E lem en t a r y

F o r g e P ra c t i ce
A Text B ook -

for
Teo/ m z oa / d Voca ti on a l Scfi oolf
'

an

By

R O B E R T H HAR COUR T .

Im i n Forge Pr a d i re,
tr u d or

Lela n d Sta nfor d J u n i or Un i v en i ty

f

Secon d E di t i on ,
E n l a rge d

M AN U AL A R T S P R E SS
1 9 20
Co p y r igh t , 19 1 7 ,

by
R ob e r t H . H a rc
 to

SE CON D E D IT IO N

Whi le i t i s real ized that a c o mp rehensiv e kn o wl edge o f f o rge

p r actice can be gained o nly th ru c on tact w ith a c o mme rc i al
shop d oi n g a wi de va riety o f w o rk it is at th e same time b e
,

li eve d tha t a n understa n ding o f fundamenta l p ri n cipl es m ay

be secu red th ru a carefull y p lan n ed an d c on ducted course
o f i n st ru ction i n a technic al sch o ol Thi s bo o k i s desig n ed
.

to as sist th e stu den t i n grasping fu ndamental p ri n cipl es To .

th i s en d a s eri es o f p r o j ect s i n volvi n g f u n dame n tal o p erati o ns

ha s bee n devi s ed .

It m a y b e un n ec essa r y f o r som e students to c o mplete the

e n ti re s et So m e o f th e ea rli e r p roj ects and oc cas i o n ally
.

others ma y be o m itted i f th e stu dent h a s ha d p revi ou s p ra c

tice o r i f h e sh ow s great facil ity O n the o th e r hand it will
.

be rea dil y see n that the re i s a logical o rde r in th e series and

that som e p ro j ects mu s t be maste red b efo re o thers a re u n de r
taken .

The wh o l e s et m ay re q u i re a l o nge r tim e tha n i s al l o tted

t o th e subj ect in th e ave rage manual t rai n i n g cou rse I n su ch .

ca se the instru c to r m ay easily s el ect such w o rk a s w ill meet

the pecu lia r c on dit io n s .

Th e c ritici sm given a n ea rlier edition b y the technical p res s ,

and th e recepti o n by teach e rs o f f o rge and machine —sh op

p racti c e have sh o wn th e need fo r a text b oo k o f thi s ty p e
,
-
.

The auth o r w ish es t o expres s h i s appreci ati o n o f th e as

sis ta n ce re n dered by P r o f es sor E P L e sl ey of L eland Stan
. .

fo rd j un i o r U nivers ity M r W L R i fen b er i ck a n d M r H P

, . . .
,
. . .

M ill er J r in th e p re p a rati on o f th i s book

,
.
, .

R H H A R CO U R T
. . .

Stan ford U nive rs it y , N o vembe r , 19 19 ,

206 5 9 0 7
 C ON T E N T S

C h a p t er I . M A T E RI A L S AN D EQ U IP M E N T

M a t e r i a l s ; W r ou gh t I ron N o r w a y or Sw edi s h I r on , ,

M a c h in e r y S t ee l H igh C a r bon St ee l H igh Sp ee d St eel ;

,
-
,
-

E m er y -W h e e l T es t ; W eigh t o f I r on ; S h r ink a g e ; B i b li og
r ap h y ; F or g e Fi r e T oo l s C oa l B u i lding Fi r e C o k e M ak ing
, , , , ,

C ok e, C link e r
B a nking Fi r e C l e a ning Fi r e a t E n d o f
, ,

P er i o d ; A nv il T oo l R a ck ; H a m m er B a c king H a m m er
, , ,

Cr o s s P e en H a m m e r S l e dg e s ; T ong s Fi tt i n g T ong s t o th e , ,

W o r k ; M ea s u r ing a n d M a r king T ool s ; Fl a tt er S et ,

H a m m e r C h i s e l s G r inding C h i s el s B ob P u nc h N ecking
, , ,
-
,

T oo l P u lle r s S w a g es S w a g e B l ock ; V i s e Con e S u r fa ce

, , , , ,

P l at e S h ea r s
, .

C h a p t er I I D R A W I N G OU T B E N DI N G A N D T W I S TI N G
.
-
,

O x idi ing Fi r e ; T o P r ev en t t h e Fo r m a t i o n o f Sca l e ;

z

W e lding H ea t Indi ca t i on s of a W el ding H ea t ; B u r n ed

,

I r on ; D r a w i n g ou t Sq u a r ing or T r u ing u p W or k ; Cu t
-
, ,
-
,

ti ng C ol d St ock Cu tt ing H ot St ock ; T w i st i n g P u n c h ing

, , .

C h a p t er III . C O M M ON W E L D S

La p W e ld , U p s ett ing , St a r ti n g ; U s e
Fl u x es in W elding of ,

M et h o d o f U s ing F l u x ; W eld e d R ing s ; F or g e d H oo k ,

C o m m on E y e B o l t Co m m on H ing e Fl a t R ing B a nd R ing

-
, , , ,

H e a ding T ool Cu pp ing T ool B o l t s , , .

C h apte r IV . SP EC I A L W EL D S

B u tt Wel d , V- W e ld , J u m p W e l d S p li t W e ld S p li t W e l d
, ,

for H eavy St o ck , T W e ld -
,
An gl e W e ld .

C h ap t er V . H A M M E R W OR K

Tr ip or B el t H a m
-
m er, St ea m H am -
Fini shing
m er ; A l l ow
an ce ; F o r g e d W r enc h , Fl at J aw e d T ong s L ink
-
, T on g s ,

H oll ow B i t T on g s -
6 CO N T E N T S

C h a p t er V I . A N N E A LI N G H A RDE N I N G
, AN D T E M P ERI N G ST E E L

A nn ea ling B ox Ann ea ling W at er Annea ling ; H a r d ening

, , ,

R e fi ning H ea t R eca l es cen ce T em p e r ing G u i d e for H a r d

, , ,

en i n g T em p e r ing o nl y th e Cu tt ing E dg es o f T oo l s H a r d en
, ,

i n g a n d T em p er ing T oo l s t h r u ou t M eth o d s o f Co o ling , ,

F or ging H ea t o f T oo l St e el H ea t ing St ee l fo r H a r d ening , ,

I m p or t ance o f U ni for m H ea t ing H a r d ening at a R i s ing ,

H e a t,R est or ing th e G r a i n W a r p ing in C o oling H ar d ening

, ,

T h i n Fl a t A r t i cl es T em p e r ing T a p s T em p er ing Ca rv ing

, ,

Kniv e s T em p er ing S h ea r B la d es T em p er ing Sp r ing s C a s e

, , ,

H a r d ening P a c k H a r d ening ; T r e a tm en t of H igh Sp ee d

,
- -

St ee l ; C u tt ing S t ock F o r ging H ea t th e Fi r e H eat ing fo r

, , ,

H ar d ening Co oling A nn ea ling

, , .

C h a p t er VI I . T OO L FORGI N G
S e l ect i on o f St e e l fo r T o o l s L at h e T oo l s Co ld C h i s el C a p e
, , ,

C h i s el , R ou nd N o s e C a p e C h i se l C ent e r - P u n c h R ou nd - N o s e
-
, ,

T oo l C u tt ing -of
, ? T o o l T h r e a ding T oo l S id e T ool B o r ing
, , ,

T ool C r o s s - P e en H a m m er E y e P u n c h D r i ft- P in Sm a ll
, ,
-
, ,

C r os s P een H a m m er B a l l - P een H a m m er H ot E y e- C h i s el
-
, ,

Co ld E y e Ch i s e l G eol ogi s t s P i ck , H and R o ck D r ill M a

-
’
,
-
,

c h in e R oc k - D r ill V- F u ll er s, W ing S w a ge, D oll y , H u nt ing

,

Ax e H unt ing Kni fe

, .
 P R OJ E C T S
D r a w ing -
ou t and B endi n g R ing I
S - H ook II
St a p l e s III
B e a m St r a p IV
T w i st ed Ga t e H oo k -
V
—
P r a ct i ce W e ld s F a g ot VI
R o u nd L a p W e ld -
VI I
Fl a t La p W e l d - VI II
L i n k s o f C h a in IX
—
R i n g R o u nd L a p W e l d
i
-
X
R ing — L ink S ca r f XI
F o r g e d H oo k XII a nd X III
C o m m on E y e B o l t - X IV
C om m on H ing e XV
Fl a t R ing XV I
B a n d R ing XVII
U p s et H ea d B o l t
-
XV I I I
W e ld e d H ea d B o l t
-
XIX
Fo r ged B ol t XIX
T W el d
-
XX
A ngl e W e l d XX I
F o r g e d O p e n E n d W r en c h -
XX I I a n d XX I I I
Fl a t J a w e d T ong s
- XX I V a n d X X V
L ink T o n g s XX V I a n d X X V I I
H o ll o w B i t T ong s
-
XX V I I I
C o ld C h i s e l XX I X
C a p e C h i s el XX I X
R ou n d N o s e C a p e C h i s e l
w
XXX
C ent er P u n c h-
XXX
R ou nd N os e T oo l
-
X XX I
C u tt ing O E T oo l -
XXX I
T h r ea ding T oo l XX XI I
S id e T oo l XXX I I I
B o r ing T oo l XXX I V
C r o s s P e en H a m m e r
-
XXX V
Sm a ll C r os s P e en H a m m er -
XXX V I
B a ll P e en H a m m er
-
XXX V I I
H ot E y e C h i s e l -
XXX V I I I
C o ld E y e C h i se l -
XXX I X
G eo l ogi st s P i ck XL
’

H a nd R o c k D r ill -
X LI
M a ch in e R ock D r i ll -
XLI I
H unt ing A x e XLI I I
H u n t ing Kni fe XLI V
 IN T RO D U CT IO N

Th e auth o r h a s fou n d that v ery go o d results may be o btained

”
by th e u s e o f E lementa ry Fo rge P ract ic e i f th e f oll o w i n g
m eth ods a r e appl ied A ssembl e th e stude n ts a n d give them
.

a talk a n d d emo n st rati on c overing th e foll o w ing p oi n ts

1 . The forge .

2 . C oalcoke and cl i n kers

, , .

3 . The anvil .

4 .F o rge tools tongs etc , , .

5 B uilding th e fi re ba n king fi re mak i n g coke ca re o f th e

.
, , ,

fi r e etc
, .

6 .M aterial s : Tool st e el mach i n e ry steel and w r o ught , ,

i r o n Th e i r cha racterist i cs a n d th e methods fo r di sti n gu ishi n g

.

th em .

7 . pi ece o f mach i n e ry st e el SA; o r 3 4 o f an i nch i n d iam

A
eter sh oul d be h e ated a n d d r aw n out a s desc r i bed o n page 3 2 .

O n ly a po rt i o n of th e st oc k n eces sa r y t o make th e proj ect

i s d rawn o ut T h e n ext st e p i s t o take a piece o f st o ck
. an
i n ch i n diamete r a n d 1 1 % inches l o n g Thi s i s h eated a n d .

b e n t a s d e s c ri b e d o n p a ge 3 6 .

A pi ec e o f stock or a n i n ch i n diam ete r i s p o inted .

A wedg e for a ha n d h a m me r i s al s o made Th i s compl etes

-
.

th e fi rst demo n st ratio n .

A d em on st ratio n sh ou ld not be n eces sa ry fo r p roj ect s 2

and 3 .

E xperi enc e ha s show n that wh e re th e fi rst dem onst ration

a n d expla n at i o n s hav e been th or o few e r dem onst rati ons a re ,

r e qu i red .

D em on st rati o n s a re give n on ly wh en th ey a re abs o l utely

n e c e ssa r y T h e di fli cu lt proj ects such a s th e L ap wel d L ink
.
‘
-
, ,

H ook T on gs a n d a fe w o th ers requ i re th em

, , .
10 I N T R OD U C T I O N

Towa rd the end o f the term talks and dem o nstrati o ns a re

,

giv e n c overi n g the making o f c ra n k sha f ts dr op f orgings , ,

special w elds and m anufactu ri n g m eth o ds

,
.

U po n c om p let 1on of t h e requ i red num be r of p I OJ C C t S o r

'

wo r k accepted i n li eu o f them stu de nt s a re e n c o u raged t o

,

m ake hu n ti n g k n ives axes o r w o rk wh ich ha s a spec ial

, ,

i n t e r e st f or them .

W ritten exami n ati o n s includi n g q ues t i o ns o f th e f o l l o w i n g

ty p e a re given about o nce a m o nt h
1 G ive a m eth od f o r di sti n gu i shi n g w r o ught i r o n f rom
.

mach i n ery steel .

2 What perc entage o f ca rb o n d o t oo l steel m ach ine ry

.
,

steel a n d w r o ught i r o n c on tai n ?

,

3 Why i s a fl u x u sed wh en wel ding s t eel ?

'

4 Wha t i s an o xi diz ing fi re ?

.

5 G ive a m eth o d f o r fi n ding th e refining o r ha rde n ing

.

heat f or t o ol steel .

6 What i s the p u r po s e o f p ack ha rde n ing ?

.

7 Why i s too l steel ann eal ed ?

.

8 D esc ribe t h e p r o cess o f wa t e r anneal i n g t o ol steel

. .

9 D esc ribe o ne m eth o d o f tem p e ring a s p ring

. .

10 H ow i s a c o l d chi sel h a rdened an d t em p ered ?

.

11 What i s th e l ength o f stock n eces sa ry f o r a ring of

.

o n e —inch rou n d i ro n h avi n g a n in si d e diameter o f t en i n ch e s

, ,

al low i n g V2 a n i n ch f o r upset an d waste in weld ing ?

12 H o w i s h igh s p eed steel ha rdened ?
.
-

13 D escribe o n e m e t h o d o f ha rdening and t em p e r ing a

.

ta p .

14 D raw a diagram o f an anvil desi gna t e t h e p a rt s a n d

.
,

give th e m aterial o f wh ich th ey a re ma de .

1 5 What i s meant by d rawing th e temper ?

.

The u se o f thi s b o o k ha s cl ea rly dem on st rated th e f ol l o w ing

adva n tages
 I N TR OD U C T I O N 11

1 . Taking O f notes du ri n g a de m onst rati on i s pa rtially

el i m i n ated s o that a stud en t ha s th e full e st oppo rtu n ity f o r
,

watchi n g the e n ti re demo n st ratio n Th e t e xt i s a ready re f

.

e r e n ce i n case h e do e s n ot rem ember a demo n strated po i n t .

2 . Students do bette r w o rk and c om p l ete th e p roj ects i n

a sho rte r peri o d o f tim e .

3 . Students a re abl e t o p roceed with th e p roj ect s w ith o ut

pe rso n al inst ru cti o n Th i s e l iminates a great wa st e o f time
. .

4 . Th e inst ru ct o r i s abl e t o handl e a l a rge numbe r o f

stu de n ts efii ci en tly and w ithou t c o n fu sion .

5 It devel o ps initiat ive el iminates i dl eness and p ro m ot e s

.
,

e ffi cie n cy a n d d iscipl ine

.

N O T E — Th e best result s w ill be obta ined i f th e stu de n t u se s

th e book a s a guide wh il e at w o rk .
 Elem entary Forge Practice

C H A PT E R I .

M A T E R I AL S AN D E QU I P M E N T .

T h e M a t e ria l s m o s t c om m o n l y u s e d i n f o r g i n g a r e
w r ought i ro n N o rway i r o n mach ine steel to o l steel a n d h igh
, , , ,

speed steel Th ei r main c o nst ituent i s i ron a s obtai n ed f rom

.
,

i r o n o re ; but the y di ffe r in th e amou n t o f ca rbo n a n d oth e r

el em ents that a re m ixed o r all oy ed w ith th e i r o n .

W r o u gh t I r o n i s m a d e b y t h e P u dd l i n g Pr o c e s s a n d di f ,

fers f r o m o th er k inds o f i r o n m ai n ly b ecaus e o f th e sl ag s eam s

i nt rodu ced du ring i ts manu factu re These seam s cau se th e .

st ri n gy fib rou s a p pea ranc e o f th e i r o n wh en it i s b roke n o r

,

cut col d Th ey a r e h elp ful wh e n w e ldi n g si n c e th e slag act s

.
,

as a flux ; but th ey al so w eaken th e i r on a n d m ake i t l iabl e ,

to c rack W rought i r on i s much ea sie r t o wel d tha n m ach i n e

.

steel becaus e th e range o f t emperatu re th ru wh i ch it may

,

be h eat ed w ith ou t i n j u ry i s mu ch greater It may n o t be .

harde n ed t o any appreci able extent I f h ammered t oo mu ch .

whe n c ol d it w ill bu rst th r u th e slag seam s .

Th e p erce n tage o f ca rb o n i n c o mm o n w r o ugh t i r o n i s ve ry

l ow being ab o ut O4 %
,
. .

N o rw a y o r Sw ed i s h I r o n a s i m p o rt e d f ro m N o r w a y a n d
,

Sweden i s made in a ch a rcoal fu r n ac e

, It i s th e pu r est s oft
.

i r on o n th e ma rk et as th e ore from whi ch it i s made i s p r a c

,

tically f r e e f rom ph ospho ru s and sul phu r It i s u sed mai n ly .

f o r i nt ricate w o rk invol ving mu ch bendi n g and s inc e i t ru sts ,

v e ry slowly fo r f o rgings that a re expos ed t o th e w eath e r

, .

Th e best grades o f crucibl e steel pr o duc ed in th i s c o unt ry a re

a l so made f r o m th i s kind o f i r o n .
14 T
M A E R I AL S A N D E QU I P M E N T

M a c h i n e ry S t eel a l s o k n o w n a s m ac h i n e s t eel l o w c arb o n

, ,
-

ste e l a n d m i l d steel c on tai n s f rom about 05% t o 5% o f

, ,
. .

ca r b o n and i s made by th e O pe n H ea rth o r B e ssem e r P roces s

,
-
.

It may be easi ly w el ded with th e ai d o f a flux a n d ca n be ,

wel d e d w ithout on e B e in g st ro n ge r mo r e h omoge n e ou s an d

.
,

ch eape r tha n w r ought i ron it i s w el l adapted f o r forgi n gs I t

, .

ca nno t be h arde n ed t o a n y ve r y great e xte n t A p iece o f g o od .

g r ad e i n ch th i ck may b e be n t col d 180 flat o n i tsel f w ith

-
°

o ut ruptu re I n ge n e r al i t i s fou n d that i n c rea si n g th e carb on

.

co n te n t wil l i n c r e as e the stre n gth el asti city a n d ha rde n in g ,

qual ity a n d d e c r ease th e ductil ity and w el dabil ity

,
.

Th i s grade o f steel d i ffe r s f r o m w rought i r o n i n that i t

do e s not b e c om e s o f t a n d plasti c at th e w eldi n g heat It .

bu r n s o r wast e s a way at a l owe r t emperatu re than w rought

i r o n mak i n g it m o r e d i fficul t t o w el d Th e c rystal l i n e o r
,
‘
.
,

g r a n ula r app e a r a n ce o f th e f r actu r e th e ab s ence o f slag

, ,

am s a n d th e em ery wh ee l t e st described l ate r a re u sed t o

,
-
,

di st in gu i sh it f rom w rought i ron .

H i gh C a rb o n S t e el o r t o o l s t e el t h e b e s t g r a d es o f w h i c h
-
,

a re made b y th e C r u cIble P rocess co n tai n s ca r bon in amou n ts ,

'

va r y in g f rom 5% t o . St ee l w i th a high e r ca r bo n co n
te n t is sel dom u sed H igh carbo n steel i s ge n e rally di s
.
-

t i n gu i s h e d f rom l ow ca rbon ste e l by th e fa C

-
t that it become s
v e ry ha r d w h e n h eated to a red h eat a n d suddenly c ool ed I t .

s n ap s O PE w h e n cut c ol d o n acc ou n t o f th e ha rd n ess o f th e

,

o rdi n a r y co m m e r cial stock A s w ith m ild o r l ow ca rbon steel

.
,
-
,

th e ha rd e n i n g quality va ri e s di rectly w ith th e ca rb o n c o n te n t .

The r e a re h o w eve r s ome b ra n d s o f steel c o n ta i n i n g l e s s tha n

, ,

. 5% ca r b o n wh i ch h arde n c o n s i de r a b ly w h e n h e at e d a n d c ool e d
qu i ckly ; s o there i s n o wel l ma r ked divisi o n b e t w een the tw o
clas ses H igh ca rb o n st e el i s most d i fficul t t o wel d
.
-
.

H i gh Sp e ed S t e e l i s of sp e c i al i m p o r t a n c e i n th e m ac h i n e
-

sh o p on accou n t o f it s r e d ha rd n es s or p r o perty o f retai ni n g ,

a cutti n g edge at a v i sibl e red h eat Tool s made f rom o rd i .

n ary h igh ca rbon steel i f h eat e d by fricti o n o r otherwi se t o a

-
,
 IRON AN D S TE E L 15

tempe ratu re o f about 400 F beg i n t o l ose th ei r hard n e ss ;

°

°
wh i l e h i gh speed steel tool s ma y be heat e d up to abou t 1 200
-

F be fo r e th ey b reak do w n f rom soft e n i n g

. .

Thi s p rope r ty i s du e to th e p rese n c e i n the steel o f f rom

1 3 % to 19 % tu n gste n O the r el e m e n t s are present i n app rox
.

i m a te ly th e p e rce n tag e s giv e n

Tu ng st en C h r om i um C a r bo n M anga n e s e V a n a di u m S ili con

T he ry W h eel T es t — Th e m o s t s a t i s fa c t o r y s h o p
Em e -

m ethod for di sti n gui shi n g b e tw ee n th e di ffe re n t ki n ds a n d

grades o f i ro n a n d steel co n si sts i n observi n g th e spa rk s
given off whe n a ba r o f the m at e r ial i s b r ought i n c o n tact
w ith a rapidly r e volvi n g e m e r y wh ee l I n ge n eral it i s fou n d -
.

that the mo re ca r bo n the r e i s prese n t th e brighter th e spa rks

w il l be .

