Lesson 10

Evapotranspiration

Evaporation and Transpiration

Evapotranspiration is one of the major components of the hydrologic cycle and affects crop water demand.
Therefore, its quantification is necessary for proper irrigation planning. The term evapotranspiration refers to
combination of two processes, namely, evaporation and transpiration (Fig. 10.1). Evaporation is a process by
which water is lost in the form of vapour from natural surfaces, such as free water surface, bare soil, from live
or dead vegetation. Transpiration is a process by which water is lost in the form of vapour through plant leaves.
Therefore evapotranspiration is a combined loss of water from the soil (evaporation) and plant (transpiration)
surfaces to the atmosphere through vaporization of liquid water, and is expressed in depth per unit time (for
example mm/day).

Consumptive use (CU) – CU is used to designate the losses due to ET and water that is used for its metabolic
activities of plants thus CU exceed ET by the amount of water used for digestion, photosynthesis, transport of
minerals and photosynthates, structural support and growth. Since this difference is usually less than 1%, ET
and CU are normally assumed to be equal. But both (CU &ET) terms are used simultaneously.

Figure 10.1. Evapotranspiration process

ET can be either directly measured for a given crop, soil and climatic conditions or computed using the
reference crop ET, which is generally estimated by various methods depending upon availability of data for a
particular case.

Concept of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration

Reference Crop ET – is the potential ET for a specific crop (usually either grass or alfalfa) and set of
surrounding (advective) conditions. According to Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977)”ET from an extensive surface of
8 10 15 cm tall, green grass covers of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and not
short of water”. Allen et al. (1998) modified the above definition to represent hypothetical grass surface.
Reference crop evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of green grass of uniform height (0.12m), actively
growing, completely shading the ground with an albedo of 0.23 and having ample water supply is called
reference crop evapotranspiration and is denoted by ETo (Fig. 10.2)

Figure 10.2. Estimation of reference crop evapotranspiration

ET Estimation Methods

4 Major Categories

1. Combination (Penman, Penman-Monteith method FAO 56 Penman Monteith)

2. Radiation method (Turc, Preistly Taylor, Jensen-Haise, and FAO 24 radiation)
3. Temperature based (Blaney-Criddle method, Thornwaite, Hargreaves)
4. Pan evaporation method (Pan evaporation, FAO 24 Pan)

Table 10.1. Duration, Accuracy and climatic data requirement in calculating the four methods
Method Duration
Penman-Monteith daily, monthly, seasonal
Radiation period of 5 days or more
Blaney-Criddle period of 5 days or more
period of 10 days or
longer
if little previous history is can be accurate if
Pan evaporation
available for a pan,
caution
should be exercised even properly
for computing ETo for
longer periods
SOURCE: National Engineering Handbook, 1993
Accuracy/Reliability Data
maximum temperature
minimum temperature
wind speed at 2m
dewpoint temperature
reliable for any length maximum relative
period humidity
minimum relative
humidity
actual duration of
sunshine
maximum temperature
less precise than Penman-
minimum temperature
Monteith
solar radiation
less precise than Penman- maximum temperature
Monteith minimum temperature
less reliable for short-
term
estimates than other
methods
Pan evaporation
evaporation pans
are well maintained and
located

Calculation

1. Penman-Monteith Method
( ) ( )
( )

Where;

Slope of vapour pressure ( ) shall be determined using Tmean and Table 10.2.

