DEL OPERATOR

The del operator, written , is the vector differential operator. In Cartesian coordinates,

' ' '

=5 ax 1 ay 1 az
'x 'y 'z

1. The gradient of a scalar V, written as V

2. The divergence of a vector A, written as = # A
3. The curl of a vector A, written as = 3 A
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as 2V

' ' ' ' 1 ' ' ' 1 ' 1 '

=5 a 1 a 1 a = 5 ar 1 af 1 az = 5 ar 1 au 1 af
'x x 'y y 'z z 'r r 'f 'z 'r r 'u r sin u 'f

GRADIENT OF A SCALAR
The gradient of a scalar field at any point is the maximum rate of change of the field at
that point.

The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and
the direction of the maximum space rate of increase of V.

'V 'V 'V 'V 1 'V 'V 'V 1 'V 1 'V

=V 5 a 1 a 1 a =V 5 ar 1 af 1 a =V 5 ar 1 au 1 a
'x x 'y y 'z z 'r r 'f 'z z 'r r 'u r sin u 'f f

1. The magnitude of V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit distance.
2. V points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V.
3. V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that passes through that
point (see points P and Q in Figure 3.13).
4. The projection (or component) of V in the direction of a unit vector a is =V # a
and is called the directional derivative of V along a

Find the gradient of the following scalar fields:

(a) V 5 e2z sin 2x cosh y
(b) U 5 r2z cos 2f
(c) W 5 10r sin2 u cos f
Solution:
'V 'V 'V
(a) =V 5 ax 1 ay 1 a
'x 'y 'z z
5 2e2z cos 2x cosh y ax 1 e2z sin 2x sinh y ay 2 e2z sin 2x cosh y az
'U 1 'U 'U
(b) =U 5 ar 1 af 1 az
'r r 'f 'z
5 2rz cos 2f ar 2 2rz sin 2f af 1 r2 cos 2f az
'W 1 'W 1 'W
(c) =W 5 ar 1 au 1 a
'r r 'u r sin u 'f f
5 10 sin2 u cos f ar 1 10 sin 2u cos f au 2 10 sin u sin f af
 PRACTICE EXERCISE 3.3

Determine the gradient of the following scalar fields:

(a) U 5 x2y 1 xyz
(b) V 5 rz sin f 1 z2 cos2 f 1 r2
(c) f 5 cos u sin f ln r 1 r2f

Answer: (a) y 1 2x 1 z 2 ax 1 x 1 x 1 z 2 ay 1 xyaz

z2
(b) 1 z sin f 1 2r 2 ar 1 az cos f 2 sin 2fbaf 1
r
1 r sin f 1 2z cos2 f 2 az
cos u sin f sin u sin f
(c) a 1 2rfbar 2 ln r au 1
r r
cot u
a cos f ln r 1 r csc ubaf
r

MCQ 1.1.30 The unit vector normal to the plane 2x + 4y + 6z = 7 is

(A) 1 ^ax + 2ay + 3az h (B) 1 ^4ax + 4ay + 6az h
24 14
(C) 1
^ax + 2ay + 3az h (D) 1
^2ax + 4ay + 6az h
14 58

MCQ 1.2.30 The gradient of a scaler function is dV ^x, y, z h = 1.5x2 yz2 ax + 0.5x3 z2 ay + x3 yzaz
The scalar function is
x3 yz2
(A) x3 yz2 (B)
2
x2 yz3
(C) (D) xy3 z2
2

3.19 If r 5 xax 1 yay 1 zaz is the position vector of point (x, y, z), r = |r|, and n is an integer,
show that =rn 5 nrn22r.
3.20 The temperature in an auditorium is given by T 5 x2 1 y2 2 z. A mosquito located at
1 1, 1, 2 2 in the auditorium desires to fly in such a direction that it will get warm as soon
as possible. In what direction must it fly?
3.21 A family of planes is described by F 5 x 2 2y 1 z. Find a unit normal an to the planes.
3.22 Consider the scalar function T 5 r sin  cos f. Determine the magnitude and direction
of the maximum rate of change of T at P(2, 68, 308).
3.23 Let f 5 x2y 2 2xy2  z3. Find the directional derivative of f at point (2, 4, 23) in the
direction of ax  2ay 2 az.

DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR AND DIVERGENCE THEOREM

The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume
shrinks about P.