Spa rk s obtai n ed f rom w r ought i ro n a r e l ight st raw col or -

,

a n d foll ow st r a i ght l in es M achi n e st e el gives off spa rks

.

that a r e m uch th e sam e i n cha ract e r except that th ey explode ,

o r f ork t o s o me exte n t Wh ite spa rk s whi ch expl ode much

, .

m o r e f requ e n tly a re obtai n e d f rom h igh ca r bo n ste e l Th ose -

.

given off by high sp e ed st e el f oll ow st raight l i n e s sim i la r ly

-
,

t o spa r ks f r om w rought i ron but give O ff m uch less l ight a n d

, ,

e n d abruptly i n a ch rome y ell o w p ea r shaped flam e

-
,
-
.

W e i gh t o f I r o n — It i s oft e n n ec e s s ary t o k n o w t h e
.

weight o f m ate r ial u sed i n a n i r on o r steel f orgi n g Thi s can .

be computed i f it i s rem emb e red that a cubi c foot o f st eel

w eigh s ab o ut 4 90 pou n ds o r that a l —i n ch squa re ba r l foot
,
-

l o n g we i gh s po u n ds a n d a I i n ch rou n d ba r o f th e sam e -

l ength weigh s pounds .

S h ri n k a g e — W h e n i r o n o r s t e el i s h ea t e d i t ex p a n d s i n ,

di rect p rop o rt i on t o th e cha n ge i n t e mperatu re A ba r h eated .

to a go od f o rgi n g h e at w ill have each o f its l inea r d ime n sio n s

i n crea s e d ab o ut i nch t o th e f oo t U pon c o o l i n g it will con .

tract about th e sam e am ou n t .

16 M A E RIT ALS AND E QU I P M E N T

B i b l i o gr a p h y a c o m pl et e d e sc r i pt i o n of t h e v a r i ou s
.
— F or
p r ocesses e m pl oy e d i n maki n g i r o n a n d st e el th e st u de n t i s ,

r e f e r red to the followi n g books

St o u gh t on : T h e M eta llu r gy of I r on an d S tee l . M c G r a w H i ll

-

B oo k CO .
, N ew Y o r k .

M et ca l f: S teel .
J ohn W i l ey S on s ,
N e w Y or k .

F o rg e .
-
One
of th e c om m o n e s t t y pe s of fo r g e u s e d i n
u n iv e rs i ties a n d t e ch n ical sch ool s i s sho w n in F i g 1 It co n . .

s i sts o f a ca st i ro n h e a rth ( A ) m ou n ted on a su itabl e ba s e

-

H
( ) a n d havi n g at it s ce n te r a fi r e p ot
( )
B Thi s fi r e —pot -
.

i s made i n va r iou s shapes a n d s ize s a n d i s s om e t im es l in e d ,

w i th fi r eb r i ck A t the bottom of the fi r e p ot i s a n o p e n i n g

.
~
,

Fig . I
. T H E F OR G E .

A, h ea r t h ; B fi r e p ot ; C t u y e r e l ev e r ; D b l a st g a t e l ev er ;
,
-
, ,
-
B ,

a d j u st a b l e h o o d ; F a d ju s t ing l ev e r ; G e x h a u s t p i p e ; H ba s e ;
, , ,
1 .

c o a l bo x ; J
-
,
co k e b o x
-
.
 F IRE 17

called th e tu y er e th ru wh ich th e blast i s f o rc e d Tuy e r e s a r e

, .

co n st ructed s o a s t o ad m i t th e a i r readily a n d at th e sam e t im e

p r eve n t coal f rom d roppi n g th r u them Som e a re a r r a n ged .

s o that th e c oal a n d a sh e s wh i ch d o d rop th ru ca n be shaken

out b y mea n s of the tuyere l ever ( C ) Th e a i r bl as t i s con .

t r oll ed by m ea n s o f th e blast —gat e l ever ( D ) .

Th e fo rge s h own i s o f th e down dra ft type th e smoke a n d -

,

ga se s f r om th e fi re b e i n g d raw n u n d e r th e a d j ustabl e h ood

( E ) a n d d o w n th ru th e exhau st p ipe ( G ) Th e po s i tio n o f .

th e hood can be cha n ged by m e a n s o f th e a dj u sti n g l eve r ( F ) .

T h e box es ( I ) a n d ( J ) sh ou l d b e u s e d f or h ol d i n g coal a n d
c ok e resp e ctiv ely a sepa rat e ta n k f o r wate r b e i n g advi sabl e
, .

I n comm erc ial sh ops th e forges a re g enerall y c i rcula r a n d

‘

made o f l i ght s h eet s teel .

F i re T o ol s — Th e t o ol s r e q u i r e d a t e a c h fo rg e i n o r d e r t o
.

take p roper care o f the fi re a re : coal sh ovel fi re rake dippe r , , ,

a n d poke r .

— ”
Coal T h e b es t b l a c k s m i t h s c o al fo r u s e i n a fo r g e i s
’
.

a h igh grade o f so ft o r bitum i n ou s c oal I t can i n ge n eral b e .

d i sti n gu i shed by th e c rumbli n g o f th e lumps wh e n h it w ith a ,

hamm e r bu t the most rel iabl e test i s to n ote it s ch a r a cte r i s

,

ti cs i n actual u se Whe n dampe n e d a n d p ut o n a fi re i t sh oul d

.

cake u p f o rming g oo d coke a n d l e avi n g ve ry l ittle cl i n ke r

,

whe n b u r n ed O rd in a ry s o ft c o al o r steam —coal m akes a ver y

.
, ,

di rty fi re givi n g off much smoke and l e av i n g a gr e at deal o f

,

cl i n ke r I t i s very disag r eeabl e t o w o rk with o n a ccount b oth

.
,

o f th e smoke a n d th e h ot ga ses give n off .

C o al co ntai n ing eith e r sulphu r o r p h osph o ru s i s t o be

avoided as th ese eleme n ts a re absorbed by th e i r o n Sul phu r
,
.

makes th e i ro n h ot sho r t i e b rittl e wh ile h o t ; a n d pho s

-
, . .
,

h o r u s makes it col d —sh ort o r b r ittl e wh en c o l d

p ,
.

B u i l d i n g F i r e — Th e s u c c e s s o f w el di n g a n d f o r gi n g d e
pe n ds to a l a rge exte n t o n th e building and care o f th e fi re
, ,
.

Whe n a f resh fi re i s to be buil t make a h ol e ab out 8 inch es in ,

diamete r at th e ce n te r O f th e h ea rth rem ovi n g en o ugh o f th e ,

18 M AT E R I A L S AND E QU I P M E N T

d i rt and ashes t o expos e th e tuy ere Plac e s om e shavi n gs i n .

th i s hol e a n d o n top O f th em som e smal l lumps o f coke A fte r .

l i ghti n g th e shavi n gs tu rn th e b last o n a l i ttl e a n d wait u n til

,

the c oke has beco m e r e d h o t M ore c o ke sh oul d th e n be .

add e d f ormi n g a co n e a n d th e s p ac e a rou n d i t banked o r

, , ,

filled i n w ith m o ist c o al C a re mu st b e taken i n dampe n ing

,
.

th e coal not t o get it to o wet o r the wate r w i ll seep out and run
,

ove r th e tuy e r e the reby spoili n g th e fi re Whe n e n ough c o al

,
.

has bee n placed a rou n d th e fi re i t shoul d be l evel ed off an d ,

packed down ha rd with th e back o f a shovel Th i s i s do n e t o .

p r e ve n t the a i r —bl ast f r om com i n g th r u at th e oute r edges o f

the fi re s p r eadi n g i t o ver to o large an a rea
,
.

C o k e —It i s f o u n d t h a t p a ck i n g al s o h el p s m a t e ri al l y i n
.

th e p roductio n o f coke wh ich i s f o rmed by th e caking o f th e

,

coal a ft e r th e fi re ha s bu r n ed f or s o m e t im e C o ke sh oul d be .

sav e d wh en clea n i n g o ut th e fi re o r h ea rth at th e end o f a

period o r when buil di n g a s eco n d fi re
, Th e c e n te r o f th e .

fi r e bu r n s out som e what l i ke a c rate r a n d ha s t o be C on sta n tl y ,

refill ed with ext ra c o ke I f it i s n ecessa ry t o h ave a small

.

fi re th e c o ke sh o uld b e b r o ken int o smal l p iec es

, .

M ak in g C ok e — W h en ex t ra c o k e i s requ i red i t c a n b e ,

made by placi n g s om e la rge l umps o r w et coal o n to p Of th e , ,

fi r e a n d all ow i n g it t o bu r n sl owly fo r s o m e t im e I t sh ould .

n o t be di stu rbed w ith a po ker until i t has caked wel l .

C a u ti on — D o
n o t c o ntinually p oke o r d istu rb th e fi re but ,

kee p the ce n te r ful l o f small p i eces o f c o ke .

C l i n k er — D i r t
a nd d r o s s i n t h e c o al f o r m c l i nk er di re c tl y
.

ab o ve th e tuyere Thi s i s a de t rim en t when w el ding sinc e i t

.
,

p reve n ts a i r f r o m c o m ing th ru th e tuy ere and c au ses a de

pos it o f di rt o n th e p i eces in th e fi re F o r t hi s reas o n th e fi re .

sh o ul d be clean ed o ut eve ry hal f h o u r wh en w eldi n g b y r e -

, ,

movi n g th e cl inker w ith a p o ke r C a re m u st be taken to p re .

ve n t l ea d and babbitt metal f r o m getting i nt o th e fi re a s th e y ,

ox idize and p revent wel ding .

 F I RE 19

B an k i n g F i r e .
—B y p l a c in g a p i e c e
o n end i n the o f w oo d
.

fi re and c o vering i t with c o ke an d c o al t h e fi re w ill last for ,

some tim e with o ut a i r blast -

.

C l e a n i n g F i r e a t E n d o f P e r i o d —W h en t h e fi re i s n o
longe r needed t h e c o al sh oul d be rem o ved an d pl aced in the
,

coal tank Th e c o ke sh o ul d th en b e l oo s e n ed w ith th e p oker

-
. ,

m oi stened w ith wate r and pl aced in th e c o ke tank

, The -
.

cl i n ke r an d a sh es a re dug o ut a n d th rown into th e a sh —b o x .

Th e f o rge i s t hen cl ean and ready f o r futu re u se .

Fig . 2 . T H E A N VIL .

A , bo d y ; B ,
h or n ; C , ba se of h or n ; D ,
face ; E , h a r di e h o l e ; F ,
p ri tc h e l h ol e ; G ,
r ou nd e d edg es .

An v i l —
T h e t y p e o f a n v i l ge n era l l y u s e d i s S h o w n i n Fi g
. .

2 Th e b o dy ( A ) i s u sually m ade o f w rough t i r o n o r a s p ecial

.

grade o f steel bu t f o r light w o rk i t i s s o m etim es o f ca st i r o n

,
.

The h o rn ( B ) must be tough in o rde r t o w ithstand h eav y

pou n di n g and i s u sually o f the sam e ma t erial a s th e b o d y .

The ba s e o f th e h orn ( C ) ha s a fl at to p wh ich i s u sed in p re f

e re n ce t o th e face wh en cutting stock w ith a ch i sel becaus e ,
20 M A T E R I AL S A ND E QUI P M E N T

i t i s n o t s o hard a nd wil l n o t dull th e chi sel Th e f ace ( D ) .

is a tool steel plate

-
inc h th ick wh ich i s w el ded t o th e body
-
.

It i s ca re fully ha rde n ed a n d has a smo o thl y gr o und t op The .

squa re ha rdi e h ole ( E ) i s u sed f o r h o l ding th e shanks o f

tool s wh i l e the pritchel h o l e ( F ) i s very c o nveni ent in making
,

smal l b o lts as it allow s thei r ste m s o r sha n ks t o exte n d th ru

, , , .

The tw o s ide edges o f th e face ( G ) a re rounded f o r about 4

i n ches nea r th e ho rn t o facilitate th e bendi n g o f stock I f i n
, .

tended fo r small w o r k l ike th e p r o j ect s i n t hi s b oo k an anv i l

, ,

shoul d weigh ab o ut 1 50 po unds .

Th e a n vil sh o ul d b e p laced with t h e h o rn a t t h e l e ft o f th e

w o rke r and th e face 26 inches ab o v e th e floor th e oute r edge ,

bei n g about inch l o wer than th e inne r o ne I t i s there f o re .

necess ary t o p r o vide a ba se Thi s i s ge n erally o f cast i r on a s

.
,

sh o wn in Fig 2 but may c on sist of a l arge w oo den bl o ck

.
, .

Fig . 3 . T OOL R A C K
-
.

T o o l -R a c k—To h av e t h e b l a c k s m i t h t o ol s w i th i n ea s y
.

reach wh il e w o rking at th e f o rge they sh o ul d be ke p t o n s o m e

,

s o rt o f a tool rack A ve r y g oo d ty p e i s sh o wn i n Fig 3

-
.
. .

It con s ISts o f an i ron t op ca st o n o ne e n d o f a p i ece o f la rge

pipe Th e othe r end o f th e pipe i s imbedded i n th e flo o r
.
.

Slots f o r h ol ding tools a re p rovi ded o n each s ide o f th e t o p ,

which act s a s a tabl e f o r pieces of stock suppl i es etc , , .

 H AM M ER 21

These racks a r e som etimes m ade o f w ood but such a re .

easily bu rned by h ot material s a n d sinc e they u sually have , ,

fou r legs an d a bott o m shel f i t i s rathe r ha rd t o c lean unde r ,

them .

The H a m m e r u s e d m o s t c o m m o nl y b y b l a c k s m i t h s i s a
ball peen hammer weigh i n g f rom 1 V
-
2 t o 2% p ounds a n d s i m

i la r to th e o n e sh o w n i n F ig 4 The face o r large end i s f o r . .

, ,

o rdi n a ry w o rk ; and th e ball end o r pee n fo r s ca r fi n g rivet , , ,

i n g etc The fac e sh o ul d be co n vex i n o rde r no t t o ma rk

,
.
,

hot material and its edges rounded off t o keep them from
, ,

b reaking Th e edge o f th e fac e neares t th e wo rker i s call ed

.

th e heel a n d th e f r o nt edge the toe

, .

Fig . 4 .

H A N D-H A M M E R .

A B acking H a m m e r ge n e ra l l y h a s t h e s a m e s h a p e a s t h e
comm on ball peen hamme r bu t it w eigh s ab o ut 5 p o und s ,
.

It i s u sed by a h elpe r W he n l ight quick bl o w s a re n ece ssa ry ,

and al s o wh e n backi n g up o r sta rting th e heel o f a sca rf , , .

A C r o s s p e en H a m m e r
-
Fi g 5 w e i gh i n g ab o u t 3 %
, .
,

p o unds i s needed f o r each tw o f o rges Thi s h amm er i s p a r

, .

t i cu la r ly valuabl e i n w el di n g steel on acc o unt o f th e heavier

bl ow s wh ich can be del ivered It i s al s o u se ful wh en making .

a pai r o f t o ngs a n d in alm o st an y w o rk whe re on e stu dent

,

n eeds th e h el p o f an o ther .

S l edg e s — Fi g 6 s h o w s a s l edg e of t h e s t rai gh t p ee n t y p e

. .
-
,
 Fig 7
. .

d; b i t s ; C link ; D ck ups ; E h i s el
c
B , h o ll ow pi
- .
,

j
-
A fl at aw e
- ,
,
,

h o l ding fl at st o ck .

The H o llo w B -i t T o n g s ( B F ig ,
.

s q uare o r fl a t mat erial

handl ing rou n d
.

. ,
 T O N GS 23

Li n k T on g s a re sh o wn at C Fig 7 and a re v ery c on

,
.
,

v e n i en t fo r h o l ding l inks o r rings .

P i ck-u p T on g s ( D F ig 7 ) a re inten ded mainly f o r p i ck

,
.

i ng u p la rge and smal l p i eces o f di fferent s iz es o f st o ck .

T h e E y e T o n g s o r e y e ch i sel t o ngs sh o wn at E in Fig 7

,
-
,
.
,

a re u sed in d ressing an ey e chi sel Th e p r o j ecti on s a re ma de

-
.

to fi t into the ey e whil e the j aws a re be n t s o a s to avoi d c on

,

tac t with th e burred h ead o f th e ch i sel .

F i tt i n g T on g s t o t h e W o r k — T o ng s s h o u l d al w a y s b e
fitted to th e w o rk whi ch th e y a re intende d to h o l d The
- .

p o orly fi tted t o ngs sh o wn at A Fig 8 Sh o ul d b e changed s o

,
.
,

that the j aws t o uch th e st o ck f o r th ei r enti re l ength a s i n B , ,

F ig 8 Thei r f o rm at A a ffo rds a poo r gri p wh ich i s a s eri

. .
,

ou s d rawback wh en forging o r w el ding .

Fig . 8 .

T o fit t o ngs t o a p iece of w o rk th e j aw s sh o ul d b e h ea t ed
.

red h o t the st o ck p l ace d b etween them an d the j aw s ham

, ,

m e red d o wn tight a r o u n d it I n o rde r t o p revent th e handl es

.
,

o r reins f r o m c o mi n g t oo cl o s e togethe r wh il e d o ing th i s a

, ,

p i ec e o f i r o n sh o ul d b e placed between th em d i rectly b eh ind

th e j aw s I f th e handles a re to o f a r a p a rt giv e th em s everal
.
,

bl ow s a sh o rt di stance back o f th e eye .

N ever leav e t ongs on a piec e o f w o rk wh il e it i s in th e fi re

‘

i f there i s danger o f th ei r bec o m ing h o t When rem o ved .

f r o m th e fi re th ey w ill n ot h o l d the w o rk fi r mly becau s e th e ,

ha n dl es w ill c o me t o gether under th e p res su re o f th e hand .

24 M A T E R I AL S A N D E Q U I P M E N T

M e a s u ri n g and — In f o rgi n g i t i s o ft e n
M arki n g T o o l s
r e qu i r e d to w ork t o a give n s ize o r t o dupl i cat e a n oth e r ,

fo r gi n g For thi s r e a son i t i s nec e ssa ry to have on ha n d a

.

rule a pai r o f cal ipers and a t ry square a s sh o wn in Fig 9

, ,
-
, . .

S q ua re

C a l i pe r s
C enter P u nc h es
Fig . 9 . M E A S U RI N G AN D M A R KI N G T OO L S .

Th e rul e sh o ul d be o f b ras s i n order t o w i th stan d th e heat and ,

sh o uld have a 12—i n ch scal e w ith e no ugh ext ra r oo m for a

ha n d —h ol d Th e calipers a re ge n erally made of steel and a re
.
,

u sed mai n ly for w ork don e u n der th e t rip hamm e r Th e try -

.

squa re n eed o n ly b e a small one .

F o r ma rking stock a c enter punch i s general ly empl o yed -

,

Fig . 10
. T H E P LAT T E R . Fig . 11 . A
T H E SET-H M M E R .

s ince t he ma rk made b y a ch isel w i ll sta r t a crack i f th e sto ck

i s bent A chi sel sh o ul d b e u sed o nly wh en th e st o ck is t o b e
.

cut off at th e po i nt ma rked .

Th e F l at t e r Fi g 10 i s u s e d fo r fl a t t e n i n g a n d s m o o th i n g
, .
,
 C H I SE L S 25

st ra igh t su r faces Its f ac e i s gene ral ly ab o ut 3 inches squa re

.
,

a n d shoul d be smooth wi th rou n ded edges .

Th e Se t H am m er S h o w n i n Fi g 1 1 i s u s e d i n fi ni s h i n g
-
,
.
,

cor n ers an d p a rts that ca n not be reached w i th th e flatter .

The sizes va ry but for small w o rk the face sh o ul d be a b out

,

1 % inches squa re I t al so shoul d be smooth and flat The on e

. .

illu st rated i s c om m o n ly call ed th e squa re edge s et hamm e r t o - -

,

distingu i sh it f rom th e r oun d edge set —hamm er -

.

C h i s el s —{ Tw o k i n d s of C h i s e l s a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d i n t h e
forge sh o p : o ne fo r cutti n g c o l d m aterial and th e oth er f o r ,

cutti n g h ot material Thes e a re cal led c o l d and h ot chi sel s

. .

Th e c ol d ch i sel Fig 12 i s ma de th icke r i n th e blade tha n

,
.
,

th e h o t chi sel Fig 1 3 w h ich h a s a rathe r thin edge Th e

, .
, .

hardi e shown i n Fig 14 i s u sed f o r cutt in g h o t mate rial I t

,
.
, .

h a s a squa re sha n k t o fi t th e ha rd i e h ole in th e anvi l H a rdi es .

a re al s o m ade to cu t cold stock .

Th e h ot ch i sel sh oul d n ever b e u sed on c ol d material a s ,

it s edge w ill be tu r n ed a n d ru i n ed ; no r sh oul d th e col d ch i sel

b e u s ed f o r c utti n g h ot st o ck a s th e h eat wi ll s o ften i ts edge
, ,

making i t u n fit for cutti n g c ol d st o ck .

G ri n d i n g C h i s el s — Th e s i de s of a c o l d c h i s el s h oul d b e
.

grou n d t o a n a n gl e o f about 60 degrees w ith each oth er a s ,

sh ow n at A i n Fi g 1 5 Thi s f orm s a good cutti n g edge I f

‘

. . .

th e edge i s too thi n it w il l be n d .

26 T
M A E R I AL S A N D E QU IP M E N T

T he cutti n g e dge shoul d al so be g rou n d convex as sh o wn ,

s l i ghtly exaggerat e d at B Th is p reve n ts the co rners f rom

.

b r e ak in g o fi too r e ad i ly a s th ey w oul d i f it w ere grou n d a s

‘
,

at C .