Table 10.2. Slope of vapour pressure curve for different temperatures

T ∆ T ∆ T ∆ T ∆
°C kPa/°C °C kPa/°C °C kPa/°C °C kPa/°C
1.0 0.047 13.0 0.098 25.0 0.189 37.0 0.342
1.5 0.049 13.5 0.101 25.5 0.194 37.5 0.35
2.0 0.05 14.0 0.104 26.0 0.199 38.0 0.358
2.5 0.052 14.5 0.107 26.5 0.204 38.5 0.367
3.0 0.054 15.0 0.11 27.0 0.209 39.0 0.375
3.5 0.055 15.5 0.113 27.5 0.215 39.5 0.384
4.0 0.057 16.0 0.116 28.0 0.22 40.0 0.393
 4.5 0.059 16.5 0.119 28.5 0.226 40.5 0.402
5.0 0.061 17.0 0.123 29.0 0.231 41.0 0.412
5.5 0.063 17.5 0.126 29.5 0.237 41.5 0.421
6.0 0.065 18.0 0.13 30.0 0.243 42.0 0.431
6.5 0.067 18.5 0.133 30.5 0.249 42.5 0.441
7.0 0.069 19.0 0.137 31.0 0.256 43.0 0.451
7.5 0.071 19.5 0.141 31.5 0.262 43.5 0.461
8.0 0.073 20.0 0.145 32.0 0.269 44.0 0.471
8.5 0.075 20.5 0.149 32.5 0.275 44.5 0.482
9.0 0.078 21.0 0.153 33.0 0.282 45.0 0.493
9.5 0.08 21.5 0.157 33.5 0.289 45.5 0.504
10.0 0.082 22.0 0.161 34.0 0.296 46.0 0.515
10.5 0.085 22.5 0.165 34.5 0.303 46.5 0.526
11.0 0.087 23.0 0.17 35.0 0.311 47.0 0.538
11.5 0.09 23.5 0.174 35.5 0.318 47.5 0.55
12.0 0.092 24.0 0.179 36.0 0.326 48.0 0.562
12.5 0.095 24.5 0.184 36.5 0.334 48.5 0.574

Psychrometric constant ( ) shall be determined using Tmean and Table 10.3.

Table 10.3. Psychrometric constant for different altitudes

Z ϒ z ϒ z ϒ z ϒ
(m) kPa/°C (m) kPa/°C (m) kPa/°C (m) kPa/°C
0 0.067 1000 0.06 2000 0.053 3000 0.047
100 0.067 1100 0.059 2100 0.052 3100 0.046
200 0.066 1200 0.058 2200 0.052 3200 0.046
300 0.065 1300 0.058 2300 0.051 3300 0.045
400 0.064 1400 0.057 2400 0.051 3400 0.045
500 0.064 1500 0.056 2500 0.05 3500 0.044
600 0.063 1600 0.056 2600 0.049 3600 0.043
700 0.062 1700 0.055 2700 0.049 3700 0.043
800 0.061 1800 0.054 2800 0.048 3800 0.042
900 0.061 1900 0.054 2900 0.047 3900 0.042
1000 0.06 2000 0.053 3000 0.047 4000 0.041
SOURCE: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, 1998

Vapor pressure deficit ( ) shall be determined as the difference between the saturation vapour
pressure ( ) and the actual vapour pressure ( ).

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) shall be determined using Tmax and Tmin based on Table 10.4.

Table 10.4. Saturation vapour pressure for different temperatures

T es T e° (T) T e° (T) T es
°C kPa °C kPa °C kPa °C kPa
1 0.657 13 1.498 25 3.168 37 6.275
1.5 0.681 13.5 1.547 25.5 3.263 37.5 6.448
2 0.706 14 1.599 26 3.361 38 6.625
2.5 0.731 14.5 1.651 26.5 3.462 38.5 6.806
3 0.758 15 1.705 27 3.565 39 6.991
3.5 0.785 15.5 1.761 27.5 3.671 39.5 7.181
4 0.813 16 1.818 28 3.78 40 7.376
4.5 0.842 16.5 1.877 28.5 3.891 40.5 7.574
5 0.872 17 1.938 29 4.006 41 7.778
5.5 0.903 17.5 2 29.5 4.123 41.5 7.986
6 0.935 18 2.064 30 4.243 42 8.199
6.5 0.968 18.5 2.13 30.5 4.366 42.5 8.417
7 1.002 19 2.197 31 4.493 43 8.64
7.5 1.037 19.5 2.267 31.5 4.622 43.5 8.867
8 1.073 20 2.338 32 4.755 44 9.101
8.5 1.11 20.5 2.412 32.5 4.891 44.5 9.339
9 1.148 21 2.487 33 5.03 45 9.582
 9.5 1.187 21.5 2.564 33.5 5.173 45.5 9.832
10 1.228 22 2.644 34 5.319 46 10.086
10.5 1.27 22.5 2.726 34.5 5.469 46.5 10.347
11 1.313 23 2.809 35 5.623 47 10.613
11.5 1.357 23.5 2.896 35.5 5.78 47.5 10.885
12 1.403 24 2.984 36 5.941 48 11.163
12.5 1.449 24.5 3.075 36.5 6.106 48.5 11.447
SOURCE: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, 1998

