.
(a) x sin y  2 x  c
(b)
xy  e x  c
(c) x tan y  e  c
2
x

(d) 1
2 y 2e x  y  c

COORDINATE GEOMETRY II
Revision Exercise 6.1
1. y  16x , Length  16 units
2

25
2. x  2 y
2

3. 16x  9 y  144x  8 y  24xy  149  0

2 2

4. 4 x 2 y 2 8 x  46 y  4 xy  71  0
2 2

5. 16x  y  96x  554 y  8 xy  1879  0

6. 3,0 , x  3 , Length  12 units
7. (a) Focus  3 ,0  , Vertex 0,0 , Length  units , x   13
1 4
3

(b) Focus  40 , 2  , Vertex  5940 , 12  , Length  10 x   40

159 1 41
units ,

(c) Focus 0, 3  , Vertex 0,0 , Length  3 units , x   3

1 4 1

8. (a) (i) Focus 1,0 , focus 1, 2  (ii) Directrix x   2 ,

1 1

Length  2 units

(b) at1t2  t2 , at1  t2 

2

9. (a)   4
10. prove
11. y  x  1 , y   x  7
12. Area  18 sq.units
13. y 2  20x
2

14. x  125y
15. (i) y  16.9 x (ii) Should be placed at focus 4.225,0
2

699
 x  42   y  12 1
16. 18 9

Revision Exercise 6.2

1. (a)

c  4 2 units, vertices 0,6, directrices y  

9 2
,
2
length 
4
3

units, foci 0,4 2 
(b)
c  5 units, vertices  3,0, directrices y  
9
5
8

, length  units, foci  5 ,0
3

x2 y2 x2 y 2
 1
2. (a) 25 9 (b)  1
169 144
3. 2 units, e  2 , 3 units
1

4. 1, 
21  1 , y  
25
2
1

x2 y2
5.  1
10 40
6. 25x  6 y  113  0, 6 x  25 y  80  0
7. y  2 x  6 and y  2 x  6
x2 y2
8.  1
64 100
x2 y2
9. 9
 1
4
x2 y2
10. 16
 1
7

x  32  y 2  1
14. 64 48

16. 3 y  4 x  17  0, 4 y  3x  6  0
17.
  
ay sin   bx cos  ab cos2   a sin 2  , by  ax tan   b 2  a 2 sin  

700
 x2 y2
 1
18. 25 9

x2 y2
 1
19. 81 9

39
20. Heigth  4 m

x2 y2
 1
21. 81 36

Revision Exercise 6.3

x2 y2 x2 y 2
4. (i) 4   1 (ii)  1
5 16 9
y2 x2 x2 y 2 x2 9 y2

5. (i) 25 144  1 (ii)   1 (iii) (a)  1
25 20 49 343
y 2 x2
(b)  1
5 5
6. 16x  11y  36x  58 y  11  0
2 2

x  52  y 2 1
12. (b) 1 3
. (b) y   x  3 and y   x  3

STATISTICS
Exercise 7.1
1. (a) 30.3 (b) 30.3 (c) 30.3
2. (a) 0.3158 (b) 0.3158 (c) 0.3158

Revision Exercise 7
1. Mean=44, median=0 and mode=34.222
2. x  26, y  27, mean  20.7 and median  21.53
3. Mean=7.26 and S.D=1.94
4. Model A is more uniform than B since it has small
S.D compared to B
5. (a) Median  1.67 b mean  1.69 and S.D  0.29

701
PROBABILITY
Exercise 8.1
1. 1260
2. 7560
3. 6
4. 24
5. 60
Exercise 8.2

1. 441
2. 5
3. 36
4. 4
5. 120

Exercise 8.3

1. 0.5 6. 0.9 11. 7

44

16. 0.5
2. 0.35 7. 0.775 12. 0.5
17. 0.55
3. 152 8. (a) 2 7 (b) 3
7 (c) 4
7 13. 1 3
4. 7 13 9. 1: 5 14. (a)
425 (b)
22 16
5525