H ot C hi s e l s a r e grou n d s o m e what th i nn er tha n col d C h i s e l s ,

a n d w i th the sides at a n a n gl e o f about

F ig . 15
.

T h e B ob P un c h s h o w n i n Fi g 16 i s u s ed i n p l a c e o f t h e
-
, .
,

peen o f a hammer f o r hollowi n g o ut stock E xam p l es o f i ts .

appl i cat i o n a r e g i ven i n s eve ral o f th e special w e lds desc ribed

in C hapt e r IV I t is h it with a h e avy hammer i n th e sam e
.
,

ma nn e r a s th e flatte r I f a hand hamme r w ere u sed in p lac e

.

o f th e bob pu n ch i ts ha r d e ne d face might b reak wh en struck

-
.

Fig . 16 . Fig . 17 .

B OB -
P U N CH . N E C K I N G T OOL .

N ec ki n g T OO L— In c e rt ai n c a s e s s u c h a s w e l di n g a n e y e ,

bol t fi n i sh i n g the insi de o f th e ey e of a f orged hook a n d

, ,

maki n g a T weld a necki n g tool ( Fig 1 7 ) i s ve ry c o n v e nie n t

-
, .
,

but no t ab solutely necessary .

F u l l er s — F i g 18 s h o w s t op a n d b ot t o m ful l e r s w h i c h a re
. .
,
 FU LL E R S AN D S W AG E S 27

u sed in f o rmi n g groove s a n d fi lleted co rne rs They a re made .

in a num b e r o f si zes dep e n di n g up on th e radiu s o f th e c i r

,

cu la r edge On a inch f ull er th is radiu s w o ul d b e

.
-
i nch .

The top full er A i s made w ith a handle whi l e th e b o tt o m

, , ,

fulle r B h a s a s q ua re shank l ike th e ha rdi e

, , , .

Fig 18 . Fig 19 . .

T OP AND B OT T O M F U LL E R . T OP A N D B OT T O M S WA OE .

Sw a g es top and a bottom swage a re sh own at A an d B

. A
i n Fig 19 . Th ey a re u sed f o r a w ide va ri ety o f pu rp o ses but
.
,

ma inly f o r finish i n g round material Th e s izes va ry a cc o rd .

Fig . 20. T H E S WA G F . B L OC K .

i ng to the di amete r o f th e r o un d stock f o r w h ich th e y a re

m ade Thu s a 2 i nch swage i s u sed on 2 i n ch rou n d st o ck
.
- -
.
28 T
M A E R I ALS A N D E Q UI PM E N T

A Sw a g e B l oc k i s s h o w n i n Fi g 20 T h e s e b l oc k s ar e . .

u sually made o f ca s t i r o n a n d ow i n g to thei r w ide range o f

, ,

ut i l i ty i n va r i ou s shapes a n d size s Th ey a r e o f sp e c ial i m

,
.

po r ta n ce i n small shops a s th ey ca n be made to take the plac e

,

o f n um e r ou s swag e s a n d sp e ci al tool s A c ast i r on bas e i s .

.
-

ge n e r ally p r ov i d e d a s sh ow n o n whi ch they ca n b e placed

, ,

i n eithe r a flat o r a n upright positi o n .

V i s e — For w o r k r eq u i r i n g t w i s ti n g a n d fi l i n g s o m e k i n d
.
,

o f a vi s e i s d e si r abl e T he type m ost commo n ly u sed i n a

.

fo rg e shop i s s ho w n i n Fig 21 A vi se shoul d al ways be a t

. .

ta ch e d to a fi rm a n d substa n tial b e n ch .

Fig 21 T H E VI S E
. . Fig 22 T H E CO N E
. . . .

T h e C on e Fi g 22 i s u s e d fo r r ou n di n g o r t ru i n g ri n g s
, .
, , ,
.

Thi s i s do n e by heati n g th e ri n gs thruout and f o rci n g th em

dow n on th e c on e I f th e r in g i s made i n th e f o rm o f a ba n d
.

f rom flat stock it must be tu r n e d o ve r an d b o th edges ex

,

p a n de d equally t o make i t st raight .

C ones a re made o f ca st i ro n i n va ri o u s s izes A con ven i .

e n t o ne i s f rom 2% to 3 % feet h igh w ith th e diam e te r o f ,

th e small e n d 2 i n ches a n d of the l a rge e n d ab o u t 14 i n ch es .

 S U RF A CE P L A TE 29

T h e S u rfa c e P l a t e s u i t ab l e fo r t e ch n i c al s c h o o l s i s m a de o f
c ast i ro n a n d i s a b out 2 by 3 fee t va ry in g i n th i ck n e s s f rom
, ,

2 t o 4 i n ch es It shoul d hav e a n umb e r of IM i n ch rou n d o r

.
-

squa r e h ol es i n it Spac ed a bou t 3 inch es between ce n te rs

, .

Fig . 23 . T H E SU RF A CE P L ATE .

Th es e a re u sed f or h olding pi n s an d f o rm ers wh en b e n d in g

r in gs p ipes a n d wo rk s i m i la r i n cha ract er Th e face o f th e
, ,
.

plate Sh o ul d b e p la n ed s o th at w o rk ca n b e st raighten ed o r
,

t ested on it .

Thes e plates a re u sually m o unt ed o n cast i r o n bases a s ,

sh ow n in Fig 23 ; bu t wo o de n block s may b e u sed

. .

S h e ar s — F o r c u t t i n g o ff c o l d s t o c k S h ea r s a re ge n er al l y
,

u sed i n p r e fe re n c e t o a ha rdi e o r ch isel o n accou n t o f th e,

t im e -wh ic h m ay be saved They a re eith e r h a n d o r p owe r

.

ope rated a n d va ry in size b e i n g Usual ly des ig n ated by th e

, ,

max imum s iz e o f stock wh ich can be cut O n e th a t sh ould .

meet m ost o f th e dem a n ds o f a tech n ical sch ool w ill c ut

94 x 4 inch st o ck Wh e n material i s cut w i th th e sh ea rs its
.
,

e n ds a re rough a n d have to be squa red u p on th e a n vil .

 C H A PT E R II .

D R A W I N G —O U T ,
BE N D IN G AN D T W I STI N G .

Ox i d i z in g F i r e — A s th e c o al i n a f o rg e b u rn s i t c o n
.

su m es oxyg en f rom th e a i r b last I f too much a i r i s blown

-
.

th ru the fi r e there will b e an excess o f oxygen Th is will a t .

tack the h eated i r on o r steel f o rm ing scal e o r o x ide of i r on

, ,
.

The rate o f thi s scal e format i o n inc reases w ith the ri se in

t empe r atu re of th e mate rial .

Scal e shoul d be avoi ded eve n o n an o rdina ry f orging since ,

i t pits the material an d i f n ot removed wh il e h ot m akes it

“

, ,

look a s though it ha d bee n o v erheated U n l e ss th e scal e i s .

i n a molte n co n ditio n i t i s al so impossibl e t o m ak e a s ou n d

wel d .

T o P rev e n t t h e F orm a t i o n o f S c a l e t h e fol l o w i n g p r e c a u

ti o n s sh oul d be tak e n '

1 H av e a good bed o f h ot c oal s ove r th e tuye r e i ron fo r

.

the ai r to pas s th r u .

2 Keep th e material w e ll c ov e re d w ith c oke in o rder t o

.
,

make the pa rt O f it s su r face ex p osed to th e ai r as smal l a s

pos s i bl e I f the ai r —bla st comes i n di r e ct contact w ith the
.

mate r ial scal e wil l form and th e m aterial w ill be c o ole d to a

,

c ertai n exte n t .

3 D o n ot put o n t o o mu ch bl ast i e f o rc e t oo mu ch ai r
.
, . .
,

th ru th e fi r e I f thi s i s do n e th e h o t coal s wil l be bl ow n ou t

.

of the c e n ter o f th e fi re leavi n g n o bed o f hot c o al s fo r c o n

,

s u m i n g th e oxyge n .

W l di n g H e
e a t — W h en p i e c e s o f w r o u gh t i r o n a r e h e a t ed
they s o ften unt il at a certain t e m p eratu re they wil l st ick t o
,

gethe r i f placed i n co n tact T h e temperatu re at which th i s

.

s o ft a n d sticky co n diti o n o ccu rs i s k n own as th e wel ding h eat

o f w r o ught i ro n .

So ft steel ha s th e requ i red welding cha racte ri sti c s at a

 W E LD I N G H E A T 31

l ower temperatu r e than w rought i ron . I t d o e s n ot h owever , ,

bec o m e very s o ft at th i s h eat .

In di ca t i on s of 3 . W i —
J u s t b ef o r e t h e i r o n
e l d n g H ea t

reaches the w el d in g h eat explo sive spa rks w ill fly o ut o f th e

,

fi re Thes e Spa rk s a re sm all p a rt icl es o f the m ater i al w hich

.

have m elted off a n d a re bei n g bl o wn o u t .

T o reach thi s c o nditi o n a n d have th e material o f un if o rm

t emperatu re th ru out th e h eati n g mu st be do n e sl o wly I f t o o
,
.

much a i r —blast i s u sed th e outsi de o f th e m aterial wil l bur n

a s j u st desc ribed but th e center w il l remai n ha rd A n attempt
,
.

t o w el d tw o p iec es h eated i n th i s ma n ne r w ill ge n e rall y resul t

ln a failu re sinc e th e col d i ns ide t ogeth er w ith the su rrou n d
-
,

i ng ai r w ill quickly c o ol th e outside su r face .

B u r n e d I r o n — If a b a r o f w r o u gh t i r o n o r m i l d s te el b e
.
, ,

al lowed to rema in i n the fi re w ith th e bla st o n a fter th e wel d

ing h eat ha s bee n reach ed it w i ll bu r n Th e material wh ich
, .

'

i s bu r n ed off ru n s ove r th e tuyere a n d f o rm s l ump s s imil a r to

th e cl inke r S i n ce th e bu rned port i o n o f a n i ro n ba r i s a b
.

s o lu tely u s el es s c are sh ould b e taken t o rem o ve the ba r when

,

it has reach ed the wel di n g heat .

The a i r blast sh oul d al way s be tu rned off wh en th e m ate

-

rial i s remove d f r o m th e fi re Th i s p revent s a wa st e o f c o al

.

and keeps the fi re smal l .

D r a w i n g O u t i s t h e p r o c e s s o f i n c r ea s i n g t h e l en g t h o f a
‘

piec e o f stock wh il e reduci n g its c ross —s e ct io n al a r ea With .

mach ine ste e l th i s can b e don e at a y ell o w heat but w r o ught ,

i ro n requ ires a w el ding h eat .

Wh e n th e st o ck i s at th e p r op e r h ea t t h is d rawi ng o ut can ,
-

be a ccompl i shed by hamm eri n g i t ove r th e l a rge p art o f the

h o rn with a han d h amme r a s Shown i n Fig 24 Th i s makes
, . .

the p i ec e inc rea se i n l e n gth without w ide n ing it ve ry much .

I f it w er e h amm e red o n th e face o f th e a n vi l a l a rge am ou n t

of en ergy woul d b e wa sted du e t o th e si dew i se sp readi n g o f
,

t he st o ck .
32 DR AWIN G -
OU T , BE N D I N G AND TW I S T I N G

I n d raw ing out stock of a n y shape i t shoul d fi rst be ham

-

m ered squa re to prev e nt it f rom bu rst i n g Th i s al so makes .

the grai n fi n e r a n d imp r oves th e phy sical p r opert i e s o f th e

material E ven when a round ba r i s to be r e duc ed i n d i amete r
.

Fig . 24 . DR A WI N G -
O UT .

i t shoul d be fi rst hamme red squa re then octago n al a n d fi nal ly , ,

r ound .

Th e rea son f o r thi s p r o cedu re can b e explai n ed w ith th e

a i d o f Fig 25 which show s th e c r o ss s ect ion o f a p i e ce o f
.
,
-

rou n d stock that i s bei n g sl owly revolved wh ile hamm eri n g .

Th e blow s o n top w il l caus e th e stock to flatt e n o ut a n d a s

sum e th e sha p e indicated by th e dotted l ine Th i s w il l m ake .

th e side s A a n d A t e n d t o pull away f rom th e center A S

, ,
.

Fig . 25 . Fig . 26 .

th e pi ec e is rev o lved and hamm e red th e di rection o f th is p ull

will cha n ge s o that th e t e n de n cy w i ll be f o r the wh o l e outsid e
,

su rfac e to sepa rate f rom th e ce n ter Th e result i s the f o rma .

t i o n o f cracks a s sh o wn in Fig 26 These mak e th e i r o n

, . .

stru ctu rally weak .

Wh e n d raw ing stock down t o a c o nical p o int a s in P r o j ect ,

3 i t mu st fi rst b e hamme red s qua re and th e c o rne rs then

,

rou n ded off I f thi s i s n ot d one th e poi n t w ill s p l it o r b u rst .

.

S q u ar i n g or T ru i n g u p W o r k — W h e n d ra w i n g o u t a
,
-
,
-
 C U TT I N G ST OC K 33

r o und ba r t o a square o ne there i s da n ger o f it s bec o m i n g d ia

m o n d —sha p ed i n c ross s ect i on a s show n i n Fig 27 I t w i l l in
-
, . .
,

fact al most i n va riably a ssume th is shape i f th e ba r i s not

,

h eat ed u n i f o rml y .Th e ba r may be t rued u p by lay i n g i t

-

ac ro ss th e anv i l a n d st r i ki n g it a s in dicat ed by th e arrow s o a s

t o f o rce the ext ra m etal back i n t o th e body o f th e ba r .

Fig . 27 .

C u t t i n g C o l d S t o ck — In c u t t i n g c o l d b ar s of s oft s t ee l o r
w r o ught i ro n w ith a c o l d ch isel th e m e thod e mploy e d sh ould
be a s f ol low s : A r o u n d th e ba r m ake a s eries o f cuts ab out
o n e fou rt h o f th e way th ru tak ing c are to have them al way s
-
,

at right a n gles t o th e axi s o f th e ba r Til t the ba r sl ightly

.
,

a n d place th e pa rtly cut sect ion at th e oute r edge o f th e anvil .

B y h itti n g th e p r o j ecting end a sha rp bl ow with a sl edge i t

shoul d b reak ofT ea sily .

I f th e st o ck becomes sl igh tly wa rm wh e n bei ng cut in th i s

wa y cool it w ith w ater ; oth erw is e it w ill b e tough and w il l
,

n ot break O fT .

C u t t i n g H o t St o ck — H o t s to c k m u s t b e c u t al l t h e w a y
th ru sinc e i t i s generally t oo s oft to b e ve ry ea sily b r oke n O ff
,

by a sledge bl o w T o o bta in a square cut at o n e en d o f a ba r

.

th e h o t ch i sel sh o ul d b e tilted away f r o m that end u n til o n e

s ide o f th e cutt ing edge i s perpendicu la r t o th e ba r H ot .

st o ck i s u sually cut f r o m eith e r tw o o r f o u r s ides but i f it is

,

fl at th e cutti n g i s d o n e f r o m eith e r one o r both o f th e w i deI

34 DR AW I N G -
OU T , B E N D I N G AN D TW I S T I N G

sides . I n cutti n g round stock th e ba r shoul d be rev o lved

towa rd th e w o rke r .

Th e cutting edge o f a h o t chi sel w il l become s o f t and b e nd

i f al low e d t o get t o o hot F o r thi s reas o n i t i s neces sary to
.

dip it in wate r f reque n tly t o cool i t off It sh o ul d a ls o be r e .

m oved from th e cut betwee n blows .

I n u si n g a ch isel a n d especially a hot chi sel neve r all o w

, ,

i ts cutti n g edge t o come i n c o ntact w ith th e ha rd fac e o f the

a n vil When a p i e ce has b een n ea rly c ut th ru it Sh oul d be
.
,

moved f orwa rd u n t i l th e cut i s j u st outsi de th e edge o f th e

anvil A copper pl ate i s som et im es u sed fo r p rotecting the
.

chis el edge wh en cutting thi n stock Th e ch i sel m ay then cut .

th ru th e st o ck an d si n k int o th e c o pp er without having i ts

edge spoil ed .

A ha rdi e i s u sed i n m u ch th e sam e m anne r a s a ch i sel .

When th e st o ck has been nea rl y cu t th ru th e la st bl ow o r tw o ,

shoul d fall on th e fa r side of th e ha rdie Th i s keeps th e face .

Fig . 28 .

o f th e hamme r f rom c om i n g i n c o n tact with a n d sp o ili n g th e

cutt in g edge o f th e ha r die I t al so p r e ve n ts th e p roj ecting en d
.

f ro m flyi n g up a n d h i tti n g th e w ork e r i n th e face a s i t m i ght ,

i f th i s w e re n ot do n e .

T w is t in g
. Wh e n t w i s t i n g s t o c k i t s h ou l d fi r s t b e m a r k e d
-
,
 PU N C H I N G 35

w i t h a center p unch at the po int s wh ere the t w i s t i s t o begin

-

a n d end Th e section t o be twi sted is h eated t o an ev en y el low

.

heat Th e p iec e i s then qu ickly p laced i n a v ise with o ne ce n

.

ter p unch ma rk i n l i n e w ith o n e edge o f the j aws as sh own i n

-
,

Fig C Plate V A p ai r o f flat j awed t o ngs o r a w re n ch i s

.
,
.
-

u sed t o gra sp th e p iece at the o the r mark in th e sam e ma n ner .

The ba r can then be twi sted a s m uch a s requ i red I f th ere i s .

n o vi se c o nveni ent two p a i rs o f t o ngs may b e u sed

, .

In orde r t o obtai n a u n i f o rm twi st the stock mu s t be un i

formly h eated A B and C o f F ig 28 illustrate the e ffect s
.
, .

p roduced by twi sting s q ua re o ctagonal and flat mater ial r e

, ,

s p e cti vely .

Fig . 29 .

P u n chi n g — Tw o ki nd s o f p u n c h e s a re c o m m o nl y em
p loy ed f o r punch i n g h o les in h ot m aterial Th e st ra i ght h and .

punch sh o w n at A i n Fig 29 i s u sed o n th in st o ck whil e th e

.
,

eye punch a t B i s u sed f o r p unching h o l es in h eavi er st o ck

-
.

Thes e p unche s sh o ul d be made O f t oo l steel s ince t hey bend ,

t o o easil y i f made o f mach ine steel .

Wh en p unch ing thi ck mate rial th e h ot s to ck i s l ai d fl a t o n

,

th e anv il a n d th e punch d riven int o it with a sl edge hammer .

A t a depth o f about y, in ch th e punch i s rem o ved a n d some

green o r d ry Coal plac ed in th e h o l e t o p revent sti cking When .

th e p unch ha s been d riven th ree f o u rth s o f th e wa y th ru a s

-
,

sh o wn as C a black mark wil l a pp ea r o n th e b o ttom side

, .
36 DR A WIN G -
OU T , B E N D I N G AN D T WI ST I N G

The st o ck i s the n revers e d a n d th e pu n ch ing continu ed f rom

that si de a s at D
,
D u r i n g th e e n t i re O peratio n th e pu n ch
.

should b e c ooled o ccas io n ally t o keep it f rom s o fte n in g a n d

,

b e n di n g C a re shoul d be take n when fi n i sh i n g the pu n ch in g

.

t o have th e p u n ch di rectly above the ha rd i e o r th e p r i tch el

hol e i n o rde r t o all o w the plug t o dr o p th ru
,
.

A cl ean —
cu t h o l e w il l be O btai n ed i f th i s p r o cedu re i s car
ri ed out ; but i f th e punchi n g i s done f rom one s id e only a ,

bu rr will b e ra ised o n th e l o we r si de a s sh o wn at E , .

Pr o j ect 1 . D ra w i n g -
ou t a n d B en d i n g R i n g .
( P l at e I ) .

Thi s p r o j ect is given fo r th e pu rp ose o f fam i l iar i zi n g th e

stu de n t with the h eat ing o f machin e steel o r w rought i ro n a n d
the u s e O f the hand hamme r -
.

ST E P O N E — Th e r o und st o ck i s drawn o ut squa re a s ,

sh o wn at 1 Th is i s do n e by h eating ab o ut 3 o r 4 inch e s o f it
.

at o n e e n d t o a yel low h eat an d reducing it w ith a ha n d ,

hamme r on th e l arge pa rt o f th e h orn a s sh o w n i n Fig 24 ,

. .

ST E P T w o — Th e material i s rounded by hamm eri n g i t o n

th e c or n ers m aki n g i t fi rst o ctagonal a n d th e n rou n d It i s
,
. _

sm oothed up eith er by plac i n g i t i n a i n ch bottom swage - -

an d revolving it wh il e hammeri n g o r by u si n g t o p a n d bot

tom swages
-
.

ST E P TH R E E — A piece 1 1 % i nch es l o ng i s cut off o f th e

d raw n o ut po rtion Thi s m ay b e do n e o n th e h a rd ie i n th e
-
.

man n e r al ready desc ribed B e su re to hav e th e last bl ows fall

.

on th e fa r s ide of th e h ardi e t o av o i d spoil i n g its edge a n d

,

to p r eve n t th e cu t porti on f rom fl y i n g u p int o th e fac e f th e o

w orker .

ST E P FO U R — A b o ut a th i rd o f th e st o ck i s h eated a n d bent
.
,

ove r th e la rge pa rt o f th e a n vil a s sh o wn at 4 Th e hamm er , .

bl ows sh o ul d fal l o n th e e n d out si de o f th e h o rn a n d n ot o n ,

IO p o f th e ho r n Thi s wil l be n d th e material w ith out m a rri n g

.

i t The o t h er end i s be n t i n th e sam e manne r

.
.
Proj ect ,
1 . Plate I .
38 DR AW I N G -
OU T , B E N D I N G AND TW I S T I N G

ST E P F I VE — Th e p i ec e i s heated an d hel d w ith a p ai r o f

l ink to n gs as shown in Fig A The be n ding i s then c o n
-
,
‘

. .

t i n u e d by hammering a s indicated Th e ring i s finally made.

ci rcula r o n th e horn o f the anvil The ends mu st be cut off .

w ith a hot chis el o r ha rdie al ong th e dotted li n es sh own .