FIGURE 3.15 Illustration of the divergence of a vector field at P: (a) positive

divergence, (b) negative divergence, (c) zero divergence.
 'Ax 'Ay 'Az
=#A5 1 1
'x 'y 'z

1 ' 1 'Af 'Az

=#A5 1 rAr 2 1 1
r 'r r 'f 'z

1 ' 2 1 ' 1 'Af

=#A5 2
1 r Ar 2 1 1 Au sin u 2 1
r 'r r sin u 'u r sin u 'f

Gauss Divergence Theorem

The divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field A through
the closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.

C A dS 5 3 = A dv
# #
S v

This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise known as the Gauss–Otrogradsky theorem.

Determine the divergence of these vector fields:

(a) P 5 x2yzax 1 xzaz
(b) Q 5 r sin f ar 1 r2z af 1 z cos f az
1
(c) T 5 2 cos u ar 1 r sin u cos f au 1 cos u af
r

' ' ' 1 ' 1 ' '

(a) = # P 5 P 1 P 1 P (b) = # Q 5 1 rQr 2 1 Qf 1 Q
'x x 'y y 'z z r 'r r 'f 'z z
' 2 ' ' 1 ' 1 ' '
5 1 x yz 2 1 102 1 1 xz 2 5 1 r2 sin f 2 1 1 r2z 2 1 1 z cos f 2
'x 'y 'z r 'r r 'f 'z
5 2xyz 1 x 5 2 sin f 1 cos f

1 ' 2 1 ' 1 '

(c) = # T 5 2
1 r Tr 2 1 1 Tu sin u 2 1 1T 2
r 'r r sin u 'u r sin u 'f f
1 ' 1 ' 1 '
5 2
1 cos u 2 1 1 r sin2 u cos f 2 1 1 cos u 2
r 'r r sin u 'u r sin u 'f
1
501 2r sin u cos u cos f 1 0
r sin u
5 2 cos u cos f
 PRACTICE EXERCISE 3.6

Determine the divergence of the following vector fields and evaluate them at the speci-
fied points.
(a) A 5 yzax 1 4xyay 1 yaz at 1 1, 22, 3 2
(b) B 5 rz sin f ar 1 3rz2 cos f af at 1 5, p/2, 1 2
(c) C 5 2r cos u cos f ar 1 r1/2af at 1 1, p/6, p/3 2

Answer: (a) 4x, 4, (b) 1 2 2 3z 2 z sin f, 21, (c) 6 cos u cos f, 2.598.

If G 1 r 2 5 10e22z 1 rar 1 az 2 , determine the flux of G out of the entire surface of the cylin-
der r 5 1, 0 # z # 1. Confirm the result by using the divergence theorem.
Solution:
If  is the flux of G through the given surface, shown in Figure 3.18, then Ψ

 5 C G # dS 5 t 1 b 1 s
s Ψ

where t, b, and s are the fluxes through the top, bottom, and sides (curved surface) of
the cylinder as in Figure 3.18.
For t, z 5 1, dS 5 r dr df az. Hence,

1 2p
r2 1
t 5 33 G # dS 5 3 3 10e22r dr df 5 10e22 1 2p 2 `
r50 f50 2 0

5 10pe22 FIGURE 3.18 For Example 3.7.

For b, z 5 0 and dS 5 r dr df 1 2az 2 . Hence,

1 2p
r2 1
b 5 3 G # dS 5 3 3 10e0r dr df 5 210 1 2p 2 `
b r50 f50 2 0
5 210p

For s, r 5 1 and dS 5 r dz df ar. Hence,

1 2p
e22z 1
s 5 3 G # dS 5 3 3 10e22zr2 dz df 5 10 1 1 2 2 1 2p 2 `
s z50 f50 22 0
5 10p 1 1 2 e 2 22

Thus,

 5 t 1 b 1 s 5 10pe22 2 10p 1 10p 1 1 2 e22 2 5 0

Alternatively, since S is a closed surface, we can apply the divergence theorem:

 5 C G # dS 5 3 1 = # G 2 dv
S v

But

1 ' 1 ' '

=#G5 1 rGr 2 1 G 1 G
r 'r r 'f f 'z z
1 '
5 1 r210e22z 2 2 20e22z
r 'r

1
5 1 20re 22z 2 220e 22z 5 0
r

showing that G has no outward flux. Hence,

 5 3 1 = # G 2 dv 5 0
v
 PRACTICE EXERCISE 3.7

Determine the flux of D 5 r2 cos2 f ar 1 z sin f af over the closed surface of the cyl-
inder 0 # z # 1, r 5 4. Verify the divergence theorem for this case.

Answer: 64p.

CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES’S THEOREM

The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum cir-
culation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero and whose direction is the normal
direction of the area when the area is oriented to make the circulation maximum.2

ax ay az ar r af az ar r au r sin u af
' ' ' 1 ' ' ' 1 ' ' '
=3A5 ∞ ∞ =3A5 ∞ ∞ =3A5 2 ∞ ∞
'x 'y 'z r 'r 'f 'z r sin u 'r 'u 'f
Ax Ay Az Ar rAf Az Ar rAu r sin u Af

Stokes Theorem
Stokes’s theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around a (closed) path
L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L
(see Figure 3.21), provided A and   A are continuous on S.

C A dl 5 3 1 = 3 A 2 dS
# #
L S

Determine the curl of each of the vector fields

(a) P 5 x2yzax 1 xzaz
(b) Q 5 r sin f ar 1 r2z af 1 z cos f az
1
(c) T 5 2 cos u ar 1 r sin u cos f au 1 cos u af
r

'Pz 'Py 'Px 'Pz 'Py 'Px

(a) = 3 P 5 a 2 b ax 1 a 2 b ay 1 a 2 b az
'y 'z 'z 'x 'x 'y
5 1 0 2 0 2 a x 1 1 x2 y 2 z 2 ay 1 1 0 2 x2 z 2 a z
5 1 x2y 2 z 2 ay 2 x2zaz

1 'Qz 'Qf 'Qr 'Qz 1 ' 'Qr

(b) = 3 Q 5 c 2 d ar 1 c 2 d af 1 c 1 rQf 2 2 da
r 'f 'z 'z 'r r 'r 'f z
2z 1
5a sin f 2 r2 b ar 1 1 0 2 0 2 af 1 1 3r2z 2 r cos f 2 az
r r
1
5 2 1 z sin f 1 r3 2 ar 1 1 3rz 2 cos f 2 az
r
 1 ' '
(c) = 3 T 5 c 1 Tfsin u 2 2 Tu d ar
r sin u 'u 'f
1 1 ' ' 1 ' '
1 c T 2 1 rTf 2 d au 1 c 1 rTu 2 2 Tda
r sin u 'f r 'r r 'r 'u r f
1 ' '
5 c 1 cos u sin u 2 2 1 r sin u cos f 2 d ar
r sin u 'u 'f
1 1 ' 1 cos u 2 '
1 c 2 1 r cos u 2 d au
r sin u 'f r2 'r
1 ' 2 ' 1 cos u 2
1 c 1 r sin u cos f 2 2 d af
r 'r 'u r2
1 1
5 1 cos 2u 1 r sin u sin f 2 ar 1 1 0 2 cos u 2 au
r sin u r
1 sin u
1 a2r sin u cos f 1 2 b af
r r
cos 2u cos u 1
5a 1 sin fb ar 2 au 1 a2 cos f 1 3 b sin u af
r sin u r r

PRACTICE EXERCISE 3.8

Determine the curl of each of the vector fields in Practice Exercise 3.6 and evaluate
the curls at the specified points.
Answer: (a) ax 1 yay 1 1 4y 2 z 2 az, ax 2 2ay 2 11az
(b) 26rz cos f ar 1 r sin f af 1 1 6z 2 1 2 z cos f az, 5af
cot u 3
(c) 1/2 ar 2 a2 cot u sin f 1 bau 1 2 sin u cos f af,
r 2r1/2
1.732ar 2 4.5au 1 0.5af.

If A 5 r cos f ar 1 sin f af, evaluate AA # dl around the path shown in Figure 3.23.
Confirm this by using Stokes’s theorem.
Solution:
Let

C A dl 5 c 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 d A dl
b c d a
# #
L a b c d

where path L has been divided into segments ab, bc, cd, and da as in Figure 3.23.

Along ab, r 5 2 and d l 5 r df af. Hence,

b 30° 30°
3 A dl 5 3
# r sin f df 5 2 1 2cos f 2 ` 5 2 1 "3 2 1 2
a f560° 60°

Along bc, f 5 30° and dl 5 dr ar. Hence,

c 5
r2 5 21"3
3 A dl 5 3 r cos f dr 5 cos 30° ` 5
#
b r52 2 2 4

Along cd, r 5 5 and dl 5 r df af. Hence,

d 60° 60°
FIGURE 3.23 For Example 3.9. 5
3 A dl 5 3
# r sin f df 5 5 1 2cos f 2 ` 5 1 "3 2 1 2
c f530° 30° 2
 Along da, f 5 60° and dl 5 dr ar. Hence,