5. 31 72 10. 3
7 15. 189
572

Exercise 8.4
1. 0.5 6. 2 15 11. 0.775
2. 0.25 7. 0.8 12. (a) 0.125 (b) 11
48 (c)
6
11

3. 34
47 8. 0.25 13.
A and B are independent events,
i.e. P A  B   P A  PB   16
4. 0.5 9. 1
3

5. 0.3 10. 7
15

702
Exercise 8.5
(i) Discrete uniform r.v
(ii) 0.6
(iii) 0.4
(iv) 0.2
(v) 2
Exercise 8.6

1. (a) 1
4 (b) 11
12 (c) 1
3

2. 2
3. (a) 5
16

4. k 1
2 , Px  1
2   23
5. (a) k  4 9 , l  4 7 (b) 2
9

Exercise 8.7

1. 0.656
2. 3
3. 11
243

4. 0.99
5. 88
6. 0.83
7. 2

Exercise 8.8

1. (a) 0.865 (b) 0.406

2. 0.00529
3. 0.86
4. 0.993262
Exercise 8.9
1. (a) 0.9938 (b) 0.9878 (c) 0.3944
2. (a) 0.6826 (b) 0.9544
3. (a) 0.0062 (b) 0.4938
4. (a) 0.4013 (b) 0.3413
5. (a) 15.87% (b) 84.13% (c) 15.87%
6. (a) 30.85% (b) 37.20% (c) 15.86%
7. (a) 870 (b) 1%
703
8. (b)  78.28

Revision Exercise 8.1

1. 7 15
2. 3 4
3. 55 221
4. 9 20
5. 2 7
6. 2 91
7. 1 3
8. 21 46
9. 313
10. 13102
11. 4 7
12. 2 5
13. 316 435
14. 1 216
15. 7 8
16. 35%
17. 512
18. 1 3
19. 17 42
20. 19 42
21. 10 21
22. 19 90
23. 512
24. 16 5525
25. 1 204
26. 1 26
27. 319 420
28. 3 7
29. 1 6
30. 112
31. 1 6
32. 1 3
33. 1 221
704
 34. 2
3

35. 7
10

36. 7
44

37. 27
34

38. 2
5

39. 17
20

40. 3
91

41. 39
100
p
42. p q
43. 2 7
44. 114
45. 5 : 4
46. 3 20
47. 3 5
48. 10 21
49. 9 70
50. 1 3
51. 14 33
52. 1 6
53. 5 26
54. (a) Probability  0.4725, mean  0.6 , SD  0.7266
(b) 0.0867
(c) (i) k  4 (ii) , variance 
11
mean  8
15 225