S T E P S I X — The ends a re d rive n togeth e r and the round

.

i n g fi ni shed Wh en th e ri n g i s com p l eted it may b e given a

.
,

black fi n ish by h ol di n g it ove r a sm oky fi re unt il black hot and

then wiping it w ith o il y wa ste .

P roj ec t 2
. S- H o o k .
( Pl a t e I I.
)

ST E P O N E — A fte rsquari n g u p th e end s o f th e stock heat ,

about hal f of th e piece a n d ben d on e e n d over th e horn B e .

su re to have th e bl o w s fall o n th e fa r s ide o f th e h orn a s i n ,

th e p reviou s ex ercis e .

ST E P T w o — C ontinu e th e bending until the p iece i s sha p ed

a s Sh own .

ST E P TH R E E — H eat th e o the r end and ben d i t over th e

h o rn in th e sam e manne r a s be fo re but i n th e o p po site di r ec ,

t ion .

ST E P FO U R — C o mplet e th e b ending by m aking th e h o ok

appea r a s sh own Th e fi ni sh ed h ook sh oul d be free f r o m
.

rough ma rks caus e d b y im p r op er be n ding .

Proj ect 2. Plate I I .

S HOOK

gr
n

S t o c k:
fi xa ound M a ch i n e Stee l
40 DR AW I N G -
OU T , B E N D I N G AN D TW I S T I N G
,

P r oj ect 3 . S ta p l es .
( Plate I I I ) .

ST E P O N E — C u t the st o ck t o l e n gth th e n hamme r o ut the

,

ends to a square o r a ch isel p oi n t a s sh ow n at 1 a and 1 b

-
, .

Work at the o u t e r edge of th e anvil t o avo i d h itting th e anvi l

,

face w ith th e ha n d hamme r B oth a n vi l a n d hamm e r fac e ~

-
.

may be chipped o r b roken i f thi s i s n o t do n e .

S T E P T w o — H eat th e stock at the cente r and be n d it ove r

the ho rn taking care to have th e bl ows fall o n the outs i de
, .

S T E P T H R E E — Fi n i sh th e be n di n g ope rat ion and cut o ff ,

the e n ds with a ha rdie I f th e e n ds a re c rooked they may be

.

straighte n e d on the ha rdie a s show n in Fig 30

, . .

F i g 30. .
Proj ect 3 . Pl at e I I I .
42 DR AWI N G -
O UT , BE N D I N G AN D TW I ST I N G

P r o j ect 4 . B ea m S t r a p .
( Pl a t e I V ) .

ST E P O N E .
—A S W i th
’

a n y be n t shape th e length o f st o ck ,

requ i red for thi s p roj e ct i s determ ined by m e a s u r m g al o n g

th e ce n te r l i n e o f the fi ni sh ed shape i e al o n g th e dot t ed li n e , . .
, ,
.

i n 3 Th e l o cation o f th e right —angl e bend and th e begi nn ing

.

a n d e n d o f the tw i st sh o ul d be marked w ith a ce n te r —pu n ch .

Thi s i s do n e o n th e e dge o f the stock be fore it i s heated A .

cold ch i sel shoul d n ot be u se d fo r m arking s ince th e cut ex ,

pa n d s a n d sta rt s a c rack .

S T E P T w o — Take a sh o r t h igh heat at th e c e n t e r pu n ch -

m a rk w here th e p i e ce i s t o b e b e n t a n d l ay th e stock on the ,

a n vil at th e rou n d ed edge a s show n i n Fig A Th e ce n te r

,
. .

pu n ch ma r k shoul d not c o me quite in l i n e w ith th e outer edge

o f th e a n vil fo r th e st o ck ha s a te n de n cy to m o ve f o rwa rd
,

du ring th e bendi n g op e rati o n I n o r d e r to m ake th e bend a s.

short a s possibl e th e ba r sh oul d b e fi rmly h el d dow n o n the

a n vi l with a sledge Strike th e e n d a s i n di cated an d be n d th e
.
,

stock t o a right a n gl e .

ST E P TH RE E — S qua re up th e co r n e r by placing th e p roj ec t

on th e anvil a s i n Fig B a n d st riki n g it i n th e m a nn e r i n di
,
.
,

ca t ed by th e a rr o w s I t sh oul d al so be reversed on th e a n vil

.

a n d st ru ck on th e e n d a s sh own i n Fig C B y striking at E

, . .

th e stock i s made th icker at F f o rm ing a fillet o n the in side ,

c or n e r C are Sh o ul d b e take n du ri n g th is o pe rat ion t o keep

.

th e a n gl e at o r great e r than 90 l est th e st ock be u pset a s °

,

i n Fig D f ormi n g a col d shu t o r crack o n th e i n s ide cor n e r

.
,
-
.

Thi s woul d make th e a n gl e weak A fter the c o rn e r has bee n .

up set a n d h amm ered to shape i t i s sm o o thed u p wi th a flatte r ,

.

C a u ti on — D o not t ry t o square th e st o ck by p l acing it o ve r

a co rne r of th e anvil a s it wi ll then b e h amm e red t oo th in
,
.

S T E P FO U R — Take a u n i f o rm y ell o w heat on th e stock and ,

p lace one e n d i n a v i se G ive it a qua rte r tu r n with a pa i r o f

.
-

flat j aw e d t on gs i n th e m an n e r a l ready desc ribed

-
.
P r o j ect 4 .
Plate I V .

B EAM STRAP
" “

S toc k :
5 L
5 x 12 x12 w r ot Ir on or m a c h i ne l
s tee

C ut to S z ei
 P r oj ect 5 . T w i s t ed G a t e-H ook .
( P l at e V .
)
STE P — Cut a p iec e o f {a inch s qua re machin e s t e el to
ON E v
-

th e s ize indicated a n d mark it w ith a center p unch a s sh o wn

,
-
,

at 1 .

ST E P T w o — T o f orm a sh o ul de r heat one end o f th e stock ,

a n d place i t with th e center pu n ch ma rk di rectly above th e -

i nn e r edge o f th e a n vi l R est th e s et hammer o n to p o f th e

.
-

piec e s o that it s s id e edge i s i n l i n e w ith th e edge o f th e

anvil a s i n Fig A The st o ck sh oul d th en b e tu rned wh ile
,
. .

th e s et—hammer i s bei n g h it o r th e sh oulde r w ill be w orked ,

i n faste r o n o n e si de than o n anoth er C a re shoul d be take n to .

keep the sh o ul d e r exactly e ven with th e edge o f th e anvi l .

ST E P TH R E E — When the sh o ul der ha s b ee n f o rmed a s ,

sh o wn at th e e n d D i n 2 th e en d i s hamm ered o ut square and

, , ,

then round I t i s fi n ish ed betw een top and b o tt o m swages

.
-
.
-
.

The o the r e n d o f th e pi ece i s sh oul dered and d rawn o ut i n th e

sam e ma nn e r I f th e sh oul de r i s not squa re i t may be t rued
.
,

u p by i n s e rti n g th e swag e d end i n a h eadi n g t o ol a s Sh o w n in -

,

Fig B and st riki n g on the op p o site e n d o f th e st o ck

.
,
.

Th e e n d D i s th en p ointed by h ammeri n g i t t o a squa re

, ,

p oint roundi n g O ff th e corners a n d cutti n g it t o l ength

, , .

ST E P FO U R — To ben d th e ey e the stock i s h eated uni ,

fo rmly an d th e be n d sta rted o ve r th e r o u n ded edge o f th e

a n vil Th e squa re st o ck at th e sh oul de r sh o uld be c o ol ed t o
.
,

pr e ve n t its b e ndi n g Th e eye i s fi ni shed o n th e h or n o f the

.

anvil in th e sam e m a nn e r a s th e S h o o k -
.

The hook i s be n t i n much th e s am e way A bout i n ch .

o f th e p oint sh o ul d b e cooled a n d the blow s all owed t o fall

on thi s cold pa rt i n o rde r t o av o i d marri n g th e st o ck

, .

ST E P F I V E — B e f ore twisti n g the mi ddl e s ect ion center ,

pu n ch ma rks sh o ul d be mad e 1 % inch es fr o m each sh o ul der ,

l eavi n g l inch es betw ee n th ese marks Th is p o rt i o n i s .

h eat e d t o an eve n yell ow a n d plac ed i n a v is e a s shown i n ,

Fig C Wit h the ai d o f a pa i r o f fl a t j awed t ongs th e st o ck

. .
-

i s give n o n e c o mpl ete tu rn .

Th e h o ok sh oul d b e fil e d wh i l e h ot to remove the scal e , ,

a n d the n bl acke n e d .
P r olect 5
.
Pl a t e V .
 C H A PT E R III .

CO M M O N W E LD S .

T h e L a p W e l d i s t h e o n e o r di n ari l y u s e d f o r j o i n i n g fl a t ,

s qua re ,
o r rou n d ba rs I n o rde r that th e c ros s sect io n o f the
.
-

mat e rial at the w el d b e th e same a s that o f the st o ck i t i s ,

ge n e rally nec essa ry t o u p set th e ends bef o re w el ding .

U p s et t i n g — W h en t h e l e n g t h o f a p i e c e o f s t o c k i s d e
.

c r e ased a n d it s c ros s secti o nal a rea i n creased a t any po i nt i t

-

i s sai d to be ups e t at tha t point B ef o re thi s ca n b e done t o .

th e end o f a pi ec e o f w rought i r o n i t i s nec essa ry t o b ri n g it

’

t o a weld i n g heat A secti on in th e m iddl e o f th e stock does

.

n ot h ave to be h eated s o much I f th e upsetting i s t o be at .

o n e e n d th e st o ck sh oul d fi rs t b e hamm ered o n al l s ides to

, ,

prev e nt it f r o m bu rst ing th ru th e slag seam s at th e end Whe n .

th e end o f a sho rt pi ec e i s t o be u p set it may be don e by ,

hol ding th e p iece vert ically w ith a p ai r o f l i n k to n gs the h o t -

e n d resti n g o n th e face o f th e anv il a n d st riki n g th e t o p en d ,

with a ha n d hamm e r H eavy bl ow s a re n ec es sa ry a n d a s they

-
.
,

hav e a tendency to bend th e st o ck i t m u st b e st ra ighte n ed oc

ca s i on a lly Th e e n d o f a l o n g pi ece may be upset by grippi n g
.

th e c ol d en d w ith th e ha n d s a n d st riki n g th e h ot on e against

th e fac e o f th e anvil .

Th e obj ec t o f upsetti n g a pi ece be f o re wel di n g i s t o make

all owa n ce fo r th e i ro n wh ich i s l o st th ru scal i n g a n d bu r n i n g ,

a n d f o r th e d rawing out cau se d by th e h a m m eri n g requ i red

-

fo r a sou n d w el d I f th e stock i s hamme red out t oo th in at

.

th e wel d it m ay b e up set again at that poi n t but thi s i s a

, ,

mo re di fficult op e rati o n tha n up sett i n g befo re w eld i n g It i s .

the r e fore bett e r to up set th e e n d s o f th e o rigi n al ba r t o o much

tha n n ot enough a s th e su rpl u s stock ca n v e ry qu ickly be
,

ha m m ered out Th e amou n t O f upsetti n g requ ired depe n ds

.

e n t i r ely upon th e n um b e r o f h eats taken i n w e l ding E v e ry .

 U SE O F F LU X 47

tim e a ba r o f i ron i s br o ught t o the w elding h ea t th ere i s a

porti o n o f th e outs ide su rface w asted on a ccount o f scal i n g
and bu rni n g The am o u n t o f material al l o w ed f o r wa ste i n
.

weldi n g the re f o re de p ends upon th e n um b e r of h eats requ i red

to mak e a s ound weld Th is all owa n c e i s ge n erall y f r o m o n e
.

fou rth to th r e e f ou rth s o f th e diameter o f th e stock

-
.

Sca r fi n g i s t h e p ro c e s s o f s h a p i n g t h e e n d s o f s t oc k
s o that when they a re wel de d t o gethe r a s mooth j oint w i l l be

obtai n ed Th e shapes o f thes e sca rfs depend t o a la rge e xte n t

.

upo n th e cha racter o f th e wel d and w ill be taken up i n deta i l

,

in P r o j ect s 6 to 1 7 I n ge n eral th e p a rts o f th e sca rf s wh ich

.

a re p laced in c o ntact i n weldi n g sh o ul d b e co n v ex a s sh ow n ,

at 3 in Plat e V I I Th e tw o cente rs w ill th en t ouch fi rst a n d

.
,

the molten o xide wil l be al l owed t o es ca p e I f th e sca rfs were .

made c oncave thi s o x ide c o ul d n ot escap e o r be squeezed out ,

and th e w el d woul d b e a poo r a n d u n s ou n d on e .

U s e o f F l u xes i n W e l di n g — W h e n h ea t i n g a p i e c e of
comm on i r o n o r steel f o r wel d i n g ox i dati o n takes p l ac e a n d
,

a thi n fil m o f o x ide o f i r o n i s f o rm ed o n the su rface Thi s .

oxi de o r sc al e m u st b e h eated t o a high tem p eratu re be f ore

, ,

becom i n g fl u i d enough t o run o ff an d permit a s ou n d w el d .

W rought i ron may b e h eated e no ugh to m el t off th i s o xide

with o ut being bu r n e d but steel w ould be i n j u red i f b rought
,

t o such a h igh temperatu re I t i s th e e fo re n ecessa ry when

.
r
,

wel di n g both h igh an d l o w carbon Steel t o u s e a flux such

-
, ,

as pow de red b orax i n o rde r t o l owe r th e m el ting poi n t o f the

‘

oxi de A flu x i s al s o o ften u sed w h en w el di n g w r o ught i ron ;

.

bu t i s not essent ial Fl ux es d o n ot act a s ceme n ts b u t m e rely

.
,

make th e i ron w el dabl e at a l owe r temperatu re .

M e t h o d o f U s i n g F l u x — A ft e r t h e p i e c e s i n t h e fi re h av e
.

reach ed a y ell ow h eat some flux i s th r o wn o r s p ri n kl ed on th e

,

sca r f s o r p a rt s t o b e w el ded a n d th e h eat ing c on ti n u ed u p t o

, ,

th e w elding h ea t A s th e fl ux m el ts it fl o w s o ve r th e sca rf
.
,

formi n g a c oat or covering Thi s di ss o l ves t h e o x ide alread y

.

f orm e d a n d p rev e n t s fu rt h e r ox i da t i o n .
48 CO M M ON W E LD S

Th e fl u x u sed wh en w eldi n g w rought i ro n Is ge n e r ally

clea n sharp sa n d Th ere a r e va ri ou s w el d in g c o mpou n ds on
,
.

th e ma rket s o m e o f wh ich c o n tai n b o r ax a n d i ron fil in gs

,
.

M ost of th e m c o n tai n borax and a re u sed m a in ly w he n w eld ,

i n g steel .

P roj ec t 6
. P ra c t i c e W el d s — Fa got .
( Pl a t e V I ) .

Th e F a g o t W el d i s g iv e n a s a p r oj ec t i n o r de r t h a t th e
stu dent may ( 1 ) b ecome fam il i a r w i th w el ding h eats ( 2) ,

lea r n to u se th e ha n d hamme r e ffect ively ( 3 ) have fu rthe r

-

p ract ic e i n the draw i n g out o f w rought i ro n ( 4 ) a n d al s o fo r

-

eco n omy si n ce ol d li n k s rings o r pi eces o f sc ra p i ron may be

, , ,

u sed to g o o d adva n tage .

Th is wel d may be made by p lac ing tw o o r m ore p i eces o f

i r on on t op o f each othe r a n d w eldi n g th em fo r th e e n ti re
l engt h A n othe r m eth od i s t o be n d th e e n d o f a pi ece o f stock
.

o nce o r tw ic e a s In l a a n d 20 and w el d it int o a s ol id l ump

, ,
.

I f a li n k o r ri n g i s availa b le it ca n be h eated a n d closed ,

f o r hal f its l e n gt h a s in 3 a Th i s p o rti on i s the n w el ded a n d

,
.

ha m m e red o ut squa re Wh e n th e oth e r end ha s bee n t reated

.

i n th e sam e man n e r th e e n ti r e pi ece i s hamme red octago n al

, ,

th e n rou n d and fi n ally sm oothed up betwee n t o p a n d bott om

,

swages Th i s fi n ished p iec e may be u sed again f o r mak i n g a

.

ring o r l ink .

P roj e c t 7 . R o un d L ap W el d .
( P l at e V I I ) .

ST E P O N E — U p set on e en d O f eac h o f tw o p i ec es o f rou n d

stock fo r about 2 i n ches as sh own at 1 Th i s i s do n e by h eat
, .

in g th e e n d s t o a wel d i n g h eat and h itti ng them aga in st th e

face of th e anvil i n th e m a nn er al ready desc r i b ed
, .

ST E P T wo — Th e sca r f i s sta rt e d by placi n g th e st o ck o n

th e fac e o f th e a n vi l with the u ps e t po rtio n n ea r th e rou n d e d
,

edge and h itt ing it w ith th e fac e o f a han d hamm e r A ft e r

,
-
.
P r oj e ct 6
. Plate V I ,
50 C O M M O N W E LD S

a few bl ow s th e p een i s used a s shown i n Fig A Th ese

,
. .

bl ow s sh oul d com e at a n a n gl e o f ab o ut i n o rde r t o f orc e

the m ater i al b ack a n d fo rm a th i ck ridge at th e h e e l o f th e
sca rf a s sh ow n at 2 Th e scarf at thi s poi n t sh o ul d be s lightly
,
.

ta p e red .

ST E P TH R E E — Th e s ca r f i s fi n ish ed at th e r o unded edge o f

the anvi l w ith the face o f th e hamme r Thi s i s do n e to avoi d .

h itti n g the hamm e r against the shar p edge o f th e a n vil Th e .

l engt h o f th e sca rf sh o ul d be about one a n d o n e hal f time s -

th e th ickness o f th e ba r at th e u p set p orti o n .

Th e sca rf i s w o rked down to a po int as sh o wn at 3 i n , ,

o rde r t o facil itate w el ding th e en d o f the sca r f I f th ese ends .

we re v ery w ide s everal blow s woul d be n eces sa ry t o w el d

them a n d si n c e they c o ol v e ry ra p idly con s iderabl e skill and
, , ,

Sp eed w o ul d b e re q u i red .

ST E P F O U R — Wh en heati n g t h e st ock f o r wel ding have a

good bed o f hot c o al s Plac e th e sho rt pi ece at th e right o f
.

th e l ong on e th e sca r f s o f both bei n g fac e dow n a n d c ove r

, ,

th em with c oke H eat sl o wly t o i n su re a u n i fo rm t e mp e ra

.
,

tu re th ru out th e sca rfed po rti o n s I f o n e pi ec e Sh oul d h eat

'

f aster tha n th e oth e r p ull i t back a l i ttl e f r om the cente r o f

,

th e fi re B o th p i eces mu st be at a w el di n g h eat at th e sam e

.

t ime .

Wh en at th e wel di n g h eat remove th e piece s f r o m th e fi re ,

taki n g th e sh ort p iece i n th e right ha n d a n d th e lo n g o n e i n

the left Kee p ing th e sca r f s ide down give them each a qu ick
.
,

bl ow o n th e h o r n o f th e a n vi l t o di sl odge a n y di rt on th e
,

faces o f th e sca rf s Plac e th e sh ort p iec e on th e a n vil w ith

.

th e sca r f up a s sh ow n in Fig C Th is p iece i s n o t s o l iable

, . .

t o o ve r bal a n c e an d fall t o th e flo o r a s sometim es happe n s ,

wh e n weld i n g without a s sista n ce i f th e e n d o f th e sca r f com es

.

n ea rly t o th e i n n e r edg e O f th e an v i l St e ady the sca r f e d e n d

.

o f th e othe r pi ec e agai n st th e edge o f th e a n vil a s sh ow n i n ,

F i g C a n d b r i n g i t to th e desi re d p ositio n above the sh or t

.
,
P r o j ect 7 . Plate VI I .
52 CO M M ON W E LD S

piece Th e end o f o ne sca r f sh o ul d la p over th e th ick ri dge

.
,

o r heel o f the other a s in Fig D

, , . .

With a hand —ha m me r del ive r a few sha rp bl o w s to stick ,

the b o dy o f th e m ate ri al The e n ds o f th e sca rf s sh ould then

.

be hammered d o w n o th erwi se th ey w ill bec om e to o c o l d a n d

,

will n ot sti ck I f th e s ca r f s a re n ot th or oly welded at the

.

fi rst h eat p u t th e p i ec e back into th e fi re a n d take an o the r

,

wel ding h eat on it .

ST E P F IVE — A fte r th e w el d h a s been m ade th e scal e ,

Sh o ul d be cl ea n ed off w ith a fi le since it pits th e material The , .

ba r i s th en fi ni sh ed between t op and b o tt o m swages -

.

P r oj ect 8 . F la t L a p Wel d ( P l a t e . VI I I .
)
S T E P O N E — The stock i s u p set f o r ab o u t 2 inches i n the
manne r previ ou sly described
’

S T E P T w o — The scar f i s sta rted i n th e sam e way a s fo r

th e r o un d l a p w eld I t sh o ul d n o t h o weve r tape r v e ry much
.
, ,

at th e end .

ST E P T H R E E — Th e fini sh ed sca rf sh o ul d b e m ade th e same

w i dth a s th e ba r at th e thick ridge an d slightl y ta p ered t o ,

wa rd the end a s a t 3 , .

S T E P FO U R — Th e tw o p ieces a re welded t o gethe r i n much

th e sam e manne r a s th e r o un d st o ck o f P r o j ect 7 It i s a d .

v i sabl e th o t o us e a h eavy h and hamm e r in w el ding fl at oa r s

, ,
-
.