The actual vapor pressure (ea) shall be determined. Four different formulae can be used depending on
the availability of data: using dewpoint temperature (Tdew), using maximum (RHmax) and minimum
(RHmin) relative humidity, using maximum relative humidity or using mean relative humidity.

a) Using Tdew, use Table 10.4 for eo(Tdew) which is the equivalent of (ea).

b) Using RHmax and RHmin,

* ( ) + * ( ) +

c) Using RHmax (recommended if there are errors in RHmin),

( )
d) Using RHmean (less recommended due to non-linearities),

Net radiation (Rn) shall be computed from the latitude, day, month, actual duration of sunshine (n), maximum
(Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) air temperature and actual vapor pressure (ea).

Rn = Rns - Rnl

Ra = extraterrestrial radiation, use data on latitude and table 10.5.

N = mean daylight hours, use data on latitude and table 10. 6

Rs = (0.25 + 0.50 n/N) Ra

Rso = clear-sky radiation

( )

Rns = 0.77Rs

( )
( √ )( )

The terms shall be determined using Tmax, Tmin and table 10.7.

Table 10.5. Daily extra-terrestrial radiation (MJ/m2/day) for different latitudes for the 15th day of the month
Northern Hemisphere Lat.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec deg.
0 2.6 10.4 23 35.2 42.5 39.4 28 14.9 4.9 0.1 0 70
0.1 3.7 11.7 23.9 35.3 42 38.9 28.6 16.1 6 0.7 0 68
0.6 4.8 12.9 24.8 35.6 41.4 38.8 29.3 17.3 7.2 1.5 0.1 66
1.4 5.9 14.1 25.8 35.9 41.2 38.8 30 18.4 8.5 2.4 0.6 64
2.3 7.1 15.4 26.6 36.3 41.2 39 30.6 19.5 9.7 3.4 1.3 62
3.3 8.3 16.6 27.5 36.6 41.2 39.2 31.3 20.6 10.9 4.4 2.2 60
4.3 9.6 14.7 28.4 37 41.3 39.4 32 21.7 12.1 5.5 3.1 58
5.4 10.8 18.9 29.2 37.4 41.4 39.6 32.6 22.7 13.3 6.7 4.2 56
6.5 12 20 30 37.8 41.5 39.8 33.2 23.7 14.5 7.8 5.2 54
7.7 13.2 21.1 30.8 38.2 41.6 40.1 33.8 24.7 15.7 9 6.4 52
 8.9 14.4 22.2 31.5 38.5 41.7 40.2 34.4 25.7 16.9 10.2 7.5 50
10.1 15.7 23.3 32.2 38.8 41.8 40.4 34.9 26.6 18.1 11.4 8.7 48
11.3 16.9 24.3 32.9 39.1 41.9 40.6 35.5 27.5 19.2 12.6 9.9 46
12.5 18 25.3 33.5 39.3 41.9 40.7 35.9 28.4 20.3 13.9 11.1 44
13.8 19.2 26.3 34.1 39.5 41.9 40.8 36.3 29.2 21.4 15.1 12.4 42
15 20.4 27.2 34.7 39.7 41.9 40.8 36.7 30 22.5 16.3 13.6 40
16.2 21.5 28.1 35.2 39.9 41.8 40.8 37 30.7 23.6 17.5 14.8 38
17.5 22.6 29 35.7 40 41.7 40.8 37.4 31.5 24.6 18.7 16.1 36
18.7 23.7 29.9 36.1 40 41.6 40.8 37.6 32.1 25.6 19.9 17.3 34
19.9 24.8 30.7 36.5 40 41.4 40.7 37.9 32.8 26.6 21.1 18.5 32
21.1 25.8 31.4 36.8 40 41.2 40.6 38 33.4 27.6 22.2 19.8 30
22.3 26.8 32.2 37.1 40 40.9 40.4 38.2 33.9 28.5 23.3 21 28
23.4 27.8 32.8 37.4 39.9 40.6 40.2 38.3 34.5 29.3 24.5 22.2 26
24.6 28.8 33.5 37.6 39.7 40.3 39.9 38.3 34.9 30.2 25.5 23.3 24
25.7 29.7 34.1 37.8 39.5 40 39.6 38.4 35.4 31 26.6 24.5 22
26.8 30.6 34.7 37.9 39.3 39.5 39.3 38.3 35.8 31.8 27.7 25.6 20
27.9 31.5 35.2 38 39 39.1 38.9 38.2 36.1 32.5 28.7 26.8 18
28.9 32.3 35.7 38.1 38.7 38.6 38.5 38.1 36.4 33.2 29.6 27.9 16
29.9 33.1 36.1 38.1 38.4 38.1 38.1 38 36.7 33.9 30.6 28.9 14
30.9 33.8 36.5 38 38 37.6 37.6 37.8 36.9 34.5 31.5 30 12
31.9 34.5 36.9 37.9 37.6 37 37.1 37.5 37.1 35.1 32.4 31 10
32.8 35.2 37.2 37.8 37.1 36.3 36.5 37.2 37.2 35.6 33.3 32 8
33.7 35.8 37.4 37.6 36.6 35.7 35.9 36.9 37.3 36.1 34.1 32.9 6
34.6 36.4 37.6 37.4 36 35 35.3 36.5 37.3 36.6 34.9 33.9 4
35.4 37 37.8 37.1 35.4 34.2 34.6 36.1 37.3 37 35.6 34.8 2
36.2 37.5 37.9 36.8 34.8 33.4 33.9 35.7 37.2 37.4 36.3 35.6 0
SOURCE: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, 1998