Revision Exercise 8.2

1. 4 48. 336
2. 8 49. 720
3. 16 50. 90
4. 32 51. 60
5. 6 52. 120
6. 36 53. 8
7. 216 54. 32
8. 1296 55. 720
9. 6 n 56. 24
10. 6 57. 56
705
11. 1 58. 4,536
12. 252 59. 362,880
13. (a) 350 (b) 150 (c) 105 60. 11,880
(d) 30 (e) 12 (f) 15 (g) 60 61. 24
14. 720 62. (a) 6 (b) 12
15. m n ways 63. 720
16. 5040 64. (a) 90,720
(b) 907,200 (c) 544,320
17. 120 65. (a) 362,880
(b) 2,880 (c) 5,760 (d) 80,640
18. 20 66. 0.5
19. 336 67. 0.5
20. As r increase the number of permutation increase 68. 0.75
21. (a) 10 (b) 90 (c) 3,628,800 69. 0.75
22. 12 70. 0.75
23. 6 71. 7 8
24. 15 72. 0.5
25. 15 73. 7 8
26. 455 74. 0.5
27. 320 75. 0.5
28. 36 76. 0.5
29. 75 77. 112
30. 24 78. 0.5
31. 50 79. 0.5
32. 18 80. 118
33. 18 81. 0.25
34. 24 82. 0.25
35. 36 83. 0.5
36. 3 84. 0.25
37. 18 85. 1 6
38. 36 86. 0.25
39. 72 87. 0.25
40. 24 88. 1 21
41. 210 89. 17 42
42. (a) 720 (b) 120 (c) 24 90. 117
43. 720 91. 0.5
44. 360 92. 1 504
45. 6 93. 1 22
46. 360
47. 1800
706
 INDEX
differential equations, 164, 239, 240, 251, 260,
A 276, 286, 307, 314, 333, 340, 342, 343, 345,
Absolute error, 133 657
actual value, 132, 167 direction cosine, 91, 92, 103, 126
APPLICATIONS OF VECTORS, 126 direction ratio, 90, 103, 126, 129
area of a parallelogram, 115, 128 Director circle, 416
area of a triangle, 114, 126, 128 Directrices, 388, 394, 400, 405, 419, 428, 432,
Argand diagram, 236, 237 437
Argument, 176 Directrix, 347, 349, 353, 357, 360, 363, 366,
arithmetic mean, 484, 494 368, 370
ASYMPTOTES, 446, 447, 450 Discrete Random Variable, 567, 585
Auxiliary circle, 417 distance formula, 84
dot product, 93, 94, 103, 127
double value, 71
B
Binomial distribution, 583, 592 E
Brine solution, 324
Eccentricity, 347, 479
Ellipse, 347, 385, 386, 387, 391, 392, 393, 397,
C 398, 399, 404, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412,
Cartesian form, 180, 377, 378, 382, 410, 440, 413, 414, 415, 416, 431, 435, 476
453 equal vectors, 75
central tendency, 482 Errors, 132
Class interval, 480, 487 Expectation, 568, 575, 576, 581, 584
Class mark, 480 External division, 88, 89
Coin, 523
Collinear vectors, 75, 116 F
combination, 118, 129, 534
Components of vectors, 76 factor formulae, 20
compound value, 7, 20 First Order D.E, 247, 251, 254, 260, 265, 269,
Conic section, 346, 347 272
Conjugate, 174 Focal chord, 347
Cooling, 314 Focus, 347, 349, 353, 357, 360, 363, 366, 368,
Coplanar vectors, 75 370, 479
cosech, 3, 57 force, 73, 106, 107, 108, 127, 128, 129, 130,
cosh, 1, 21, 48 343, 466, 520
cosine rule, 103, 127 function, 145, 151, 166, 168, 243, 245, 246,
counting principle, 524 291, 317, 535, 538, 567, 571, 574, 581, 582,
cross product, 109, 127, 128 583, 584, 592, 597, 598, 612, 618, 620, 631,
Cumulative Frequency Distribution, 481 636, 642

D G
derivative, 37, 38, 240, 247, 276 General solution, 246
Die, 523 Grouped data, 480, 486, 513