ST E P F I V E — When th e wel ding i s fin ish ed th e scal e sh oul d ,

be cleaned O ff w ith a fi l e and th e p iece sm o oth ed u p with a

fl a tt e r.
P roj e ct 8 . Plate V I I I
.
54 CO M M O N W E LD S

P r o j ect 9 . L i n ks of Chain .
( P l a t e I X ) .

Th e l ength o f t h e material requ i red fo r a l ink i s f o und by

mea su ring the di stanc e a round at th e center o f th e stock To .

c o mpute th is di stance th e desi red l i n k shown at 4 sh oul d be , ,

se p a rated int o tw o s em i ci rcula r ends a n d tw o straight c on

-

n ecti n g sectio n s The mea n diam ete r o f the e n d s i s 1 %

.

i nches ; s o l % x 3 V7 o r 3 3 } inches i s r equ Ir ed fo r th em

,
4

,
.

Th e c onn ecti n g s ectio ns a re each NA; inch es l o n g Th e total .

length i s then 2 X l% To thi s sh oul d

be add e d a sm all amount ab o ut %3 inch f o r th e wast e in , ,

w el di n g .

S T E P O N E — S qua re u p th e end s o f th e material and h eat ,

th e middl e u n i f ormly f o r about 3 i n ch es B en d it h al fway on .

th e h or n taki n g care t o hav e th e blows fall o n th e col d p r o

,

jecti n g end I t sh oul d th e n b e reversed a n d th e o th er e n d bent

.

o ve r in th e sam e ma nn e r f o rm ing a U a s shown at l Th e , ,

.

rea son f o r th is reversal i s that i f th e U we re f o rm ed by h itting

o n o n e e n d on ly that s ide o f th e U w oul d be th e sh orter o f
th e two I f one Side sh oul d be l o nge r than th e other it m ay
.
,

b e sh orte n ed by h e at i n g the sem i ci rcul a r porti o n p la cm g i t -

,

on a bottom swage th e shorte r l eg being held vert ical w ith a

-
,

pai r o f l i n k t on gs a n d st riki n g on th e e n d o f th e l o n ge r l eg
-
, .

ST E P T w o — Th e ends a re b rought to a y ell o w h eat a n d

sca r fed by pl ac i n g o n e end on th e a n vi l a s shown at A and
'

, ,

st r i ki n g a numbe r o f blow s m o vi n g th e U toward th e h o rn ,

a fte r each o n e Th i s leaves a seri es of no tch es on th e under

.

s ide o f th e p i e ce a s sh ow n at 2 Th e U i s the n tu rned over

,
.
,

a n d th e oth e r e n d t reated i n th e same man n e r The scar f s .

a re fi n i shed o n th e fac e of th e a n v il w ith th e p een o r th e heel

o f a ha n d hamm e r Th ey sh oul d not b e l es s than i lg inch
-
.
“

thick at th e e n d o r th ey wil l c o ol t o o qu ickly an d it w ill be

,

al most impossibl e t o wel d th em .

ST E PTH R E E —
B ring
th e ends t o ge t h er a s a t 3 taking ca re
.
“
, ,

t o have th e end o f th e top s ca r f p oi n ted t owa rd th e right I f .

Pr o j ect 9 .
Plate I X .

LI NKS OF C HAI N
i
S tock 6 p eces
-

31
1
62 Wrot lr on

Fi g A
Meth od of S ca r fing
56 CO M M O N W E LD S

it po int s t o the l eft th e s car f i s l e ft han d and i s ha rde r t o

,
-

weld Th e l ink should be shaped s o that the en d t o be w el ded

.

i s na rrowe r than th e o ther Th e stock i s then l ess liabl e t o

.

be hamme red smal l on eithe r s ide o f th e w el d an d the sem i ,

c i rcul a r e n d will be ab o ut th e right Siz e when the w el d i s

fini sh ed .

ST E P FO U R — Tak e a wel ding heat and weld th e j o int w ith

a few quick bl ows o f th e hand hamme r Th e l ink i s fini shed -
.
-

on th e h o rn o f the anvil .

S T E P F I V E — When j o i n ing l i n ks th e c o nnec t in g o ne i s ,

s ca rfed and i ts ends b rought t o geth e r read y f o r w elding The .

Fig 31 .

end A o f the link i s th en h eated th e sca rf s s p read a p a rt a s

, , , ,

s h o wn i n Fig 3 1 th e l inks sl ip p ed o n
.
,
a n d the scarfs b r o ught ,

togethe r aga in Th i s c o nnect ing link i s w elded i n t h e s am e

.

manner a s t h e ot hers .

Wel ded R in g — A ri ng f o rm e d fr o m r o u n d s to c k m a y b e
made in tw o wa y s i e b y s ca rfi ng be f o re o r a fte r b ending it
,
. .
,

i nto Sha p e Th e s ec on d o f these i s th e les s di fficul t a s the

.
,

sca r f s a re then more ea sily fitted and th e s to ck o n ei th er s ide

o f th e w el d i s n o t likel y to be co m e t hi n .

Th e am o un t o f material requ i red t o make it i s c o m p uted

f r o m it s m ean diamete r F o r th e f o l l o win g tw o p roj ect s t h i s
.
 W E LD E D RIN G 57

mean diamete r i s i nches a s sh own in Plate X The mean

, .

ci rc u m fe re n c e o f th e ring i s then 3 % X o r a pp roximately

IOX , i n ch e s
. To th i s m u S I be added an all o wance f o r waste
i n w elding de p ending o n the n umber o f heats necessa ry For
, .

a stu d e n t th i s w o ul d b e abou t or V2 i nch s o the t o tal length

,

o f st o ck requ i re d i s 1094; i n ch e s.
58 CO M M O N W E LD S

P r oj e c t 10
. R i n g— R o u n d L a p W el d .
( Pl a t e X ) .

ST E P O N E — U p set the ends o f th e st o ck unti l i ts l ength is

QV
8 i n ches .

S T E P T w o — Sca rf th e ends a s sh o wn at 2 in th e same

man n e r a s f o r a s impl e lap w el d f o r r o und stock .

S T E P TH R E E — H eat o n e thi rd o f the sto ck and b end i t ove r

-

th e la rge pa rt o f th e h orn keep i n g th e st raight si de o f the

,

scarfed e n d t owa rd th e right S r t ik e on th e p roj ecting e n d

.
,

a s show n i n orde r no t t o ma r the m aterial

, The oth e r e n d i s
.

be n t in th e sam e m a nn e r making th e proj ect appea r as sh own

,

at 3 .

ST E P FO U R — H eat th e ce n te r secti on a n d complete th e

be n ding by h old i n g th e p iec e upright on th e anv il w ith a pa ir
—
o f l i n k to n gs an d k n ocki n g th e s ca rf s t o g e th er The p o int o f .

the t o p sca r f shoul d l o o k toward th e right a s at I f th e ,

sca r fs do n ot m eet squa rely shape th e ring on th e h orn

,
.

H amm e r th e sca rfs t o geth e r o n th e fac e o f the anvil s o that ,

n o di rt can get i n betwe e n them .

ST P F I V
E E — H eat and w el d th e ri n g in the sam e manner a s
a l ink Wh e n th e w elding i s fi n ish ed smooth th e ri n g o n th e
.
,

h orn o f th e a n vil w ith a top swage To make th e ri n g ci r

-
.

cu la r , h eat it al l ove r an d drive i t d o wn on th e co n e w ith a

ha n d hamme r
-
.
Pr o j ect 10
. Plat e X .
 60 COM M O N W E LD S

Pr oj e c t 11 . R i n g— Lin k S c a rf .
( Pl a t e X I ) .

ST E P O N E — U pset the ends o f the st o ck unti l i ts leng th is

9% inches .

ST E P T w o — B en d th e end s t o the f orm sh o w n at 2 i n the

sam e ma nn er a s in the p rev i o u s p roj ect .

ST E P TH R E E — H eat th e m i ddle s ecti on and be n d th e e n ds

t o w ith i n a sh o rt distance o f each o the r a s at 3 , .

ST E P FO U R — S ca rf th e e n ds i n th e same way a s f o r a l ink .

S T E P F I V E — B ri n g th e s ca r f ed ends togeth e r a s at 5 , .

ST P S
E u e — Wel d th e tw o ends a n d fi n ish the ri n g i n th e
sam e m a n ne r a s in the p revi o u s p roj ect .

P r o j e ct 12 . F o rg e d H o o k .
( Pl a t e s X I I a n d X I I I ) .

F o rged h oo k s a re made f r o m t o ol steel N o rway i r on o r , ,

machine steel The on e i n th i s p roj ect i s t o be m ade f rom

.

—inch r o und machi ne steel .

ST E P O N E — C u t th e st o ck 6 inches long H eat about IV : .

i n c hes at o n e end t o a y ellow heat and u p set i t a s at 1 de ,

c rea sing its length t o 5% inch es A l o n ge r p i ec e m ay be u sed .

m o re adva n tageousl y s i n ce th e e n d can then be upset a n d th e

,

ey e fi n i shed w ithout th e u s e o f to n gs I f a l o n g pi ece i s u s e d .

,

ca re sh o ul d b e taken to ma rk it 6 i n ch e s f rom th e e n d w ith a

cent e r pu n ch be fo re up setti n g
-
.

S T E P T w o — Flatten th e u p s e t en d unt i l i t i s V i n ch thick ,

»
,

as at 2 .

ST E P TH R E E — U s e V z inch t op and bottom ful lers o r a

- -

necki n g to o l to ful le r th e neck t o th e f o rm sh own at 3

-
.

S T E P FO U R — R ound th e end o r h ead b y pl aci n g o ne c o r

n e r o f it o n th e face o f th e anvil a n d u s ing th e necki n g —t o ol
on th e Sh oul der a s in Fig 3 2 Treat th e o th e r cor n er in th e
, . .

sam e ma nn e r R o undi n g m ay be fi n ish ed w ith th e hand

.

ha m me r by hol di n g the pi ece ove r th e r o u n ded edge o f th e

a nv il an d striking it a s sh o wn i n Fig 3 3 Thi s end Sh o ul d be . .
Proj e ct 11 . Plat e XI .
62 CO M M O N W E LD S

fo r geda s n e a r ly rou n d a s p r act i ca bl e be fore the h o l e i s

punch ed i n it .

ST F IV E —
Pu n ch a i n ch hole in the f o rged e n d o r
-
EP

head a s a t 5 an d d raw th e n eck out squa re with the ha n d

, ,

ha m me r Wh i le doi n g th i s allow th e ey e t o exte n d o ve r the

.

rou n d e d edge o f th e a n v i l i n order to prevent th e fi lleted c o r

,

n e r s f rom becomi n g sha r p .

ST E P S u e — R ou n d th e i n si de edges O f th e h o l e ove r the

h o r n a s show n i n F i g 3 4 a n d fi n i sh o r smooth the outs id e
, .
,

Fig . 32 . Fig . 33 .

w i th a 72 i n c h t op s w age M ak e th e h ol e ci rcula r by driving

- -
.

a tape r e d pi n th r u i t Th e fi n i s h e d ey e sh ould then appea r

.

a s i f made f r om roun d stock .

Th e n eck i s hamme r e d rou n d a n d fi n i shed w ith incl~1 -

tape red top a n d bottom s wages I f wh e n thi s i s don e th e

-
.
, ,

stock i s too l o n g i t sh o ul d be c ut t o th e l e n gth given at 6

,
.

ST E P SE V E N — D r aw d ow n th e en d t o a squa re poi n t w o rk
.
,

i n g at th e rou n ded edge O f th e a n v i l a n d hol di n g th e stock at

such an a n gl e w i th th e a n vi l face a s w ill b r i n g th e p o i n t i n
th e cent e r l i n e .

ST E P E I GH T R 0 u n d off th e cor n e r s o f the p o i n t a s at 8

.
-
,
.

Th e l e n gt h o f a h ook from th e n e ck or sh oul d e r o f th e ey e , ,

t o th e ext r em e e n d shoul d be e i gh t tim e s th e d i amete r o f it s

P roj ect 12
. Plate X I I .
Pr o j ect 12 Plate X I I I
'

.
 COM M ON EYE— O B LT 65

l a rgest c r oss —sect i o n Th i s l e n gth i s 6 i n ches for th e hook

.

give n .

ST E P N I N E — B en d th e p o i nt o ver the h o rn a s sh o wn at 9 ,
.

ST E P T E N — In b e n d in g th e h ook h eat i t f o r about 4 i n ches

.
,

at th e c ente r an d co o l th e n eck a n d poi n t Place it o n the

,
.

la rg e part of th e ho r n w ith th e c ol d tip p roj ect i n g over A

, .

sl e dge sh oul d be h el d o n top o f it i n o rder t o preve n t it f rom ,

Sl i ppi n g ove r th e h o r n too fa r wh en hit St rike the p roj ect .

i n g ti p w ith a ha n d ham m e r m ovi n g th e hook toward th e

-

point o f th e h o r n as th e b end i ng p r ogres ses It sh oul d be .

be n t t o th e f o rm sh o w n at 10 I f it is necessa r y to change th e
.

—
shape o f th e hook o n th e h orn a t op sw age Sh o ul d b e u sed , .

Th is l e aves the h ook f ree f r o m ma rk s o f th e h and hamm er -

.

ST E P E L E V E N — Take a Sh o rt h eat a t t h e n eck and b end

.

th e ey e back ove r th e hor n Th e fi nish ed h o o k sh own at 1 1

.
, ,

shou l d be h eated a n d th e scal e remove d w ith a fil e I t may .

then b e attached w ith a l ink to th e chai n o f Proj ect 9 .

P r o j ec t 13 . C om m on E y e-B o l t .
( Pl at e X I V ) .

ST P E —
ON E Cu t a p iece o f I
2 1nCh r o und w rought i ron
-

1 2% i n ches l on g H eat one en d t o a weldi n g heat a n d sca r f

.

it a s Sh o wn at 1
,
.

ST E P T w o — B end th e sca rf o ve r th e r o unded edge o f th e

anv il and mark i t w i t h a c enter p unch a s sh o wn at 2 -
,
.

ST E P TH R E E — H eat ab o ut 7 inches st o ck at th e of th e .

sca r f e d en d t o a un i f o rm y ell ow heat Th e b end i s th e n .

starte d by p l acing th e stock w ith the ce n ter p unch ma rk above -

th e rou n de d edge o f th e anvil an d striking o n th e p r o j ectin g

,

end with th e p een o f a hand hamm e r -

.

S T E P FO U R — Fini sh t h e bending o n the h o rn s t rik ing o n ,

the sca rf t o av o i d ma rring th e stock

,
.

S T E P F I V E — Place a d ri f t pin or a p iece o f round stock

-
,
P roj e ct 13 . Plat e X IV .
 C OM M ON H I N GE 67

sl ightl y l a rger than the fi nished h o l e in the e y e a nd bri n g th e ,

sca r f a n d shank t o gether a s at 5 , .

ST E P Su e — H eat the st o ck sl o wly t o a w elding heat a n d ,

weld d ow n th e sca rfed e n d A necking t oo l o r a to p fuller i s

.
- -

u sed in rou n di n g the sh oul de r The w e ldi n g Sh oul d b e fi n i shed

.

with a ha n d hamme r at th e r o u n ded edge o f th e anvil Sm ooth

-

u p th e st o ck at the w el d with a t o p an d a b o ttom swage -

,

—
a n d drive a dri ft pin i n to th e h o l e to make i t symmet rical .

Wh il e s t ill hot t he scal e sh o ul d be rem o ved wi t h a fi l e .

Fig . 35
.

O ne o f th e c ommonest applicat i on s of thi s p r o j ect i s the

cl evi s sh own i n Fig 3 5 Thi s i s fo rm e d by maki n g a n ey e at
. .

e a ch en d o f a p iece o f st o ck an d be n di n g it into th e f o rm o f
,

a U .

P r oj ect 1 4
. C om m o n H i n ge ( Pl at e X V ) . .

S T E P O N E — Sca r f th e end of a piece o f w rought i r o n

X 1 % inch X 1 1 i n ches a s sh o w n at 1 a n d make a c enter
, ,

pu n c h ma rk o n o ne edge 4 % i n ches f r o m th e end .

ST E P T w o — H eat about 5 inches o f th e piece at the sca rf e d

en d,
and plac e it on the a n vil with th e sca r fed si de down .

Th e cente r p unch ma rk should c o me al m o s t in l i n e with the

-

oute r rounded edge o f th e a n vil B end a s at 2 . .

ST E P T H R E E — C ontinu e th e bending o n th e h orn and cl o se

th e ey e o n a p in which i s sl ightly l arge r than th e fi n1 sh ed h ol e
'

.
Project 14 . Pl at e XV .
 F LA T RIN G 69

ST E P F OU R —In p lacing th e p i ec e in the fi r e have t h e scarf

.

dow n i n o rde r t o av oi d bu rning the eye When the p iece is at

,
.

th e w el ding h eat it sh o ul d be rem o ved f r o m th e fi re and laid

,

o n the a n vi l w ith th e s ca r f up and the eye against th e r o unded

edge o f th e anvil I f th i s w er e n ot d on e and it w ere w el ded
.

o ve r th e sha r p edge o f the a n vil th e neck woul d have a shar p

“

cor n e r i n stea d o f bei ng rounded a s sh o wn at 4 The wel d , .

ing i s d o ne with a heavy hand h amm er -

.

A fter the w el ding has been c o mpleted a pin sh o ul d b e d riven ,

i n t o the h o l e a n d a tOp s w a ge u sed t o sm oo th th e eye A

~
.

flat t e r m ay be u sed to sm oo t h th e st o ck at th e w e ld .

P r o j ec t 15 . Flat R ing .
( Pl a t e XV I ) .

ST E P O N E — Cu t
a pi ece o f X l % inch w r o ught I r o n 14
-

inch es l o n g a s sh o w n an d h eat on e end fo r ab o ut 2% inch es

, ,
.

U p set it at an angl e a s sh o wn at 1 I f whil e doing thi s m o st

, .
, ,

o f th e upsetting o ccu rs at th e tip the ext rem e e n d Sh o ul d be ,

c oo l e d off To decreas e th e wi dth at th e upset portio n it shoul d

.

be hamm ered o n th e longe r edge at A Thi s wil l keep both .

edges th e sam e i n th icknes s U pset th e oth er e n d i n th e sam e .

man n er .

S T E P T w o — S car f th e ends a s sh o w n at 2 taking ca re to ,

h av e th e sca rfs o n O pposite s ides o f the st o ck

. .

S T E P T H R E E — H eat o n e en d o f th e stock f o r ab o ut 4
i nches c ool th e corne r B a n d ben d the en d ove r the h orn
, , , .

Th e hamm er bl ow s sh o ul d fal l on B B end the o the r end in .

th e sam e manner .

ST E P F O U R — H eat th e ce n te r o f the st o ck and fin i sh t h e ,

be n di n g i n th e sam e manne r a s fo r the ri n g in P r o j ect 1 .

Th e sca r f s sh oul d c ome squa rely togethe r a n d be closed

t i ghtly as at 4 t o p revent d i rt f rom getti n g i n betwee n them
, , .

ST E P F I V E — B ring th e scar fs sl o wly t o the w elding heat ,

a n d w el d th e m togeth er o n th e fac e o f the a n vil w ith a heavy

Pr o j ect 15
.
Pl ate XVI
.
 B AN D RIN G 71

ha n d hamm e r F i n i sh th e e d ge s o n th e ho r n th e n s m ooth th e
-
.
,

S i d e s w i th a flatter T h e r i n g sh oul d b e made c ircula r o n a

.

c o n e a n d th e scal e r e mov e d w i th a fil e
,
.

P roj e c t 16 . B a n d R in g .
( Pl a t e XV I I ) .

S T E P O N Ei — Cu t th e stock t o l e n gth a n d u ps e t each , en d

f o r abou t 2 inches .

S T E P T w o — S ca rf th e ends th e sam e as fo r a flat weld ,

tak i n g ca re to h ave th e s ca r f s com e o n opposit e s i d e s o f th e

s tock a s sh o wn at 2
,
.

ST E P T H R E E — H eat th e p iece a n d be n d it i n to shape in th e ,

sam e m an n e r a s th e ring o f Proj ect 1 .

ST E P FO U R — B ring the s ca rfs t ightly t o gether as a t 4 , .

ST E P F I V E — H eat th e sca r f s sl owly t o p reve n t th e ou ter ,

o n e f rom bu r n i n g befo re th e in n e r o n e is h ot e n ough to wel d .

Wel d th e ri n g ove r th e h or n o f th e a n vil a n d fi n i sh i t w ith a ,

flatter . I t sh oul d then be h eated u n i formly th ruout a n d ,

rou n de d o n a cone In orde r t o p reve n t it f r om becomi n g

.

taper e d wh il e d o in g th i s it mu st b e revers ed o n th e c one and

,

ex p anded e q ually f rom b o th s i des .

B o l t s a re m ad e i n t h r e e d i ffe r en t w a y s i e by f o rging , . .
, ,

ups e tti n g o r w el di n g The fi rst o f these m ethod s i s ordina rily

, .

u sed fo r special bolts a n d th os e that a re to be fi ni sh ed o r

tu rned to s iz e S uch bolts a re f o rged f rom stock havi n g a
.

d i am et e r equal to that o f th e h ead a n d a re th erefore the ,

st ro n gest k i n d m ad e Th e s e co n d method i n wh ich th e stock

, ,

i s upset t o form th e h ead i s th e on e m ost commo n ly u s e d for

,

both han d a n d m ach i n e —made b o lts In th e th i rd method the .

h ead i s f o rmed by w el ding a ring o f stock a r o und th e stem .

I f equally wel l made a n upset head bolt i s st ronger tha n a

,
-

wel ded h ead b o lt

-
.