Table 10.6. Mean daylight hours for different latitudes for the 15th day of the month
Northern Hemisphere Lat.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec deg.
0 6.6 11 15.6 21.3 24 24 17.6 12.8 8.3 2.3 0 70
2.1 7.3 11.1 15.3 19.7 24 22.3 17 12.7 8.7 4.1 0 68
3.9 7.8 11.2 14.9 18.7 22 20.3 16.4 12.7 9 5.2 1.9 66
5 8.2 11.2 14.7 17.9 20.3 19.2 16 12.6 9.3 6 3.7 64
5.7 8.5 11.3 14.4 17.3 19.2 18.4 15.7 12.6 9.5 6.6 4.8 62
6.4 8.8 11.4 14.2 16.8 18.4 17.7 15.3 12.5 9.7 7.1 5.6 60
6.9 9.1 11.4 14.1 16.4 17.8 17.2 15.1 12.5 9.9 7.5 6.2 58
7.3 9.3 11.5 13.9 16 17.3 16.8 14.8 12.4 10.1 7.9 6.7 56
7.7 9.5 11.5 13.8 15.7 16.8 16.4 14.6 12.4 10.2 8.2 7.1 54
8 9.7 11.5 13.6 15.4 16.5 16 14.4 12.4 10.3 8.5 7.5 52
8.3 9.8 11.6 13.6 15.2 16.1 15.7 14.3 12.3 10.4 8.7 7.9 50
8.6 10 11.6 13.4 15 15.8 15.5 14.1 12.3 10.6 9 8.2 48
8.8 10.1 11.6 13.3 14.8 15.5 15.2 14 12.3 10.7 9.2 8.5 46
9.1 10.3 11.6 13.2 14.6 15.3 15 13.8 12.3 10.7 9.4 8.7 44
9.3 10.4 11.7 13.2 14.4 15 14.8 13.7 12.3 10.8 9.6 9 42
9.5 10.5 11.7 13.1 14.2 14.8 14.6 13.6 12.2 10.9 9.7 9.2 40
9.6 10.6 11.7 13 14.1 14.6 14.4 13.5 12.2 11 9.9 9.4 38
9.8 10.7 11.7 12.9 13.9 14.4 14.2 13.4 12.2 11.1 10.1 9.6 36
10 10.8 11.8 12.9 13.8 14.3 14.1 13.3 12.2 11.1 10.2 9.7 34
10.1 10.9 11.8 12.8 13.6 14.1 13.9 13.2 12.2 11.2 10.3 9.9 32
10.3 11 11.8 12.7 13.5 13.9 13.8 13.1 12.2 11.3 10.5 10.1 30
10.4 11 11.8 12.7 13.4 13.8 13.6 13 12.2 11.3 10.6 10.2 28
10.5 11.1 11.8 12.6 13.3 13.6 13.5 12.9 12.1 11.4 10.7 10.4 26
10.7 11.2 11.8 12.6 13.2 13.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 11.4 10.8 10.5 24
10.8 11.3 11.9 12.5 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.1 11.5 10.9 10.7 22
10.9 11.3 11.9 12.5 12.9 13.2 13.1 12.7 12.1 11.5 11 10.8 20
11 11.4 11.9 12.4 12.8 13.1 13 12.6 12.1 11.6 11.1 10.9 18
11.1 11.5 11.9 12.4 12.7 12.9 12.9 12.5 12.1 11.6 11.2 11.1 16