707
 H N
Homogeneous, 254, 260 Non Homogeneous, 260
Hyperbola, 347, 418, 427, 431, 432, 436, 438, Normal, 347, 382, 597, 598, 626
439, 440, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 449 Numerical Approximation, 132
hyperbolic equations, 8 Numerical Integration, 132
hyperbolic function, 1, 3, 8, 20, 23, 35, 37, 70, Numerical method, 131, 132, 164
216, 468
hyperbolic identities, 19 O
ODE, 239, 247
I
Ogive, 481
Imaginary part, 171 opposite vectors, 74
Inexact Integrating Factor, 269
Integrating Factor, 265, 269 P
integration, 43, 48, 152, 157, 164, 167, 345
Internal Division, 86 Parabola, 347, 348
inverse, 38, 43, 48, 52, 55, 57, 655, 664 parallel vectors, 74, 109
inverse hyperbolic functions, 38 parallelogram law, 78
Parametric equation, 374, 415, 443
percentage error, 161
L
Percentile, 512, 514, 515, 517
Latus rectum, 347 permutation, 525, 709
LINEAR COMBINATION, 118 perpendicular, 93, 95, 101, 103, 109, 112, 127,
locus, 218, 220, 223, 228, 229, 230, 231, 235, 128, 129, 130, 347, 382, 416, 445, 449, 477
236, 237, 238, 471, 476, 477, 632, 654, 661 Poisson distribution, 592, 594, 596
Logarithmic form, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 Polar form, 180, 181
Polygonal laws, 77
M position vector, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 124, 126,
127, 128, 129, 130
magnitude, 73, 74, 75, 80, 81, 82, 83, 102, 103, powered angles, 188, 189, 192
107, 109, 128, 129, 130, 175 Probability, 523, 556, 561, 562, 589, 597, 611,
mean, 483, 484, 487, 493, 495, 496, 497, 501, 628
504, 505, 507, 508, 509, 511, 521, 522, 526,
568, 569, 576, 579, 594, 596, 597, 598, 600,
Q
602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 609, 610, 612,
613, 618, 625, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, Quartile, 512, 513, 514
657
measured value, 132 R
median, 488, 491, 521, 522, 597, 704
midpoint, 85, 475, 477 Random Experiment, 523
mode, 487, 491, 521, 597, 704 Ratio Theorem, 86
Modulus, 81, 175 Real part, 171
multiple angles, 188, 189, 192 Rectangular Hyperbola, 449
mutually perpendicular, 100 relative error, 133, 134
resultant vector, 77, 78

708
roots, 23, 71, 136, 140, 142, 144, 146, 151, 166, Triangular law, 77
169, 201, 206, 212, 235, 236, 283, 286, 289, TRIPLE PRODUCT, 118
520, 654, 662
U
S
Ungrouped data, 480, 486, 512
Sample space, 523, 524 Unit vector, 83
scalar, 80, 93, 94, 102, 103, 104, 119, 128, 655,
664 V
scalar product, 93, 102, 103, 128, 655, 664
Scalar projection, 104 variance, 495, 496, 497, 499, 500, 510, 569,
Secant method, 134, 147, 150, 168 573, 576, 585, 593, 597, 598, 612, 618, 657
sech, 3, 55 vector projection, 105
sine rule, 113, 127 vectors, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 83, 87,
sinh, 2, 20, 43 89, 93, 94, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103,
standard deviation, 497, 501, 502, 504, 507, 109, 110, 112, 116, 118, 119, 126, 128, 130,
508, 509, 511, 522, 597, 600, 602, 603, 604, 655, 664, 666
605, 606, 607, 609, 610, 613, 625, 626, 627, Vertex, 347, 349, 352, 353, 356, 357, 359, 360,
628, 629, 630, 631 361, 363, 366, 368, 370, 475, 479
Strips, 627 Vertices, 388, 394, 400, 405, 432, 478
SUPERPOSITION, 304
Systematic errors, 133 W
workdone, 106
T w-plane, 214, 230
Tangent, 347, 376, 408, 409, 413, 440, 441
tanh, 2, 52 Z
Translated equation, 362, 365, 367, 370, 418,
431, 432 z-plane, 230
Transverse axis, 444
Trapezoidal rule, 152, 153, 154, 161, 164, 167,
169, 645

709
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Backhouse, J. K. (1985). Pure Mathematics 1. London: 90 Tottenham Court Road,
London W1P 9HE.

Backhouse, J. K. (1985). Pure Mathematics 2. London: 90 Tottenham Court Road,

London W1P 9HE.

H. K. DASS, D. R. (2005). S. CHAND'S Mathematics Volume I. New Delhi: Nirja

Publishers and Printers.

H. K. DASS, D. R. (2013). S. CHANDS Mathematics Volume II. New Delhi: S.

CHAND School.

TRANTER, C. J. (1975). ADVANCED LEVEL PURE MATHEMATICS. London: 90

Tottenham Court Road, Londom W1T 4LP.

710