Th e si ze o f a bol t i s give n by th e diam ete r a n d l e n gt h o f

th e shank Th us a l x l Z inch bolt m eans one with a shank 1
.
-
Pr o 1 ect 16
.
Plate XVI I .

BAND RI NG

W r ot I r o n
n

S t k : {x Ii
oc x I3
5
 U P S E T H E AD B OL T
-
73

inch i n diameter a n d 12 inch es l o ng f r o m th e under s ide o f the

h ead to th e end Th e dime n s ions o f a bolt h e ad a r e gov e rned
.
-

by th e d i amet e r of the Sha n k a n d a re e n ti r ely i n depe n d e n t o f ,

the le n gth Fo r squa re and h e xag on al bolt heads the dis tance
.
-

ac ros s th e fl at s i s equ al t o IV times the diameter o f the shank »

.

plus i n ch a n d th e th icknes s o f th e hea d i s equal to the

,

diamete r of th e sha n k Thu s a l i nch b ol t sh o u ld have a h ead

.
-

l X l %3 o r NA; i n ches ac r o s s th e flats and 1 i n ch th ic k

, , .

These a re the dim e n si on s f o r rough h eads each dim ensi on f or ,

a finish ed h ea d being fa inch l es s tha n f o r a r o ugh head .

H ea d i n g T o o l -
.
—
F o r s q u a ri n g u p t h e u nd e r s i de o f t h e -

hea d on a bolt a h eadi n g tool ( F i g 3 6) i s requi red I n u se

,
-
. .

th i s i s placed o n th e f ace o f th e a n v il s o that wh il e th e head ,

o f the bol t i s bei n g f o rged th e sha n k can p roj ect down th ru

th e head i n g tool a n d th e ha rdi e t ool Th e h o l e i n thi s tool
- -
.

shoul d b e sl ightly l a rg e r than th e st o ck f o r wh ich i t i s i n

te n ded i n o rde r that a shank whe n heated may dr op th ru it
, , ,

ea sily Fo r thi s r e as on a di fferent headi n g tool i s requ i red

.
-

f o r each s ize o f roun d stock u sed .

Fig 36 . . Fig . 37 .

H E A DI N G T OO L -
.
C U P P I N G T OO L -
.

—B ol t
'

C u pp i n g - T o o l h ea d s ge n e r al l y h a v e t h e t o p c o rne r s
.
~

rou n d e d o r cha m f e r e d Th i s i s o rdi n a rily do n e w ith a cup

, .

p in g tool ( Fig
-
but a top swage o r a h a n d hamm e r m ay
.
-
,
-

b e u sed .

P roj ec t 17 . U p s e t - H ea d B o l t .
( Pl at e X V I I I ) .

ST E P O N E — C u t t h e stock to le n gth a n d squa re both ends

'

.
,

H e at e n d fo r ab out 2 i n ches to a y e ll ow heat Plac e t he

’

on e .
P roj ect 17 . Plat e XVI I I .

UP S ET HEAD BOLTS

k
S toc for s q ua r e h ea d b olt : { x 9 5r ou nd m a chm e s t ee l

k h exa gona l h hi l
"

Stoc for ea d bolt : fx 9 r ou nd m a c ne s tee

 W E L D E D H E AD B O L T
-
75

h ot end on the f ace of th e anv il h o l ding th e piec e ve rtically ,

w ith a pai r o f l i nk —t on gs a n d strike on th e cold e n d with a

,

h e avy ha n d —hamme r C are S h o ul d be taken t o keep th e stock

.

s t raight wh il e u p setti n g .

ST E P T w o — B ring th e u p s et end to a h igh h eat and i nsert ,

the shank i n a headi n g tool F orm the h ead by flattening th e

-
.

upset po rtion a s Shown at 2 T o a i d i n k e ep i n g the shank at

,
.
.

th e ce n t e r o f the h ead a c ircl e w ith a radiu s a b out V i n ch

,
»
,

greater than that o f th e h ol e Sh oul d b e d rawn w ith chalk o n

th e fac e o f th e to o l Th e stu dent can th en tell w hen on e s ide
.

o f the h ea d is o u t too fa r .

ST E P T H R E E — F o rge th e h ead squa re o r h exagonal o n the

fac e o f th e a n vil I n s e rt th e shank i n a h e ading tool a n d
.
-

cham f e r th e top c o rne rs w ith a cupping tool T h e sha n k -

.

should be fin i sh ed b etw ee n t op and b o ttom swages -

.

P roj ec t 18 . W el ded H e a d -
B olt .
( Pl a t e X I X ) .

S T E P O N E — If a p i ec e o f st o ck the requ i red siz e i s not

availabl e d raw out a la rge p i ec e t o th e s iz e s how n a t 1
,
-
‘

S T E P T w o — Cu t off th e en d at an angl e o n th e ha rdi e a n d ,

mak e an o th e r cut hal f wa y th ru th e stock at the po int indi

-

ca ted .

ST E P T H R E E — B en d t h e draw n o ut po rt i o n o ve r th e h o rn -

a s sh o wn at 3 .

ST E P FO U R — B reak off th e bent po rti o n a n d fi ni sh th e ,

bending ove r a piec e o f c ol d i n ch round st o ck Th is c o lla r -

.

sh o ul d then be hamm ered app r o x imately squa re and made t o

-
,

appea r a s sh o wn a t 4 I f it w ere made r o und the j oi n t m ight

.
,

show o n o ne s ide wh en fi nish ed making a poo rly a pp ea ring ,

head .

ST E P F I VE — B ri n g o n e en d o f t h e sh ank t o a w el ding h eat ,

and u p set it i n th e cold c o lla r a s at 5 B e f o re sta rt i n g t o ,

.

wel d it b e su re that th e shank w ill sl i p th ru th e h eadi n g t o ol -

.
P roj e cts 18 and 19 . Plate X I X .
 F OR G E D B OL T 77

ST E P S I x — H eat th e h ea d sl owly to p revent th e c o llar

.
,

f r o m bu rning and w el d i t by hamm eri n g o n all f ou r s ides

, .

Fi n i sh i t i n a h eadi n g tool i n th e sam e ma nn er as an upset

-

h ead .

I f th ere i s too m uch st o ck o n th e b o l t h ead f o rge i t to th e

'

p ro p er s iz e acro s s th e flat s an d cut th e su rplu s st o ck O ff of

,

th e e n d with a h ot eye ch isel -

.

P r o j ec t 19 . F o rge d Bol t .
( Pl a t e X I X ) .

I t i s n eces s a ry fo r tw o stu dents t o wo rk togethe r on th i s

exe rc i se s o a piec e o f stock lo n g e n ough t o mak e two bolts
,

sh o ul d be u sed .

ST E P O N E — C u t th e stock t o l ength and m a rk it w ith a ,

c enter p unch a n d a ch i sel a s indi cated

-
.

ST E P T w o — Full e r o n e end a s sh o wn a t 2 , .

ST E P T H R E E — D raw out th e e n d A to s ize u n der a t ri p

.
-

h amme r .

ST E P FO U R — Fulle r a n d hamme r out th e oth er end in th e

.

sam e mann er .

ST E P F I V E — C u t th e stock th ru th e ce n te r al ong th e d o tted

l i n e R e heat and i n s ert th e sha n k o f on e e n d i n a headi n g
.
,

t o o l finish i n g th e head i n the sam e man n er a s th e upset head

,
.

The Shank an d unde r side o f th e h ead o f a forged bol t are

ge n e rally tu r n ed t o th e fi n i sh e d siz e i n the m achi n e sh o p I n .

som e ca ses h ow ever such bol ts a r e fo rged to th e requ ired

, ,

si zes s o that n o m ach in e w o rk i s necessar y

,
.
 C H A PT E R IV .

S P E C I AL W E LD S .

Th e B u tt W e l d i s m a de b y ro u n d i n g t h e e n ds o f t w o p i ece s
o f stock a n d d riv i n g them t ogeth e r at a welding heat a s Show n ,

i n Fig 3 8 Th e p u rpose in rou n ding th e e n ds i s t o p e rm it

. .

squ eez i n g th e m olten o xi de o ut o f th e j o i n t I f they were .

co n cav e impu riti es w o uld be h el d betwee n th e tw o p ieces

, ,

making an uns o und w el d .

When th e p ieces o f st o ck a re sh o r t th e butting o r wel d ,

i n g i s g e ne r ally d on e on th e a n v i l but w it h l o n g p i eces it is

, ,

done i n th e fi re Lo ng pi ec es a re plac ed en d t o end in th e fi re

.
,

a n d when th e weldi n g heat has bee n reached th e y a re d riven

t o geth e r I n d o i n g th is th e blacksmith h o lds o n e o f th em t o
.

steady it wh il e th e hel p e r st rik es o n th e p r o j ecting end o f th e

,

oth e r When th e pieces a re stuck togeth er th e resulting ba r

.

i s removed f rom th e fi re an d hammered to s iz e on the anvil

,
.

I t i s then sm oo th ed between t o p an d b o ttom swages -

.

Fig . 38 . B U TT - W E L D .

A butt w el d m ay used o n be 1%
inch st o ck o r la rger I t i s -
.

n o t a s sa fe or a s str o ng as a la p w eld but ha s th e advantage ,

o f requi ri n g n o u p sett ing an d sca rfi n g o f ends A ll th e u p .

sett ing n ecessa ry o ccu rs du ring th e wel ding p r o ces s .

V - W e l d — A n ot h e r w el d s u i t ab l e f o r l a rge
. i ed stock i s -
S z

the V w el d-
Th e ends o f the st o ck a re fi rs t cut w ith a h ot
.

ch i sel t o th e f o rm sh o wn i n Fig 39 Th e p iec es a re th en . .

plac ed e n d to en d in th e fi re an d heat ed Th e squa re e n d o f .

th e sho rt c hi sel po i nted p iece sh o ul d p ro j ect o ve r th e edge o f

,
-

th e forge Wh e n th e st o ck i s at th e w el d ing h eat th i s end i s

.
,

st ruck w i t h a backing hamme r o r a sledge de p ending o n the

-
,
 J UM P W E LD 79

s ize o f th e st o ck Thi s upsets a n d w elds th e ends t o geth e r

. .

The j oint i s then hammere d t o s ize and swaged on th e a n vi l .

Th e V—Wel d i s suitabl e f o r w el di n g r o und o r squa re steel

a n d w rought i ro n B esi des bei n g ea sy to make o n acc o u n t
.
,

o f th e el i m i nat io n o f upsetting a n d s ca r fi n g i t f o rm s a n ex ,

Fig . 38 . V WE LD
-
.

t r em str o ng j o int I t i s n ot s u itabl e f o r stock les s tha n

ely .

l inches in diameter a s smalle r stock bends whil e the p iec es

,

a re being d riven to gether in th e fi re .

T h e J u m p W eld i s o n e o rd i nar i l y u s e d b y s h i p s m i th s o n
ma ri n e o r shi p w o rk Its a p pl icati on s a re numerou s but its
.
,

main p ri n cipl e i s th e j o i n ing o f o n e end o f rou n d square or , ,

recta n gula r st o ck t o s o m e p oint on th e side o f a p iec e o f st o ck

o f th e sam e o r o f a di fferent s iz e .

”
In making th e j um p sh o wn at A in Fig 40 th e en d of
, .
,

the stock i s b r ought to th e welding heat an d hammered on th e

Fig . 40 .
J U M P W E LD .

s i des t o p revent i t f rom bu rst ing whil e S fi n g it I f th e

,
- Ca r .

pi ec e i s a sh o rt o n e th e s ca r fi n g may b e d o ne b y sta n d i n g It
,

on en d o n th e anv il and h am mering th e h o t end s o a s t o f o rm

a fla n ge simila r t o th e o ne show n at A
,
.
80 SP E C I A L W E LD S

I f thi s p iece i s t o be j umped o r w el ded t o a pi ec e of , ,

flat stock th e latter mu st be made thi cke r where th e j o i n t i s to

, ,

be in orde r to all ow fo r hamm er in g

,
Thi s ca n b e do n e e i th e r .

by u psett in g the flat stock o r by f orgi n g i t f rom a th i cker

p i ec e A n i nde n tat i o n i s made at thi s p oi n t w ith a bob pu n ch
.
-
,

a s sh o w n at B to accomm odate th e flanged e n d o n th e

,

“ ”
j um p .

Th e tw o p i eces are ge n erally b r o ught t o th e w el di n g h eat

i n sepa rat e fi res Th e flat pi ec e i s th e n placed on th e a n v i l
.

“ ” “ ”
a n d th e j ump in posit i o n o n it Th e e n d o f th e j ump i s .

st ruck w ith a sl edge a n d th e fla n ge qu i ck ly weld e d d o w n w i th

,

a to p ful le r making th e j oint a pp e a r a s Sh own at C F ig 40

-

, ,
. .

Th e Sp li t We l d i s u s ed f o r w el d i n g t o ge t h e r t h e e n d s o f
th i n stock su ch a s brake ba n ds a n d sh e e t steel I f a n ordi
,
-
.

n a ry lap w el d we re us ed f o r th i s p u rpose th e t im e l o st in get ,

ting th e sca rfed ends in po siti o n f o r w el ding wou ld permi t

th i n stock to co o l m aking wel di n g di fficult : With th e spl it
,

w el d th e sca r fs a r e i n p ositi on wh e n pl aced on th e anv il a n d ,

may be hamme red t o geth e r immediately .

Fig . 41 . S P LI T W E L D .

The ends o f the p iec e s to b e j oi n ed are upset an d sca r f ed

o r tapered t o a blu n t edge Th ey a re th e n Spl it d o wn th e ce n
.

t er a s sh own at A Fig 4 1 f o r a di sta n ce depe n d in g o n th e

, ,
-
.
,

inch O n e hal f
'

thi cknes s o f th e st o ck but ordina rily abo ut ,

.
-

o f each en d i s bent u p an d th e oth e r h al f d own a s at A Th e ,

.

ends a re th en h eated pu sh ed tightly t ogeth er an d cl o sed down

, ,
 S P L I T W E LD 81

on eac h other a s show n at

, B i n Fig . 41 . Th e wel di n g i s d o ne
in the regula r way .

Sp l i tW el d fo r H eav y St o ck — A S pl i t w el d s u i tab l e for

‘
.

h e avy stock i s show n i n Fig 4 2 I n maki n g th i s wel d the . .

e n ds o f the p i e ce s a r e ups e t an d sca r f ed a s at A on e en d , ,

Fig . 42 . SP LI T W E L D F OR HE A VY S TOC K .

be in g poin ted a n d th e othe r spl i t and shaped l i ke a Y Th e .

p i ec e s a re the n drive n t ogethe r and cl osed dow n on e on th e ,

othe r ready for wel ding a s Show n at B F ig 4 2

, , , . .

Fig . 43 . W E LD I N G T IP ON A PI C K .

Th i s weld o r one very sim ila r to it i s often u sed wh en

, ,

weld in g t o o l steel to i ron o r to machi n ery steel A n example .

“ ”
o f thi s i s th e steel i n g o f th e N orway i ron body o f a p i ck ,

sh o w n at A Fig 4 3 Th e ends o f thi s body a re spl it a n d

,
. .

shaped a s Shown at B Th e piec e t o be w el ded on i s about

'

V2 x 1 inch an d f r o m 4 t o 5 i n ches l ong It i s pointed and .

82 P C I AL W E L D S
S E

n o tched with a ch isel a s a t C t o p revent i t f r o m fall ing o ut

, ,

wh il e heat i ng Th e tw o pi eces are th e n d riven t o gether a n d

.

th e e n ds o f th e Y cl osed d o wn a s Show n at D They a re , .

heated slowly t o p reve n t the t o ol steel f r o m bei ng bu rned

, ,

a n d w el ded unde r a t rip hammer o r w ith a sl edge The e n d

-

'
.

o f th e pi ck i s drawn t o a po i n t under th e t rip hamm e r and -

,

made smo o th Wi th a flatte r It i s th en reheated hardened .

, ,

an d th e tempe r color draw n t o a da rk blue .

Pr oj ec t 20 . T - W eld .
( Pl a t e X X ) .

ST E P O N E — Cu t o ff a p i ec e o f st o ck f o r th e l eg o f t h e T ,

a n d upset i t a s shown .

S T E P T w o — Star t th e s ca r f w i th th e h a n d hamm e r a s -
,

at 2 .

ST E P T H R E E — B ring t h e sca r f t o th e form show n at 3

i

w ith a —i nch t op ful ler -

.

ST E P FO U R — Fi n ish th i s scarf w ith th e sam e full er then ,

smooth it w ith a ha n d hamm e r -

.

ST E P F I V E — U pset the c r o s s piece at th e c ente r a s sh own -

at 5 .

T P —p unch o f
S E S I x Fo. rm -
th e scar f a s at 6 wi th th e bob
Fig 16 Th i s can be don e by u sing th e p ee n o f a hand ham
. .
-

m er an d striking o n its face with a heavie r hamm er ; but it i s

rath e r da n ger o us a s th e face o f th e ha n d hamm e r i s l iabl e t o
,
-

b reak u n l es s th e h eavi e r hammer i s w ielded by an ex p ert .

ST E P SE V E N — B ring the sca r fed po rt io n s o f the tw o p ieces

t o th e welding h eat and wel d th em u si n g a hammer t o st ick ,

them t o geth e r an d a n ecki n g t oo l o r full er to w el d d o wn th e

-

edges o f th e sca r f I n rem o ving th e p i eces fr o m th e fi re f o r

.

wel di n g th e c r o ss p i ec e sh oul d be t aken in th e right hand

,
-

a n d th e o th er p i ece in th e le ft Th i s l eaves the right h a n d .

free f o r h amme ri ng a fte r th e p i ec es h ave been p l aced in p o

s i t i on . A stu dent sh ould pract ice p utti ng th e p i eces t o gethe r
w h il e c o l d befo re attem p ting t o W el d th em .

A fte r th e wel ding ha s be en fi ni sh ed th e st o ck sh oul d b e

'
P r o j ect 20
. Pla t e XX .
84 SP E C I A L WE LD S

smooth ed between t op an d bott o m swag e s and the s cal e t e -

m oved w i th a fil e Th e ends a re then t ri mmed off maki n g

.
,

th e dimens i o ns o f the T a s s h o wn at 7 .

With fl at s to ck t he s car f s f o r a T wel d a re mad e i n th e

-

sam e ma n ne r .

P r oj ect 21 . A n g le Weld .
( Pl at e X X I ) .

ST E P O N E — C u t and u p set the s h o rt p iece f o r the angl e to

th e s ize show n at 1 S ince th e stock ha s t o be upset fo r a c o n
.

s i dera ble di sta n ce f rom th e end the tip sh o uld be part ially ,

cool e d i n water to p revent the u p setting f rom taking place

m o stl y at that p oint .

ST E P T w o — Sca rf th i sp iece with a bob p unch o r th e p een -

o f a hamm er a s sh o w n at 2 Th e length o f th is scarf sh o ul d

,
.

be slightly l es s than th e w idth of the o n e on th e othe r pi ece ,

s o that th e l i p A ( 4 ) w ill l a p o ver on th e thick p orti o n o f th e

st o ck .

ST E P T H RE E — Cu t a n d upset th e oth e r pi ece t o th e for m

sh o wn at 3 .

ST E P F O U R — St ar t th e
s ca rf o n t h is pi ec e i n th e same
manne r a s for th e fl at lap w el d I t sh o uld howeve r be a l .
, ,

lowed t o w iden o ut in o rde r t o f urni sh materia l f o r the lip A

, ,

wh ich i s made by plac ing the stock on edge o n th e anvil w ith

th e sca rf p roj ecting o ve r the rou n ded edge and h itting th e
u pp e r edge w ith a hand hammer T he tap e dg e sh o ul d then
-
.

a pp ea r s t raigh t a s sh o wn , .

S T E P F I V E — A f t er b ringing the two s ca r fed ends t o a

wel ding h ea t rem o v e th e piec es f r o m th e fi re h o lding the ,

sh o rt on e ( 2) in th e right hand an d th e l o ng o ne ( 4 ) i n th e
le ft Wel d th e j o i n t w ith a h eavy hand hammer and fin ish it
.
-
,

w ith a flatte r The scal e shoul d then be removed w ith a fil e

. .

an d th e end s cu t off t o l ength with a h o t ch is el .

Proj ect 21 . Plate X XI
.
 C H A PTE R V

H A M M E R WO R K .

I n making f o rgings larger than th e p r oj ects p revi o u sl y de

s c ribe d i n thi s bo o k s ome ty p e o f p o we r hammer i s i n va r i
,

ably u sed Those commo n ly f ound i n technical sch oo l s a r e

.

t he t ri p o r belt —hammer and th e steam h am me r -

.

T h e T ri p or B e l t-H a m m er ( Fi g 44 ) i s u s e d f o r h a m m e r .

ing m ediu m o r small s iz e d f o rgi n gs Its size i s designated by

-
.

the weight o f th e fall in g pa rts i e in a 125 p ou n d hamme r , . .

,
-

th e c om bined w ei ght o f th e fal ling p a rt s i s 125 po u n ds .

The fram e o f the m ach ine su rr o unds th e anvil o r die ,

bl ock B but th e tw o a re u sually mounted o n s e p a rate f o u n

, ,

dati o ns Thi s i s d o ne s o that th e c o ntinual u s e o f the h am

.

m e r w il l n o t have a tendency t o b reak the f rame and als o in ,

o rde r to p ermit ad j u stm ent o f t he po s iti o n o f the l o we r di e .

Thi s typ e o f hamme r is belt d riven th e bl o ws being reg ,

u la ted by m eans o f th e f oo t t readle T Thi s gives ve ry g oo d

-
,
.

c o nt r o l o f th e hamm er exce p t at starting when th e bl o w s a re ,

s o metim es rathe r j erk y A s hamm ering c o ntinu es th e bl o ws

.

bec o m e m o re uni f o rm A stu dent sh o ul d receive s pe cial i n

.

s tr u cti on s i n th e mani p ulat i o n o f a t rip hammer be f o re sta rt

-

ing t o u s e it .