11.3 11.6 11.9 12.3 12.6 12.8 12.8 12.5 12.1 11.7 11.3 11.2 14
11.4 11.6 11.9 12.3 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.1 11.7 11.4 11.3 12
11.5 11.7 11.9 12.2 12.5 12.6 12.5 12.3 12.1 11.8 11.5 11.4 10
11.6 11.7 11.9 12.2 12.4 12.5 12.4 12.3 12 11.8 11.6 11.5 8
11.7 11.8 12 12.1 12.3 12.3 12.3 12.2 12 11.9 11.7 11.7 6
11.8 11.9 12 12.1 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.1 12 11.9 11.8 11.8 4
 11.9 11.9 12 12 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12 12 11.9 11.9 2
12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 0
SOURCE: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, 1998

Table 10.7. (Stefan-Bolzman law) at different temperatures

T σTκ⁴ T σTκ⁴ T σTκ⁴
(MJ (MJ (MJ
(°C) (°C) (°C)
¹) ¹) ¹)
1 27.7 17 34.75 33 43.08
1.5 27.9 17.5 34.99 33.5 43.36
2 28.11 18 35.24 34 43.64
2.5 28.31 18.5 35.48 34.5 43.93
3 28.52 19 35.72 35 44.21
3.5 28.72 19.5 35.97 35.5 44.5
4 28.93 20 36.21 36 44.79
4.5 29.14 20.5 36.46 36.5 45.08
5 29.35 21 36.71 37 45.37
5.5 29.56 21.5 36.96 37.5 45.67
6 29.78 22 37.21 38 45.96
6.5 29.99 22.5 37.47 38.5 46.26
7 30.21 23 37.72 39 46.56
7.5 30.42 23.5 37.98 39.5 46.85
8 30.64 24 38.23 40 47.15
8.5 30.86 24.5 38.49 40.5 47.46
9 31.08 25 38.75 41 47.76
9.5 31.3 25.5 39.01 41.5 48.06
10 31.52 26 39.27 42 48.37
10.5 31.74 26.5 39.53 42.5 48.68
11 31.97 27 39.8 43 48.99
11.5 32.19 27.5 40.06 43.5 49.3
12 32.42 28 40.33 44 49.61
12.5 32.65 28.5 40.6 44.5 49.92
13 32.88 29 40.87 45 50.24
13.5 33.11 29.5 41.14 45.5 50.56
14 33.34 30 41.41 46 50.87
14.5 33.57 30.5 41.69 46.5 51.19
15 33.81 31 41.96 47 51.51
15.5 34.04 31.5 42.24 47.5 51.84
16 34.28 32 42.52 48 52.16
16.5 34.52 32.5 42.8 48.5 52.49
SOURCE: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, 1998

The soil heat flux (G), shall be determined by;

If the period considered is for a day or ten-day period, Gday ≈ 0.