a 2
r2 2 21
3 A dl 5 3 r cos f dr 5 cos 60° ` 52
#
d r55 2 5 4

Putting all these together results in

21"3 5"3 5 21
C A dl 5 2"3 1 1 1 1 2 2
#
L 4 2 2 4
27
5 1 "3 2 1 2 5 4.941
4

From Stokes’s theorem (because L is a closed path),

C A dl 5 3 1 = 3 A 2 dS
# #
L S

But dS 5 r df dr az and

1 'Az 'Af 'Ar 'Az 1 ' 'Ar

= 3 A 5 ar c 2 d 1 af c 2 d 1 az c 1 rAf 2 2 d
r 'f 'z 'z 'r r 'r 'f
1
5 1 0 2 0 2 ar 1 1 0 2 0 2 af 1 1 1 1 r 2 sin f az
r
Hence:
60° 5
1
3 1 = 3 A 2 dS 5 3 1 1 1 r 2 sin f r dr df
# 3
S f530° r52 r

60° 5
53 sin f df 3 1 1 1 r 2 dr
30° 2

60°
r2 5
5 2cos f ` ar 1 b `
30° 2 2
27
5 1 "3 2 1 2 5 4.941
4

PRACTICE EXERCISE y

Calculate the circulation of

A 5 r cos f ar 1 z sin f az L

around the edge L of the wedge defined by 0 # r # 2, 0 # f # 60°, z 5 0 and shown

in Figure 3.12. 60°
x
0 FIGURE 3.12 2
Answer: 1.

Divergence of curl of any vector is zero =#=3A50

Curl of gradient of any scalar field is zero   V 5 0

 LAPLACIAN OF A SCALAR
The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as 2V, is the divergence of the gradient of V.

Laplacian V 5 = # =V 5 =2V

Find the Laplacian of the scalar fields of Example 3.3; that is,
(a) V 5 e2z sin 2x cosh y
(b) U 5 r2z cos 2f
(c) W 5 10r sin2 u cos f

Solution:
The Laplacian in the Cartesian system can be found by taking the first derivative and later
the second derivative.
' V 2' V 2' V 2
(a) =2V 5 1 2 1 2
'x2 'y 'z 1 ' 'U 1 '2U '2U
' ' 2z (b) =2U 5 ar b 1 2 1
5 1 2e2z cos 2x cosh y 2 1 1 e sin 2x sinh y 2 r 'r 'r r 'f2 'z2
'x 'y 1 ' 1
' 5 1 2r2z cos 2f 2 2 2 4r2z cos 2f 1 0
1 1 2e2z sin 2x cosh y 2 r 'r r
'z
5 4z cos 2f 2 4z cos 2f
5 24e2z sin 2x cosh y 1 e2z sin 2x cosh y 1 e2z sin 2x cosh y
50
5 22e2z sin 2x cosh y

1 ' 2 'W 1 ' 'W 1 '2W

(c) =2W 5 ar b 1 asin u b 1
r2 'r 'r r2 sin u 'u 'u r2 sin2 u 'f2
1 ' 1 '
5 2 1 10r2 sin2 u cos f 2 1 2 1 10r sin 2u sin u cos f 2
r 'r r sinu 'u
10r sin2 u cos f
2
r2 sin2 u
20 sin2 u cos f 20r cos 2u sin u cos f
5 1
r r2 sin u
10r sin 2u cos u cos f 10 cos f
1 2
r2 sin u r
10 cos f
5 1 2 sin2 u 1 2 cos 2u 1 2 cos2 u 2 1 2
r
10 cos f
5 1 1 1 2 cos 2u 2 PRACTICE EXERCISE 3.11
r
Determine the Laplacian of the scalar fields of Practice Exercise 3.3, that is,
(a) U 5 x2y 1 xyz
(b) V 5 rz sin f 1 z2 cos2 f 1 r2
(c) f 5 cos u sin f ln r 1 r2 f
2z2 1
Answer: (a) 2y, (b) 4 1 2 cos2 f 2 2 cos 2f, (c) 2 cos u sin f 1 1 2 2 ln r
2 r r
csc u ln r 2 1 6f.

CLASSIFICATION OF VECTOR FIELDS

A vector field A is said to be solenoidal (or divergenceless) if = # A 5 0

A vector field A is said to be irrotational (or potential) if = 3 A 5 0.

If Laplace’s equation, =2V 5 0, is satisfied by a scalar field V in a given region, V is

said to be harmonic in that region.