When d rawing o u t st o ck w ith a t ri p hammer the material

- -

sh o ul d be placed at th e ce n te r o f th e dies I f i t i s p laced at .

o ne s ide there W ill be an undue st ress o n the s p rings and they ,

wi ll b e l ikel y t o break .

H o l l o w bit t o ngs a re gene rall y u sed f o r h o l ding w o rk at

-

th e p o we r hamm e r a s a fi rm gri p can be o btained w ith them

-
,

o n eithe r r o und s q ua re o r fl at m aterial Flat j awed t o ngs

, , .
-

sh o ul d n ot be u sed a s they give a ve ry poo r gri p when th e

,
 PO W E R H A M M E R S
-
87

j aw s a re i n th e ve rt i cal posit i on To mainta i n a fi rm g r ip a

.
,

li n k shoul d be sli p ped ove r the handles o f th e ton gs s o a s to ,

h old th em cl os e together .

A t ri p hamme r may al so be empl oyed for mak ing d rop

-

for gm gs by u sing special dies that may be made o f cast i ron .

m g 44
. . T RI P -H A M M E R . Fig . 45
. STE A M H A M M E R
-
.

Th i s type o f hamm er has the adva n tage over a steam

hamm e r i n the matt e r o f l o we r fi r st cost and great ec on omy
in o p e rat io n It i s n ot h o w ever s o wel l su i ted to ve ry heavy
.
, ,

work .

T h e S t ea m H am m er i s g e n e ral l y m a de i n l a rge r s i z e s th a n
-
88 H A M M E R W OR K

the t ri p hamm e r th e combined w eight o f th e fal ling pa rts

-

ra n gi n g f r o m a f ew hu n d red to several thou sa n d p ou n ds A

'

SOD p o und hamm er i s sh o wn in Fig 4 5

-
. .

A s the n ame impli es th is hamme r is d rive n by steam

,
The .

l atter e n ters at the t op o f th e cylinde r C and f orces down th e , ,

ram R Th e blow i s c o ntr o ll ed and regulated by means o f the

,
.

levers A a n d E wh ic h a re op erated by an a ss ista n t I f the

, ,
.

blacksm ith w orks al o n e the hamm e r may be co n t rolle d by

,

m ean s o f th e f oo t —treadl e .

Th e ram R and the di es D are generally p laced a t an

, , , ,

a n gl e o f 4 5 with the f r o nt o f th e f rame Th is p erm it s th e

°
.

hammeri n g of material eithe r ac r o s s or le ngthwise on th e die

w ith out inte rference A s w ith the t ri p hammer th e die bl o ck
.
-
,
-

B rests o n a se p arate f o undati o n f rom that o f th e f rame

, .

F i n i s h i n g A ll ow a n c e — F o rgi n g s m a d e u n d er a h am m er
.

a re o ften mach i n ed and fi ni shed t o size Fo r th is reaso n a c er .

tain all o wance should be made f o r fini shi n g them

'

The .

am ount o f th i s allo w a n ce va ries from %3 i n ch on smal l forg

ings t o i nch on la rge ones Take a s a n exampl e a sha ft .

wh ich i s to b e fi n i shed 8 i nch es in diameter It sh o ul d b e .

fo rged to a diamete r o f f r o m 8 % to 8 % i nches .

Pr o j ec t 22 . F o rg e d O pen E ndW r e n ch ( Pl a t e s X X I I
-
.

and XXI I I ) .

Wh en maki n g thi s p r o j ect it is necessary f o r tw o students

t o w o rk togeth er a s i t i s i n c o nveni e n t t o make s uch a w rench
,

alo n e C o n siderabl e t im e w ill al s o be saved in this way

. .

S T E P O N E —C u t of
f a pi ece o f machi n e steel to th e s ize i n
.

di ca te d and ma rk it with a center pu n ch a s sh ow n at 1

, A -
, .

p i ece 4 % inch es long w oul d be e n ough t o make thi s w re n ch ,

bu t it w o ul d be ha rd t o h o l d whil e bei n g wo rked u n der a t rip

hamme r a s th e to n gs woul d bec o me h ot and a ffo rd a po o r
,

grip . Th ere sh oul d be en o ugh o f a t o ng h old t o p reve n t

P r o j ect 22
. Plate XX I I I .
P roj ec t 22
. Plate X XI I .
 OPE N -
END WRE N C H 91

th e j aws o f th e tongs f rom b eing caught between th e dies .

I t i s the re f o re best to u se a p i ec e o f st o ck 9 % i n ches lo n g .

Th is wil l give enough m aterial f o r two w renches w ith an ,

al l o wa n ce for a short t o ng h o l d R emember t o u s e h o ll o w bit .

-

tongs Flat —j awed to n gs a re u nsa f e

. .

I f b o th ha n dl es a re to b e drawn o ut be f o re cutti n g the st o ck

al ong th e dotted li n e a t 3 do not al l o w material fo r t on g h o ld , .

In such cas e cut a p i ece 8 % i n ch es l ong .

ST E P T w o — U s e inch top and bott o m full ers t o make

- -

the gr o oves sh own at 2 To i n s u re u n i f orm ity i n the depth o f

.

these ma rks the st o ck sh o uld b e tu rned o ve r several times

when full eri n g .

ST E P TH R E E — D raw o ut t h e handl e under the t ri p ham

.
- -

m er l eaving i t w i de r than the fi n ished si ze to all ow f o r swag

, ,

ging the edg e s .

ST E P FO U R — U s e inch to p a n d bott o m fullers o n the

- -

o ther end a s sh o wn at 4
, .

ST E P F I V E —D raw o ut thi s end to p rovide f o r a t o ng h o ld

.
-

when making th e seco n d w rench .

ST E P SI x —C u t o f . f th e st o ck with a h ot ch isel along th e

dotted line sh own at 5 Th e c o rners sh ould th e n be cu t off t o
.

facil itat e r o undi n g th e h e ad .

ST E P SE V EN — R 0 u n d the hea d by pl acing it on a 1 % inch

.
-

b o tt o m swage an d u si n g a l i n ch top fulle r on th e neck o r

- - -

fi ll et A s et hamme r o r a
.
-
i nch t op fulle r can be u sed for - -

r o unding th e c i rcul a r part adj acent t o th e ha n dl e Fini sh .

shaping w ith a hand hamme r l eaving the h ead EX; i n ch thick

-
, .

ST E P E I GH T — Pu n ch a . inch h ol e th ru th e h ead at the -

ce n te r pu n ch ma rk shown at 7
-
.

S T P N I — E n la rge tll lSI h ol e t o inch diamete r by ‘

E N E -

d riving in a dri ft pi n I f wh en d o i n g thi s th e st o ck becomes

-
.

th inne r at on e Side that side shoul d be cooled be fore en la r g

,

i n g th e h o l e furth er Thi s equal izes th e thick n ess o f th e

.

st o ck a rou n d the hol e Th i n th e h ead with a flatter t o 1 91; inch

.
.

S T E P T E N — Place a s u itabl e sheet i r o n tem p l a t e o n t op o f

.
-
92 H A M M E R W OR K

t h e p roj ec t a n d m a rk W i t h a co l d c h i s e l t h e l i ne s f o r t h e
,

ope n i n g i n the h e ad a s Sh ow n by th e dotted l i n es at 9 Th e se

'

,
.

ma rks sh oul d make a n angl e o f 1 5 w ith th e handle o f the

°

w rench Th e o pe n i n g 111 the hea d i s then c ut w ith a h o t ch i sel

.

an d t h e h ea d hammered s o a s t o make i t V 2 inch thick .

Sq u a r e th e inside o f th e j aw s o n a saddl e a s sh o wn in ,

Fig 46 I f th e ends a re to o l ong the y shoul d be cut to the

'

. .

c o rrect l ength o n the saddle i n orde r t o p r eve n t them f r o m

,

bec o m ing t oo th i n .

Fini sh th e edges o f th e handl e between V z inch t op and -

bott o m swages an d the fac es w ith a flatte r A fte r the w rench

-
.

ha s c ool e d th e ins ide o f th e j aw s sh oul d b e fil ed to fi t a nut .

The w rench i s then case ha rdened a s desc ribed in C hapte r V I

-
, .

F 1g 46 . .

P o j ec t
r 23 . F l a t J aw ed T on gs
-
.
( Pl a te s X X IV X XV ) -
.

S T E P O N E — C u t a p iece o f mach ine steel for th e j aws ,

an d ma rk i t a s sh o wn a t 1 F o r t o ngs W ith o u t w el ds cut

.
,

st o ck 16 inch es .

S T E P T w o — H eat one end and place it o n the anvil w ith

th e cente r p unch m a rk at the rounded edge a s shown i n Fig
-
,
.

A . H amme r i t as indi cated gradually rai sing the c o l d e n d

,

unti l i t i s p a rall el w ith th e face o f th e anv il a s sh o wn by the ,

d o tted l ines Th i s fo rm s th e sh o ul de r sh own at 2 I f the

.
, .

stock were h el d flat on th e anvi l wh en sta rti n g thi s Sh oulder ,

it w o ul d p robably move fo rwa rd a fte r each bl o w thu s making ,

th e sh o u lde r a po or o ne .
 F LA T J A W E D T O N G S
-
93

S T E P TH R E E — G ive th e stock a qua rter turn t o the left ,

a n d plac e it o n th e a n v il as sh o wn i n Fig B H ammer o ut . .

the st o ck f o r th e e y e taking ca re t o h ave th e bl o ws fall di

,

r ectly ab o ve the edge o f th e anvil Th is i s do n e to p revent the .

j aw f r o m bendi n g u p wa rd whil e hammering .

Wh en placing th e st o ck o n th e anvi l f o r hamm eri n g th e

eye i t shoul d neve r be tu rn ed t o th e right Thi s w o ul d make
,
.

th e t o ngs l eft ha n ded In th e fi n ished tongs th e handle o f the

-
.

top j aw sh o ul d l o ok towa rd the r i ght .

ST E P F OU R — With a inch t op o r b o tt o m fulle r make a - -

ma rk a s sh own at 4 F o rm the sec o n d j aw o n th e other end

.

o f th e stock in the sam e man n e r Th e st o ck shoul d then be .

cut th r o ugh the center at th e ch i sel ma rk a s Sh o w n at 4 i n ,

Plate XXVI .

ST E P F I V E — D raw o ut th e stub end ( t o wh ich th e handl e

.
-

i s to be welded ) o n th e anvil and s ca r f it a s sh o wn at 5 , , .

S everal cuts sh o ul d be made o n the face o f th e sca rf with a

ha rdie t o preve nt the pi eces f rom sl ip p i n g apart wh e n wel ding
, .

ST E P S I x — C u t a pi ec e o f st o ck l o ng e n o ugh to make b o th
.

handles a n d upset it at th e ends a s sh o wn at 6

, , .

S T E P SE V E N — Sca rf the ends o f thi s p i ece a s shown I f

. .

thi s st o ck i s al s o o f mach ine steel th e scar f s mu st be n icked ,

n th e sam e manne r a s th o se on the j aws .

ST E P E I GH T — Wel d th e j aws on th e e n d s o f thi s p iece

.
,

then cut it at th e ce n te r Fi n ish the p orti on o f th e ha n dle

.

n ea r th e e y e w ith a fl atte r R o und th e ey e o n th e h o rn o f the

.

anvil w it h a V z inch t op full er

-
a s sh o wn in Fig -
C Finish , . .

hamm ering the j aw t o size an d make a gr oo ve th ru the center ,

with a inch t op f ul le r Th i s gro o v e enables o n e t o h o l d

- -
.

r o und st o ck with these tongs I t al so i n su re s a bette r gri p o n .

P r o j ect 23 . Plate X X I V .
 L I N K TO N GS 95

fl at material s ince b o th s ides o f the j aws gri p fi rmly With

, .

out the gro o ve the j aws m ight touch th e s tock at th e ce n ter _

o n ly A series o f c ross cuts as sh own sh o ul d be made with

.
, ,

a h o t ch isel t o p r o duc e a s t i ll fi rmer h o l d

, .

ST E P N I N E —Punch th e rivet h ol e sh o wn a t 9 s o tha t a

.

-
i n ch rivet w ill ea si ly d rop int o th e h o l e B ri n g th e st raight .

end o f the rivet t o a high heat and insert it i n th e h o l es in the

tw o eyes Turn th e t o n gs ove r a n d place the rivet head o n a
.

bottom s n ap a s shown in Fig D H ead th e h eated end o f . .

the rivet by fi rst givi n g it a f ew bl o w s w ith the fac e o f a hand

hamme r then r o unding it w ith th e p een o f the hamme r a n d
, ,

finall y sm oo th ing it with the t op sna p o r rive t ing t oo l , .

A fte rrive t in g t h e to ngs w ill be st i ff and w ill n ot op en

, .

Th is sh ould be remedied by heati n g them at th e rivet and

open ing a n d shutt in g th em s everal t imes Fi n i sh th e t o ngs .

b y fitting them to th e stock o n whi ch they a re to be u sed ;

P r oj ect L i nk T o n g s .
( Pl a t e s X XV I X XV I I ) -
.

ST E P S ON E To SE V E N are th e sam e as for the flat -

j awed
t o ngs .

S ET P E I GH T — Wel d o n th e handl es in th e sam e ma n ne r as

.

b e f o re D raw o ut the j aw s a n d finish them wi th a fl a tte r to

.
-
,

th e form sh own at 8 C u t off th ei r e n ds w ith a ha rdie a s

.
,

sh o wn .

STE P N I N E — P unch the h o l es f o r a inch rive t and ben d -

,

the e n ds o f th e j aw s o ver th e r ou n ded edge O f th e anvil to th e

f o rm at 9 .

ST E P T E N — Finish bend in g th e j aw s o ve r t h e h o rn o f t h e
a n vil Th i s be n ding ma y al s o be do n e with a b o tt o m swage
.
-

a n d a t op full er -
.

S T E P E L E VE N — R ive t t h e p art s to geth e r and fi nish th e tong s ,

i n th e s am e m an ne r a s the flat j aw ed t o ngs -

.
P r o j ect 23 . Plate XXV .

FLAT J AWED TONGS“ C W

swa rm s . m o o me m e s mel

A fJ / k w '
h Ch i fe / -
7
Proj ect 24 .
Plate X XVI .
P roj ect 24 .
Plat e X XVI I .
 H OLLO W B I T T O N G S-
99

P r oj ect 25 . H ol l o w - B it T o n gs .
( P l at e X XV I I I ) .

O ne Of th e meth o ds u sed f o r maki n g holl ow b it t o ngs i s -

sh o wn i n Plate X XVI I I A stu dent w h o has made the maj o r

.

ity o f the p recedi n g p r o j ect s shoul d be abl e to make a pai r o f

thes e t o ngs w ith out a detail ed ex p la n ati on o f th e va ri o u s
ste p s H o weve r th e f o ll o w ing po ints sh o ul d be n o ted
.
,

At 3 th e st o ck f o r th e j aw i s sh o wn full ered and ready f o r

sha p ing to s ize It sh o ul d be flatten e d and br ought to the de
.

si red f o rm with a squa re edge s et hamm er Th e o bj ect o f th e

- -
. -

fulle r marks i s t o leave t h e neck th ick thereby making a ,

st r o nge r j aw .

E n o ugh st o c k i s p r o vided in thi s exe rci se f o r d rawing o ut -

the handl es Thi s i s don e under th e t ri p—hamme r Th e han

. .

dles a re then r o unded betw een t o p an d b o ttom swages -

.

The flat end o r j aw prope r i s be n t t o th e f o rm at 5 by

, ,

p lacing it o n a V bl ock and u sing a to p ful le r o n th e i n s ide

- -
,

a s sh o wn in Fig A . .

T o bend th e stock betw een th e j aw p r op e r and th e e y e t o

th e f o rm sh own at 7 place it over th e r o u n ded edge o f the
,

anv il and u se a l inch t op full e r o n it a s sh o wn in Fig B

- -
,
. .

A fter riveting th e t on gs th ey shoul d be fitted t o a pi ece o f

,

s q ua re s to ck o f t h e si z e On wh ich the y a re to be u sed .

Pr o j e c t 25
. Plate XXVI I I .
 C H A PT E R VI .

A N N E AL I N G ,
H ARD E N I N G AN D TE M PE RI N G ST E E L .

A nn ea li n g — W h e n c arb o n s t ee l i s h ea t e d to a t e m p e ra t u re
o f ab o ut 1 400
°
F a n d all owed t o co o l s l o wl y i t bec o mes s oft
.
, ,

o r a nn ealed . Th e m o re sl o wl y i t i s c oo l ed the s o fter it i s

wh en c o ld .

There a re tw o O bj ect s in anneal ing : fi rs t t o s o f te n t h e ,

metal an d sec o nd to rem o ve i n ternal stres ses F o r i n stance

, ,
.
,

a p iece o f t oo l steel i s ge n e rall y s oftened o r annealed bef o re

being w o rked in a lathe o r o therw is e machined .

Th e c o mm o n meth o d o f ann eal ing t oo l steel i s t o hea t it

t o a cherry red and bu ry i t i n ashes o r slaked lim e until i t h a s
-

enti rely c o oled C are must be take n n o t t o heat the steel t oo

.

much o r i ts grain w ill bec o m e coa rse an d th e steel weakened

,
.

Th e a shes and lime u se d sh oul d be p er f ectly dry s o that they ,

w ill be p o or c on duct o rs o f heat an d caus e th e steel t o co o l

sl o wly .

B ox A n n ea l i n g — In a n n eal i n g a l a rg e n u mb er o f s t e el
pi eces they a re usual ly p acked w ith gr o und b on e o r fin e cha r
,

coal in cast i ro n boxes an d placed in an annealing furnace

-
.

When they have reach ed the p r o per tem p eratu re the d ra ft i s

shut off a n d th e fu rnace i s all o wed t o c o o l sl o wly Th e steel
, .

i s n o t remov ed fr o m th e b o xes unt il it i s c o l d .

T hi s meth o d o f anneal ing prevents th e steel f r o m being

c ove red with scal e becau se n o ai r i s a dm itted an d th e o xygen
,

o f the a i r in th e boxes i s c o n sumed by th e red h o t c arb o n -

.

Wa t e r A n n eali n g — T h e q u i c ke s t m e t h o d O f a n neal in g
“
steel i s k n own a s wate r anneal ing I t wil l n o t leave th e
.

steel a s s o f t a s whe n cool ed sl o w ly in l im e o r a sh es bu t it ,

o ften s erves the pu r p os e m o re c o nvenientl y A c as e in whi ch .

th i s woul d be so i s wh en a d ril l o r tap ha s b r o ken O ff in a

pi ec e o f w o rk and mu s t b e s o f t ened be f o re i t can b e rem o ved .
102 A N N E AL I N G H A RD E N I N G T E M P E R I N G
, ,

Th e p r o cedu re i s t o h ea t th e st eel until it sh o w s a dull red

w hen h el d in a da rk pl ace the n plu n ge it i n wate r , S oapy .

w ater gives ver y g oo d re sults f o r th i s p u rpose .

H a r den i n g . If
i n s t ea d o f al l o w i n g s t e el t o c oo l Sl o w l y
-

f r o m a ch erry red h eat i t i s c ool ed sudde n ly it w ill bec o me

-
,

very h ard Th e ha rd n es s w il l depend upo n th e p ercentage o f

.

ca rb o n in th e steel the tem p eratu re at which it i s ha rdened

, ,

and the Speed w ith wh ic h i t i s c o o led The f o ll o wing two .

l aws o f h a rde n i n g shoul d b e b o rne i n mind w h ile ha rde n i n g

t oo l steel :

1 Th e h ighe r th e pe rcentage of ca rbo n in

. th e steel th e
lowe r wil l be th e r e fi n ing o r ha rde n i n g h eat
, , .

2 T he
. m ore qu ickly steel i s c ool ed f rom the ha rdeni n g
heat th e ha rde r it b ecom es .

F r o m these laws i t f oll o w s that th e ha rdnes s O f any p iece

o f st e el may be va ri ed by va ry ing th e rate o f c o ol i n g .

R efi n i n g H ea t —Th e o n l y w a y t o d et e rm i n e th e p r o p e r
.

h eat at wh i ch a piece o f tool st eel shoul d be ha rd e ned i s by

ex p erim e n ti n g i n th e followi n g ma nn er : D raw o ut a sampl e - -

o f the steel i nto a ba r about i n ch squ a re O n e e n d o f th i s .

ba r i s heated to a dull r ed and qu ickly co o le d i n wate r havi n g

°
a temperatu re of ab o ut 7 0 F When col d it i s p laced on th e .

a n v il w ith about 1 i nch o f thi s end pr o j ecting o ver the r o u n d e d

edge A n attem p t i s t h en made t o b reak O ff th is p roj ecti n g
.

end by h itti n g it w ith a hand hamm e r I f i t be n ds th e tem -

.
,

p er a tu r e at wh ich it wa s ha rdened was n ot h igh en o ugh Thi s .

test shoul d the n be repeated rai si n g th e tempe ratu re s lightly

,

each time until th e steel wh en c o o l ed w ill be fi le hard i e a

, ,
-
,
. .
,

fil e w ill not cut it ; w i ll not b reak ea sily ; a n d will have a fin e

grain I f th e temperatu re i s rai sed t o o h igh the gra in o f the
.

steel w il l be coa rs e show i n g la rge c rystal s The steel will als o

, .
 RE CAL E S C E N C E 1 03

be v e ry brittl e n ot s o strong and w i ll n ot h o ld a cutting edge

, ,

w ell.

Th e refining heat may th en be defined a s the t emperatu re

which gives the steel wh en ha rdened th e fi n est gra i n l eav es
, , ,

i t fi le ha rd , and al s o l eaves it in th e str o ngest c o nditi o n

-
. .