If the period considered is for a month period,

( )

If is unknown,

( )

If the period considered is for hourly or shorter period,

during daylight: Ghr = 0.1 Rn
during night time: Ghr = 0.5 Rn

The soil heat flux shall be subtracted from net radiation and shall be converted to mm/day.

( )
2. Radiation Method

Calculation using the basic radiation formula

Item Symbol Unit
Initial data required
Daily values of maximum temperature
Tmax °C
for the month considered
Daily values of minimum temperature
Tmin °C
for the month considered
Altitude z m
Latitude 0

Actual duration of sunshine n h

Solar radiation Rs mm/day
Parameters used in calculations
Extraterrestrial radiation Ra mm/day
Mean daylight hours N h
Mean daily temperature Tdaily mean °C
Weighting factor W -
Reference evapotranspiration ETo mm/day

If measured Rs is not available, the formula below shall be used

( )
For values of n/N, measured sunshine duration (n) records shall be used and Table 10.6 for values of mean
daylight hours (N) for different months and latitudes.

For values of Ra for different months and latitudes, Table 10.8 shall be used.

Table 10.8. Extra-terrestrial radiation expressed in equivalent evaporation (mm/day) for different latitudes
Northern Hemisphere Lat.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec deg.
3.8 6.1 9.4 12.7 15.8 17.1 16.4 14.1 10.9 7.4 4.5 3.2 50
4.3 6.6 9.8 13.0 15.9 17.2 16.5 14.3 11.2 7.8 5.0 3.7 48
4.9 7.1 10.2 13.3 16 17.2 16.6 14.5 11.5 8.3 5.5 4.3 46
5.3 7.6 10.6 13.7 16.1 17.2 16.6 14.7 11.9 8.7 6.0 4.7 44
5.9 8.1 11.0 14.0 16.2 17.3 16.7 15.0 12.2 9.1 6.5 5.2 42
6.4 8.6 11.4 14.3 16.4 17.3 16.7 15.2 12.5 9.6 7.0 5.7 40
6.9 9.0 11.8 14.5 16.4 17.2 16.7 15.3 12.8 10.0 7.5 3.1 38
7.4 9.4 12.1 14.7 16.4 17.2 16.7 15.4 13.1 10.6 8.0 6.6 36
7.9 9.8 12.4 14.8 16.5 17.1 16.8 15.5 13.4 10.8 8.5 7.2 34
8.3 10.2 12.8 15.0 16.5 17.0 16.8 15.6 13.6 11.2 9.0 7.8 32
8.8 10.7 13.1 15.2 16.5 17.0 16.8 15.7 13.9 11.6 9.5 8.3 30
9.3 11.1 13.4 15.3 16.5 16.8 16.7 15.7 14.1 12.0 9.9 8.8 28
9.8 11.5 13.7 15.3 16.4 16.7 16.6 15.7 14.3 12.3 10.3 9.3 26
10.2 11.9 13.9 15.4 16.4 16.6 16.5 15.8 14.5 12.6 10.7 9.7 24
10.7 12.3 14.2 15.5 16.3 16.4 16.4 15.8 14.6 13.0 11.1 10.2 22
11.2 12.7 14.4 15.6 16.3 16.4 16.3 15.9 14.8 13.3 11.6 10.7 20
11.6 13.0 14.6 15.6 16.1 16.1 16.1 15.8 14.9 13.6 12.0 11.1 18
12.0 13.3 14.7 15.6 16.0 15.9 15.9 15.7 15.0 13.9 12.4 11.6 16
12.4 13.6 14.9 15.7 15.8 15.7 15.7 15.7 15.1 14.1 12.8 12.0 14
12.8 13.9 15.1 15.7 15.7 15.5 15.5 15.6 15.2 14.4 13.3 12.5 12
13.2 14.2 15.3 15.7 15.5 15.3 15.3 15.5 15.3 14.7 13.6 12.9 10
13.6 14.5 15.3 15.6 15.3 15.0 15.1 15.4 15.3 14.8 13.9 13.3 8
13.9 14.8 15.4 15.4 15.1 14.7 14.9 15.2 15.3 15.0 14.2 13.7 6
14.3 15.0 15.5 15.5 14.9 14.4 14.6 15.1 15.3 15.1 14.5 14.1 4
14.7 15.3 15.6 15.3 14.6 14.2 14.3 14.9 15.3 15.3 14.8 14.4 2
15.0 15.5 15.7 15.3 14.4 13.9 14.1 14.8 15.3 15.4 15.1 14.8 0
SOURCE: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24, 1977
 Compute for Tdaily mean

