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4.2 LIMIT THEOREMS 111

Section 4.2 Limit Theorems

We shall now obtain results that are useful in calculating limits of functions. These results
are parallel to the limit theorems established in Section 3.2 for sequences. In fact, in most
cases these results can be proved by using Theorem 4.1.8 and results from Section 3.2.
Alternatively, the results in this section can be proved by using e-d arguments that are very
similar to the ones employed in Section 3.2.

4.2.1 Definition Let A
R, let f : A ! R, and let c 2 R be a cluster point of A. We say

that f is bounded on a neighborhood of c if there exists a d-neighborhood V d ðcÞ of c and a
constant M > 0 such that we have j f ðxÞj  M for all x 2 A \ V d ðcÞ.

4.2.2 Theorem If A
R and f : A ! R has a limit at c 2 R, then f is bounded on some

neighborhood of c.

Proof. If L :¼ lim f , then for e ¼ 1, there exists d > 0 such that if 0 < jx  cj < d, then
x!c
j f ðxÞ  Lj < 1; hence (by Corollary 2.2.4(a)),
j f ðxÞj  jLj  j f ðxÞ  Lj < 1:
Therefore, if x 2 A \ V d ðcÞ; x 6¼ c, then j f ðxÞj  jLj þ 1. If c 2
= A, we take M ¼ jLj þ 1,
while if c 2 A we take M :¼ supfj f ðcÞj; jLj þ 1g. It follows that if x 2 A \ V d ðcÞ, then
j f ðxÞj  M. This shows that f is bounded on the neighborhood V d ðcÞ of c. Q.E.D.

The next definition is similar to the definition for sums, differences, products, and
quotients of sequences given in Section 3.2.

4.2.3 Definition Let A
R and let f and g be functions defined on A to R. We define the
sum f þ g, the difference f  g, and the product fg on A to R to be the functions given by
ð f þ gÞðxÞ :¼ f ðxÞ þ gðxÞ; ð f  gÞðxÞ :¼ f ðxÞ  gðxÞ;
ð f gÞðxÞ :¼ f ðxÞgðxÞ
for all x 2 A. Further, if b 2 R, we define the multiple bf to be the function given by
ðbf ÞðxÞ :¼ bf ðxÞ for all x 2 A :
Finally, if hðxÞ 6¼ 0 for x 2 A, we define the quotient f=h to be the function given by

f f ðxÞ
ðxÞ :¼ for all x 2 A:
h hðxÞ

4.2.4 Theorem Let A
R, let f and g be functions on A to R, and let c 2 R be a cluster

point of A. Further, let b 2 R.
(a) If lim f ¼ L and lim g ¼ M, then:
x!c x!c
lim ð f þ gÞ ¼ L þ M; lim ð f  gÞ ¼ L  M;
x!c x!c
lim ð f gÞ ¼ LM; lim ðbf Þ ¼ bL:
x!c x!c

(b) If h : A ! R, if hðxÞ 6¼ 0 for all x 2 A, and if lim h ¼ H 6¼ 0, then

x!c

f L
lim ¼ :
x!c h H
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112 CHAPTER 4 LIMITS

Proof. One proof of this theorem is exactly similar to that of Theorem 3.2.3. Alterna-
tively, it can be proved by making use of Theorems 3.2.3 and 4.1.8. For example, let (xn) be
any sequence in A such that xn 6¼ c for n 2 N, and c ¼ limðxn Þ. It follows from Theorem
4.1.8 that
limð f ðxn ÞÞ ¼ L; limðgðxn ÞÞ ¼ M:
On the other hand, Definition 4.2.3 implies that
ð f gÞðxn Þ ¼ f ðxn Þgðxn Þ for n 2 N:
Therefore an application of Theorem 3.2.3 yields
limðð f gÞðxn ÞÞ ¼ limð f ðxn Þgðxn ÞÞ
¼ ½limð f ðxn ÞÞ ½limðgðxn ÞÞ ¼ LM:
Consequently, it follows from Theorem 4.1.8 that
lim ð f gÞ ¼ limðð f gÞðxn ÞÞ ¼ LM:
x!c

The other parts of this theorem are proved in a similar manner. We leave the details to
the reader. Q.E.D.