Using Table 10.9, values of Tdaily mean and altitude (z), the weighting factor (W) shall be determined.

ETo shall be determined using the formula below,

Table 10.9. Values of Weighting Factor (W) for the Effect of radiation ET o at different Temperatures and
Altitudes

3. Blaney-Criddle Method

( )

Calculation using the basic Blaney-Criddle Formula

The following data shall be obtained:

- maximum temperature daily values for the month considered

- minimum temperature daily values for the month considered
- latitude

The mean daily temperature (Tmean) shall be computed as follows:

The mean daily percentage of annual daytime hours (p) shall be determined using the latitude of the area
considered and Table 10.10.

Table 10.10. Mean daily percentage (p) of annual daytime hours for different latitudes
North Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Latitude
South July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
60 0.15 0.2 0.26 0.32 0.38 0.41 0.4 0.34 0.28 0.22 0.17 0.13
55 0.17 0.21 0.26 0.32 0.36 0.39 0.38 0.33 0.28 0.23 0.18 0.16
50 0.19 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.34 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.2 0.18
45 0.2 0.23 0.27 0.3 0.34 0.35 0.34 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.2
40 0.22 0.24 0.27 0.3 0.32 0.34 0.33 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.22 0.21
35 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.32 0.32 0.3 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.22
30 0.24 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.32 0.31 0.3 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.23
25 0.24 0.26 0.27 0.29 0.3 0.31 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.24
20 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.3 0.3 0.29 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.25
15 0.26 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25
10 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.26
5 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.27 0.27
0 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27

4. Pan Evaporation Method

The following data shall be obtained:

 pan evaporation data
 type of pan used
 pan environment
 mean relative humidity
 wind speed at 2m (u2)

ETo shall be computed using the formula below,

ETo = Kp x Epan

Where,
ETo = reference evapotranspiration, mm/day
Kp = pan coefficient
Epan = pan evaporation, mm/day

2 types of Evaporation Pan

1. Class A Pan
2. Colorado Sunken Pan
Description of Class A Pan and Colorado Sunken Pan
Items Class A Pan Colorado Sunken Pan
Shape circular square
Diameter, cm 120.7 92 or 100
Depth, cm 25 46 or 50
gauge 22 galvanized iron or 0.8 mm
Material 3mm thick iron
Monel metal
mounted on a wooden pen frame in the ground with the rim
Position
platform 15 cm above ground level 5cm above the soil level
filled to 5 cm below the rim and not at or slightly below ground
Water Level allowed to drop more than 7.5 cm below level i.e, 5-7.5 cm below the
the rim rim
-water is regularly renewed at least -water is regularly renewed
weekly at least weekly
-if galvanized, painted annually with -painted with black tar paint
Maintenance
aluminium paint -no screens over the pan
-no screens over the pan protected by protected by fences to keep
fences to keep animals from drinking animals from drinking
-under grass, 20 m by 20 m,
-under grass, 20 m by 20 m, and open on
and open on all sides
all sides
Site -located in the center or on
-located in the center or on the leeward
the leeward side of large
side of large cropped fields
cropped fields
-situated in the pan near one
-situated in the pan near one edge edge
-metal cylinder about 10 cm in diameter -metal cylinder about 10 cm
Stilling Well
and 20 about cm deep with a small hole in diameter and 20 about cm
in the bottom deep with a small hole in the
bottom
 Figure 10.3. Details of a Class A pan
SOURCE: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, 1998

Figure 10.4. Details of a Colorado Sunken Pan

SOURCE: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, 1998

Figure 10.5. Pan situated on a green cover

Figure 10.6. Pan situated on fallow soil

SOURCE: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, 1998
 5. Others

5.1. Hargreaves Methods

Hargreaves method is a temperature based method and it was derived to overcome non availability of
solar radiation data at many locations. Hargreaves and Samani (1985) recommended estimating solar
radiation from extraterrestrial radiation and proposed the following equation for estimating ETo in
mm/day

√ ( )
Where,
TD = difference between mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures in °C,
RA= extraterrestrial solar radiation in MJ m -2 d-1,
Tmean = mean monthly air temperature in °C.

5.2. Thornthwaite Method

The relationship is expressed as:

( )
Where,
ETo = Monthly potential evapotranspiration (cm) or reference crop ET (i.e., ETo)
T= Mean monthly temperature (°C)
I = A heat index for a given area which is the sum of 12 monthly index values i
i is derived from mean monthly temperatures using the following formula:
( ⁄ )
a = an empirically derived exponent which is a function of I
a = 6.75 x 10-7I3 – 7.71 x 10-5I2 6.75 x 10-7 I3 + 1.79 x 10-2 I + 0.49

Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc)

Estimation of evapotranpiration for a specific crop (ETc) requires first calculating the reference
evapotranspiration (ET0) and then multiplying the crop coefficients (Kc) to estimate actual:

Where,
ETc is the ET of a specific crop, ETo is the grass-reference ET, and Kc is the crop coefficient for a given
crop.

Crop Coefficient Concept

While ETo accounts for variations in weather and is used as an indicator of atmospheric demand for water, Kc
values account for the difference between ETo and ETc and link them. Kc is the crop coefficient for a given crop
and growth stage, and is usually determined experimentally. Each agronomic crop has a set of specific crop
coefficients used to predict water use rates at different growth stages.

There are four main crop growth stages: initial, crop development, mid-season, and late season:

a) Initial period – planting to 10% ground cover

b) Crop development – 10% ground cover to effective cover i.e., flowering
c) Mid-season – Effective cover to start of maturity i.e., senescence of leaves
d) Late season – Start of maturity to harvest.

These crop development stages along with crop coefficient variation for a typical crop are depicted in Fig. 10.7.
 Figure 10.7. Variation of crop coefficient with crop growth stages

Commonly used devices/Instruments for measuring Evapotranspiration

Lysimeter: A lysimeter is a large container buried in the ground that is used to measure water fluxes through
the soil-plant-atmosphere system. It can be used to measure both ET and percolation.

Bowen ratio energy balance system: This instrument measures the energy balance at the surface of the soil or
plant canopy to determine the rate of ET. It works by measuring the temperature and humidity of the air above
the surface and the temperature of the surface itself.

Eddy covariance system: This system measures the flux of water vapor and carbon dioxide between the
surface and the atmosphere using fast response sensors.

Soil water balance method: This method uses measurements of precipitation, soil moisture, and other
environmental factors to estimate ET.

Evaporimeter: This instrument is used to measure the rate of evaporation from a free water surface. It can be
used to estimate ET from nearby vegetation by subtracting the rate of open water evaporation from the total
evaporation measured.

Tensiometer: This instrument is used to measure soil moisture tension and can be used to estimate the rate of
transpiration by plants.