Remark Let A
R, and let f 1 ; f 2 ; . . . ; f n be functions on A to R, and let c be a cluster

point of A. If Lk :¼ lim f k for k ¼ 1; . . . ; n; then it follows from Theorem 4.2.4 by an
x!c
Induction argument that
L1 þ L2 þ    þ Ln ¼ lim ð f 1 þ f 2 þ    þ f n Þ;
x!c

and
L1  L2    Ln ¼ limð f 1  f 2    f n Þ:
In particular, we deduce that if L ¼ lim f and n 2 N, then
x!c

Ln ¼ lim ð f ðxÞÞn :
x!c

4.2.5 Examples (a) Some of the limits that were established in Section 4.1 can be
proved by using Theorem 4.2.4. For example, it follows from this result that since
lim x ¼ c, then lim x2 ¼ c2 , and that if c > 0, then
x!c x!c
1 1 1
lim ¼ ¼ :
x!c x lim x c
x!c
  
(b) lim x2 þ 1 x3  4 ¼ 20.
x!2
It follows from Theorem 4.2.4 that
 
      
lim x þ 1 x  4 ¼
2 3
lim x þ 1 2
lim x  4 3
x!2 x!2 x!2

¼ 5  4 ¼ 20:

x3  4 4
(c) lim ¼ .
x!2 x2 þ 1 5
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4.2 LIMIT THEOREMS 113

If we apply Theorem 4.2.4(b), we have

 
lim x3  4
x3  4 x!2 4
lim 2 ¼  2 ¼ :
x!2 x þ 1 lim x þ 1 5
x!2
 2 
Note that since the limit in the denominator [i.e., lim x þ 1 ¼ 5] is not equal to 0, then
x!2
Theorem 4.2.4(b) is applicable.
x2  4 4
(d) lim ¼ ¼ .
x!2 3x  6 3
If we let f ðxÞ :¼ x2  4 and hðxÞ :¼ 3x  6 for x 2 R, then we cannot use Theorem
4.2.4(b) to evaluate lim ð f ðxÞ=hðxÞÞ because
x!2
H ¼ lim hðxÞ ¼ lim ð3x  6Þ ¼ 3  2  6 ¼ 0:
x!2 x!2

However, if x 6¼ 2, then it follows that

x 2  4 ð x þ 2Þ ð x  2Þ 1
¼ ¼ ðx þ 2Þ:
3x  6 3ð x  2Þ 3
Therefore we have

x2  4 1 1 4
lim ¼ lim ðx þ 2Þ ¼ lim x þ 2 ¼ :
x!2 3x  6 x!2 3 3 x!2 3
Note that the function gðxÞ ¼ ðx2  4Þ=ð3x  6Þ has a limit at x ¼ 2 even though it is not
defined there.
1
(e) lim does not exist in R.
x!0 x
Of course lim 1 ¼ 1 and H :¼ lim x ¼ 0. However, since H ¼ 0, we cannot use
x!0 x!0
Theorem 4.2.4(b) to evaluate lim ð1=xÞ. In fact, as was seen in Example 4.1.10(a), the
x!0
function wðxÞ ¼ 1=x does not have a limit at x ¼ 0. This conclusion also follows from
Theorem 4.2.2 since the function wðxÞ ¼ 1=x is not bounded on a neighborhood of x ¼ 0.
(f) If p is a polynomial function, then lim pðxÞ ¼ pðcÞ.
x!c
Let p be a polynomial function on R so that pðxÞ ¼ an xn þ an1 xn1 þ    þ a1 x þ
a0 for all x 2 R. It follows from Theorem 4.2.4 and the fact that lim xk ¼ ck that

 x!c
lim pðxÞ ¼ lim an xn þ an1 xn1 þ    þ a1 x þ a0
x!c x!c
 
¼ lim ðan xn Þ þ lim an1 xn1 þ    þ lim ða1 xÞ þ lim a0
x!c x!c x!c x!c

¼ an cn þ an1 cn1 þ    þ a1 c þ a0
¼ pðcÞ:
Hence lim pðxÞ ¼ pðcÞ for any polynomial function p.
x!c
(g) If p and q are polynomial functions on R and if qðcÞ 6¼ 0, then
pðxÞ pðcÞ
lim ¼ :
x!c qðxÞ qð c Þ
Since q(x) is a polynomial function, it follows from a theorem in algebra that there  are
 at most
a finite number of real numbers a1 ; . . . ; am [the real zeroes of q(x)] such that q aj ¼ 0 and
such that if x 2= fa1 ; . . . ; am g, then qðxÞ 6¼ 0. Hence, if x 2
= fa1 ; . . . ; am g, we can define
pðxÞ
rðxÞ :¼ :
qðxÞ
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114 CHAPTER 4 LIMITS

If c is not a zero of q(x), then qðcÞ 6¼ 0, and it follows from part (f) that lim qðxÞ ¼ qðcÞ 6¼ 0.
x!c
Therefore we can apply Theorem 4.2.4(b) to conclude that
lim pðxÞ pðcÞ
pðxÞ x!c
lim ¼ ¼ : &
x!c qðxÞ lim qðxÞ qðcÞ
x!c

The next result is a direct analogue of Theorem 3.2.6.

4.2.6 Theorem Let A
R, let f : A ! R, and let c 2 R be a cluster point of A. If

a  f ðxÞ  b f or all x 2 A; x 6¼ c;
and if lim f exists, then a  lim f  b.
x!c x!c

Proof. Indeed, if L ¼ lim f , then it follows from Theorem 4.1.8 that if (xn) is any
x!c
sequence of real numbers such that c 6¼ xn 2 A for all n 2 N and if the sequence (xn)
converges to c, then the sequence ð f ðxn ÞÞ converges to L. Since a  f ðxn Þ  b for all
n 2 N, it follows from Theorem 3.2.6 that a  L  b. Q.E.D.

We now state an analogue of the Squeeze Theorem 3.2.7. We leave its proof to the reader.

4.2.7 Squeeze Theorem Let A
R, let f, g, h: A ! R, and let c 2 R be a cluster point

of A. If
f ðxÞ  gðxÞ  hðxÞ f or all x 2 A; x 6¼ c;

and if lim f ¼ L ¼ lim h, then lim g ¼ L.

x!c x!c x!c

4.2.8 Examples (a) lim x3=2 ¼ 0 ðx > 0Þ.

x!0

Let f ðxÞ :¼ x for x > 0. Since the inequality x < x1=2  1 holds for 0 < x  1
3=2

(why?), it follows that x2  f ðxÞ ¼ x3=2  x for 0 < x  1. Since

lim x2 ¼ 0 and lim x ¼ 0;

x!0 x!0

it follows from the Squeeze Theorem 4.2.7 that lim x3=2 ¼ 0.

x!0
(b) lim sin x ¼ 0.
x!0
It will be proved later (see Theorem 8.4.8), that
x  sin x  x for all x  0:
Since lim ðxÞ ¼ 0, it follows from the Squeeze Theorem that lim sin x ¼ 0.
x!0 x!0
(c) lim cos x ¼ 1.
x!0
It will be proved later (see Theorem 8.4.8) that
ð1Þ 1  12 x2  cos x  1 for all
x 2 R:
 
Since lim 1  12 x2 ¼ 1, it follows from the Squeeze Theorem that lim cos x ¼ 1.
x!0 x!0

cos x  1
(d) lim ¼ 0.
x!0 x
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4.2 LIMIT THEOREMS 115

We cannot use Theorem 4.2.4(b) to evaluate this limit. (Why not?) However, it follows
from the inequality (1) in part (c) that
 12 x  ðcos x  1Þ=x  0 for x>0
and that
0  ðcos x  1Þ=x   12 x for x < 0:
Now let f ðxÞ :¼ x=2 for x  0 and f ðxÞ :¼ 0 for x < 0, and let hðxÞ :¼ 0 for x  0 and
hðxÞ :¼ x=2 for x < 0. Then we have
f ðxÞ  ðcos x  1Þ=x  hðxÞ for x 6¼ 0:
Since it is readily seen that lim f ¼ 0 ¼ lim h, it follows from the Squeeze Theorem that
x!0 x!0
lim ðcos x  1Þ=x ¼ 0.
x!0 
sin x
(e) lim ¼ 1.
x!0 x
Again we cannot use Theorem 4.2.4(b) to evaluate this limit. However, it will be
proved later (see Theorem 8.4.8) that
x  16 x3  sin x  x for x  0
and that
x  sin x  x  16 x3 for x  0:
Therefore it follows (why?) that
1  16 x2  ðsin xÞ=x  1 for all x 6¼ 0:
 
But since lim 1  16 x2 ¼ 1  16  lim x2 ¼ 1, we infer from the Squeeze Theorem that
x!0 x!0
lim ðsin xÞ=x ¼ 1.
x!0

(f) lim ðx sinð1=xÞÞ ¼ 0.

x!0
Let f ðxÞ ¼ x sinð1=xÞ for x ¼
6 0. Since 1  sin z  1 for all z 2 R, we have the
inequality
jxj  f ðxÞ ¼ x sinð1=xÞ  jxj
for all x 2 R, x 6¼ 0. Since lim jxj ¼ 0, it follows from the Squeeze Theorem that lim f ¼ 0.
x!0 x!0
For a graph, see Figure 5.1.3 or the cover of this book. &

There are results that are parallel to Theorems 3.2.9 and 3.2.10; however, we will leave
them as exercises. We conclude this section with a result that is, in some sense, a partial
converse to Theorem 4.2.6.

4.2.9 Theorem Let A
R, let f : A ! R and let c 2 R be a cluster point of A. If

h i
lim f > 0 respectively; lim f < 0 ;
x!c x!c

then there exists a neighborhood Vd(c) of c such that f (x) > 0 [respectively, f (x) < 0] for
all x 2 A \ V d ðcÞ, x 6¼ c.
Proof. Let L :¼ lim f and suppose that L > 0. We take e ¼ 12 L > 0 in Definition 4.1.4, and
x!c
obtain a number d > 0 such that if 0 < jx  cj < d and x 2 A, then j f ðxÞ  Lj < 12 L.
Therefore (why?) it follows that if x 2 A \ V d ðcÞ, x 6¼ c, then f ðxÞ > 12 L > 0.
If L < 0, a similar argument applies. Q.E.D.