R ecales cen ce .
—Wh en
s t e el i s h ea t e d t o a b ri gh t re d h e at -

and allowed t o c o ol th e rate o f cool ing i s not u n i f orm It w il l

,
.

c ool gradually u n til a ce rta in temperatu re i s reach ed wh e n it ,

will s eem t o bec o m e h o tter f o r a s h o rt t i me a n d th e col or

l ig h ter B el o w th i s tem p e ratu re t he c oo ling i s gradual again
. .

Th e temperatu re at wh ich th i s a pp a rent r e heat i ng o c cu rs -

i s the p rope r refini n g or hardening heat fo r th e steel test e d It .

ca n be determined by th e u s e o f a Py r o meter Thi s phe n om .

e n on i s known a s recal esce n c e I n wate r anneal i ng th e ha rd

.
,

steel Sh o ul d be heated t o s o m ewhat bel o w th is tem p eratu re .

T em p er i n g — A ft e r t o o l s h av e b e en h a rd en e d i n t h e m an
ne r desc ribed a b ove they a re t o o ha rd a n d b rittl e f o r m ost
,

pu r p oses and mu st be s o ftened a l ittl e

,
Th i s p rocess o f .

“
slightly s o fte n i n g th e ha rde n ed steel i s known a s d raw ing
” “ ”
th e tem p er o r p r op erly t em p ering
, , ,
.

Tem p ering i s acc o mpl i sh ed b y rehea t ing the ha rdened

ste e l a n d qui ckly c o oling i t again the am o unt o f th e reh eat
, ,

i n g dependi n g upon th e u se f o r wh ic h the t o ol i s i n tended .

The accompa n ying cha rt gives th e approx imate t emperatu res

at wh ich va riou s t ool s a re tem pe red Thu s i f a pi ece o f ha rd .

e n ed t o ol steel i s heated to a tem p eratu re o f about 4 3 0 F it °

.

wil l be only sl ightly s o ftened and w il l still be ha rd en o ugh f o r

,

smal l lath e t oo l s .

Thes e tempe ratu res can b e determined i n several wa y s I f .

the ha r deni n g a n d t empe ri n g i s done o n a l a rge s cal e an o il ,

bath may b e u sed Such a bath i s maintai n ed at th e des i red

'

tempe ratu re a s i n d i cat e d by a th ermom et e r and th e steel ,

placed i n i t a fte r bei n g h ard e ned Whe n t he s t eel h as reach e d

.
 A N N E AL I N G H A RD E N I N G T E M P E R I N G
, ,

th e sam e tem p eratu re a s the bath it i s rem o ved and qu i ckly

,

c o o l ed
.

F o r o rdina ry pu rposes th e t em p eratu re i s gauged by the

GU I D E FOR H AR D E N I N G AN D T E M PE R I N G
CA R B O N T OOL ST E E L
 TE M P E R I N G 105

c o l o r o f o xide on the steel Th i s fil m o f o xi de f o rm s o n th e

.

pol ished su rface o f steel i f heat i s a pp li ed I t i s fi rs t vi sibl e .

at a temperatu re O f about wh en th e c o l o r i s a very p al e

yell ow A s th e temperatu r e ri ses the c o l o r changes f r o m
.
,

pal e yell o w to da rk yell ow t o b r o wn then to light p u r p l e to

, , ,

da rk pu rpl e and finally to bl u e These c olors s e rv e a s a gu ide

,
.

f or tem p eri n g A fter the m etal ha s b een c o oled they rem ain
.

v isibl e in d icati n g the last tem p e ratu re t o wh ich it w a s h eated

, .

C o mm o n i r o n sh o w s this same p hen o m en o n .

Up t o a vi s ible red heat the h ighe r the tem p eratu re o f r e

,

heating th e s o fte r th e steel bec o mes If th e steel i s reheated .

to too h i gh a temperatu re it mu st b e rehardened and tempered

agai n .

Th e best sh op m eth o d f o r t esting th e ha rdness o f a t oo l i s

to t ry it w ith a fi le Th e acti on o f a fil e on steel whi ch ha s
.

bee n tempe re d at th e di f ferent c o l o rs i s given i n th e chart ;

bu t whil e th is m eth od may indicate that a t oo l ha s th e p roper
ha rd n ess th e grai n may be coa rs e becau se o f too high a hard
,

e n i n g heat Th i s l ast c o ndit i o n gives the t ool a crumbly a n d

.

scratchy c utting edge .

T em per i n g O n l y t h e C u t t i n g E d ge s o f T o o l s — C e rt ai n
tool s a re tempe red only at the cutti n g edges the main body ,

bei n g l eft unharde n ed in o rder t o resi st shocks They a re all

. .

t empe red in the sam e man n e r th e o nly d i ffe rence bei n g in the
,

final ha rdness O f the cutti n g edge Th e temperi n g o f a ch i s e l

.

w il l s e rv e a s an exam p l e o f th e p r o cess em p l o yed .

A fter the ch is el h a s been f orged it sh o ul d be all o wed to ,

c oo l until black a n d then reheated f o r ha rdeni n g ab o ut 3

,

inch e s back f r o m th e edge When reheating th e cutting edge

.
,

shou ld be kept high i n the fi re s o t h at th e h eat w ill be ap p l ied

,

t o th e th ick p a rt O f the ch i sel a n d fl ow towa rd th e cutti n g

edge The ch isel sh o ul d be ke p t w ell c o vered w i th c o ke a n d
.
,

heated sl o wly .

The ha rdeni n g i s d o ne by qui ck c oo l ing i n wate r at a t em

1 06 A N N E AL I N G H A RD E N I N G T E M P E R I N G
, ,

p e ra tu r e o f ab o ut 7 0 F Th i s water sh o uld be c lean since

°
.
,

di rty wate r reta rds co o ling T h e ch isel i s hel d vertically a n d

.
,

th e cutting edge gradual ly i nserted in the wate r u n til ab out

h al f of th e heated p orti o n i s bel o w th e su r f ace The tool must .

be m o ve d a r o u n d wh il e doing th is so that th e steam ge n e rated

,

w ill n ot bl o w th e wate r away a n d retard the c o ol i n g It .

sh oul d n ever be h eld stati on a ry in th e water s ince i f the re is ,

a w ell defi n ed l i n e betwee n th e c oo l ed and h o t p orti o ns the

-

chi s el w il l p ro bably break at th a t po int The chi sel i s the n .

qu ickly plunged i n to the wate r and immediately removed con ,

s i de ra ble h eat r e mai n ing i n i t but th e edge bei n g c o l d .

l
Pa e Ye ow ll
S t r a w Ye ow ll
t
De e p S r a w
Li h
g t P ur p e l
Blue ti n
ge d Wllll Red
‘

Fig 47 .

Fo r th e p u r p os e o f watch ing the c o lors th e cutti ng end i s ,

p ol ished w ith a c arbo run dum st on e or a pi ec e o f em ery cl o th .

Th es e tem p er c olors w il l fi rst a pp ea r next to th e h e ated po r

tion of th e C hi sel wh e n the heat f r o m th at p a rt runs down into
the po int Th ey w ill m o ve dow n t o wa rd th e point in the o rder
.

sh o wn at A i n Fig 4 7 Wh en th e col o r at th e cutting edge i s

. .

blue ti n ged w ith red a s at B th e to o l i s c o mpl etely c oo l ed to

, ,

p revent f u rth e r reheati n g an d s o ftening of th e po in t .

A l ath e t oo l i s h ardened an d tem p ered i n th e sam e man

n er,
exce p t that th e fin al c oo l ing i s d o ne w hen th e yell o w
scal e a p pea rs at th e cutt ing edge .
 TE M P E R I N G 1 07

H a rden in g a n d T em p er in g T ool s T h r u ou t — W h e n a t o ol .

i s t o be t e mp e red th r uout it i s fi r st h eated u n i f o rmly t o the re

fi n i n g h eat a n d th e n c ompl etely cool ed A fte r removing it
, .

f rom the c o oling bath it i s d r ied a n d th e su r f ace p o l i sh ed It

, .

i s tempe red by lay ing it o n a pi ece of red hot i ron until the -

des i r e d color appears o n th e po l ished su rfac e when it i s again ,

cool ed i n wate r o r O i l Th e t ool sh o ul d be tu rned f requently

.

i n order to hav e th e h eati n g take place u n i f ormly I f thi s i s .

n o t done the part s i n c o n tact w ith the h o t i ron w il l bec om e

over h e ated and too s o ft be f ore the othe r pa rts a re h o t e n ough
to Show th e desi red c o l ors Th e reheati n g i s s om etimes done
.

o ve r the fi re o r o n a p lat e l ai d o ver th e fi re

, .

M et h o ds of C ooli n g —
T h e d e gr ee o f h a rd ne s s i n a p i ec e
o f carbo n steel depends up o n th e rapidity o f its co o ling f rom
th e refi n i n g heat S om e t oo l s such as di es fi les etc whi ch
.
, , ,
.
,

must be ext rem ely ha rd a re ha rd ened by pl u n ging them whe n

, ,

at th e refi n ing h eat i n t o a bath o f c ol d b rine Th e latter cool s

,
.

th e steel fa ster tha n water and leaves it mu ch ha rde r T oo l s

, .

an d a rticl es such a s Sp rings wh i ch requ i re toughness rather

,

tha n hardness a re c oo l ed i n o il Th e o il d o es n o t co o l them

, .

a s ra p i dly a s w ate r .

C a re sh o ul d be taken n o t t o remove th e to o l s f r o m th e
bath when being ha rde n ed th ru o ut u n til they hav e compl etely
, ,

c o oled a s th ey a re likel y t o c rack

,
.

F o r g i n g H eat oo l S t eel — T h e t em p erat u re a t w h i ch

of T

t o ol steel sh oul d be w o rked de p ends o n the am o unt O f forging

an d hammeri ng to be d on e I f a la rge a m ount o f hamm ering
.

i s necessary f o r shaping a p iece it sh oul d be w o rke d at a yel ,

l ow h eat A t th i s h eat the st eel i s p l asti c an d w ork s easily

.
.

M uch h eavy hamm ering i s g o od f o r the st eel sinc e i t refi n es ,

th e grain Wh en th e f o rging o r t oo l i s m erely t o be sm oo th ed

. .

o r fi n i sh ed th e w o rk sh oul d be d o ne at a tem p eratu re j u s t

,

ab o ve th e refining h eat .

H ea t i n g St e e l f o r H a r de n i n g — Th e fi re u s ed f o r h ea t i n g
108 A N N E AL I N G H A R D E N I N G T E M P E R I N G
, ,

t oo l steel shoul d have a g oo d bed o r b o t to m o f h ot cake i n

, , ,

orde r to heat the c o l d a i r c om i n g th r u th e tuy e re i r o n I f the .

a i r i s n ot wa rmed ve ry much and a p i ece in th e fi re i s tu rned

o ve r occasi o n ally th e h eate d p orti on s o f th e p iece w ill be
,
.

c o oled Thi s c o oli n g w ill make i t c ont ract a n d te n d to c rack

.

it The piec e shoul d al s o be ke p t well c o vered w ith hot c o ke

.
,

in o rder that the o xygen in the ai r w il l n o t attack and deca r

bo u ize it .

C arbo n steel sh o ul d be heated Sl o wly e no ugh t o obtain a

un i fo rm color o n it I f i t i s heated t oo rapidly th e co rners
.

a n d edg e s w il l bec o m e o ve rheated b e f ore th e mai n b o dy o f

th e p i e ce ha s reached the p rope r temp e ratu re A ll ow i n g th e s e
.

pa rts t o c ool t o the prope r t e mperatu re w ill no t do much g o od ,

a s th e g r ai n i n th em w ill be c oa rs e a n d there w il l be internal

st res ses s et up .

Im po rt an c e of U n i f o rm H ea t i n g — If o ne p a r t o f a t o o l
t o be ha rde n ed i s h eated more tha n anothe r there w il l be
an u n equa l e x p a n sion Th e co n t ract i on wh ich takes place when
.

the tool i s co o l ed w ill al s o b e u n equal Th i s cau ses i n ternal

.

st resses i n th e t oo l whi ch may crack it at a n y tim e F o r thi s

,
.

rea s on p ieces o f to o l steel s ometimes break w ith a lou d repo rt

a fter being ha rde n ed .

H a rd e n i n g a t a R i s i n g H ea t — A p i e ce o f c arb o n st e e l
”
sh o ul d n eve r be all o we d t o soak i n the fi re a fte r havi n g bee n
uni f ormly h eated t o th e desi red tempe ratu r e Th i s cau ses it .

t o bec om e deca rb on ized coars e i n grai n and brittle I t sh oul d

, , .

b e rem o ved f r o m th e fi re an d ha rde n ed j ust a s s o o n a s th e de

si red temperatu re h as bee n reach ed .

R e s t o ri n g th e G r a i n — In c a s e th e gra i n of a pi ec e of s t ee l
.

ha s bec o me coa rse thr u o ve rh eati n g it may a n d shoul d be r e

,

fined i n one o f th e f o ll o w ing way s

1 B y redu cing th e s ize o f th e m aterial w ith a tri p ham
.
-

m e r o r sl edge th ereby cl osi ng th e grai n

,
.

2 B y al l ow in g th e steel t o c oo l and the n reheati n g it t o

.

th e refi n i n g h eat .
 C OOL I N G 109

R esto ri n g
th e grai n by r eheati n g may not make th e s t eel
quite a s good a s i t was be for e b e i n g overheat ed U n les s it .

ha s be e n overh e ated for so m e ti m e o r actually burned ham ,

mering w il l p ract icall y rest o re it to its o rigi n al quality .

Ca u ti on — If
th e refin in g h eat o f a pi ece of st e el is 1 400
' °

F and th ru ca rel ess n ess the p i e c e i s h e ated to l 600 it sh ould

,
°
,

n o t be c o o l ed i n th e a ir to 1 4 00 a n d th en ha rde n ed Thi s
°
.

w o ul d give i t the ha r d n e s s o f the l400 temperatu r e together

°

with the coars e g r a i n du e to ov e rh e at in g T h e gra i n o f tool.

steel rema i n s i n th e co n dit io n cau s e d by th e h i ghest t empera

tu re t o wh ich it ha s bee n h e ated u n ti l it i s c ooled a n d reheated .

It th en adj usts itsel f t o th e new temperatu re .

Wa r p i n g i n C o o l i n g — W h e n h eat e d s t eel i s c o ol e d i t c o n
t racts a n d u n l e s s th e co n t ract io n i s u n i f o rm i t i s l iabl e t o be
,

wa rped o r b e n t ou t o f shape To avoi d thi s wa rping a s much

.

a s possibl e th e p i ece mu st fi rst be h eated u ni fo rmly a n d the n ,

cool ed u n i f o rmly Ly di p pi ng it i n the c o ol i ng bath i n the p roper

manner .

I f f o r instance a ca rving k n i fe were un i f o rmly heated and

, ,

dipped into oil o r wat er s o that o n e O f th e flat s i des struck

the bath fi rst that s i de woul d be cool ed m o re qu ickly tha n
,

t he o the r and the blade w ou ld b e badly wa rped B y di p pi n g .

i t i n edge w is e b oth s i des woul d be cool ed a t th e same rate

-
,

and th e wa rpi n g w ould be very sl i ght .

C y l indrical pieces a re ge n erally i nserted end fi rst i n th e

c o o li n g bath ; wh i l e squa r e flat pi eces ca rv i n g kn i ves shea r
-
, , ,

blades a n d a r t i cl e s of s i m i la r cha ract e r a re dipp e d edge w i se

,
,
-
.

H ard en i n g Th i n F l at A rt ic l e s — V e ry t h i n fl a t p i ec e s of
, ,

steel a r e som e times hard e n ed by heating th em u n i f ormly t o

th e refini n g h eat an d pl aci n g th em betwee n h e avy plates o f
i r on wh ose faces a r e s m ea r e d w ith O il T h e i n sert i on o f th e
.

steel betw e e n th e p l at e s mu st b e done a s qu ickly a s possibl e .

Th is m eth o d l eaves th e st e el hard t ru e and flat

, , .

T e m p eri n g T a p s — W h e n h a rd e n i n g t ool s h av i n g t eeth o r

l lO A N N E AL I N G H A R D E NI N G T E M P E R I N G
, ,

p roj ecti on s suc h a s tap s a n d reame rs they shoul d not be

, ,

heat ed m ore tha n i s a b s o lutely nec e ssa ry Th e h e ati n g sh oul d .

b e do n e i n a mu f fle f u r n ac e bu t i n ca se th i s i s not ava i la bl e i t
,

ca n b e done o ve r th e forge fi re by e n clo si n g the tap i n a p iece

o f p ipe t o p revent th e teeth f rom com i n g i n d i rect c o n tact
,

with th e fi re I n th e latte r method th e pipe i n w h i ch th e h eat

.

i n g i s do n e sh o ul d be l o n ger a n d at least 2 i n ch es l a rge r i n

di amete r tha n th e tool Th e tap must be h eat ed sl o wly a n d .

rev o lved f requently in o rde r t o O btain a u n i form h eat

,
.

A fte r th e refini n g h eat ha s been reached th e tap i s co o l ed

i n t e pi d wat er It i s plunged en d fi rst a n d the n m o ved up
.
,

dow n a n d a rou n d i n th e wate r to cool i t th o r oly a n d t o

, ,

p r e v e n t th e steam gen e rated from reta rd i n g th e c o ol i n g .

Fig . 48
.

Whe n th e tap ha s been c o m p letely cool e d it i s take n out a n d

p oli sh ed w ith a special em e ry wh eel o r w ith em er y cloth i n , ,

o rde r that th e tem p er c o l o rs ma y be readil y seen .

I t i s tem p e red by inse rti ng i n a h eated colla r a s sh o wn in ,

Fig 48 I t sh o ul d be c o nsta n tly rev o lved wh ile i nside th e c o l

. .

la r an d m o ved back an d forth th ru it de p ending o n how th e

, ,

c o l o rs a re a p pea ri n g I n n o cas e Sh o uld the teeth com e in

.

c o ntact with th e i n side o f the c o lla r Wh en th e des ir e d colo r .

,

d ee p st ra w o r b r o wn has a pp ea red th e ta p i s c oo led i n O i l

, , .

T em p eri n g C a rv i n g Kn i v es — W h e n h a rd eni n g c a r v i n g
knives on a small scal e they a re ge n e ral ly h e ated i n th e same
ma nn e r a s a tap i e i n side o f a piece o f pi p e Th e p ipe
, . .
,
.

sh oul d h o weve r b e fi rst h eated u n i f o rm ly by revolvi n g it

, ,

sl o wly i n th e fi re Th e kn i f e i s th e n h e ld i n si de o f it and ve ry
.
,
 T E M P E R I N G S H E AR B LAD ES 111

l i ttl e bla st tu rned on Th e heating sh o ul d be d o n e sl o wly i n

.
,

o rd e r to avoid wa r p i n g o r bending Wh e n heated u n i formly .

to th e refining heat th e blade i s c o ol ed i n fi sh o i l d ipp i n g it

, ,

e dge wi s e w ith the back of th e kni fe down I f th e blade be

-
.

comes b e n t b efo re ha rdeni n g n o attempt should be made to

‘

st raighte n i t bel ow a red h eat otherwi se i t w ill wa rp agai n

-
,

when being c o ol ed .

A fte r the k n i f e ha s been hardened it i s po l ish ed o n an

e me ry bu ffe r a n d hel d i n th e flam e o f th e fi re t o tempe r it .

Th e fi n al c o o l i ng i s do n e i n o i l whe n the c ol o r o f th e scal e i s

,

bl u e tinged w ith red .

T em p e r in g Sh ea r B l a d es — In s m al l sh op s s h ear b l a de s
a r e ha rd e n ed i n th e f ol lowi n g ma nn e r : Tw o w rought i ro n -

plat es the same le n gth a s th e blade 1 i n ch na rr o we r a n d , ,

i n ch th i ck a re plac e d o n e ither s ide o f th e blade so that abo u t ,

1 inch o f th e cutting edge i s expo sed for its e n t i r e l e ngth .

H oles correspo n di n g to th ose in th e bla de a r e d rill ed i n th e

'

plates a n d th e th r e e pi e c e s a re bo lt e d t ogeth e r The y a re

,
.

th e n pl ac e d in a f u rnace h eated to the refi nin g h e at a n d cool e d

, ,

i n te p i d wate r .

Wh e n th e blade i s c o l d th e p lates a re removed and o ne ,

s id e o f th e blade p o l ished i n o r de r to wa t ch th e t emper c ol o rs

, .

Th e blade i s te m pered by standi n g it o n edge l e n gthw i s e o n a

piec e o f h ot i ro n A s s o o n a s th e d e si red c olo r a st raw yel
.
,

l ow reache s th e cu tti n g edge the blad e i s c ool e d i n fi sh o il

, , .

Thes e plate s preve n t th e body o f the b lade fr om b e com i n g

a s h ot a s th e cutti n g edge a n d cau se it to c ool sl owly Th i s
, .

m akes th e body tough for resi sti n g Sh ock s Th e pl at e s al so .

kee p th e blade f r o m w a rp ing when c o ol ing .

T em p er i n g Sp ri n g s — W h en p i ec e s o f s t e el m u s t b e t o u gh
e n ed so that they w i ll retu r n to th ei r orig i n al fo r m wh e n be n t
“ ”
o r twi sted th ey a r e generally sp r i n g t em pered
, Th i s i s th e .

sam e a s ordi n a ry tempe r i n g exc e pt that m o re o f th e hardnes s

,

i s rem oved maki n g th e ste e l t ough e r

, .
1 12 A N N E AL I N G H A R D E N I N G T E M P E R I N G
, ,

Fi sh o r animal o il i s generally u sed fo r c oo ling i n spring

tem p eri ng I t gives better co n trol ove r the h ardness becau se
.
,

th e steel i s n o t co o l ed quite s o fast a s in wate r The latt e r .

can be used but it makes i t harde r to p ro p e rly gauge the

,

tempering .

F o r many pu rp o ses a grade O f steel made es p ecially f o r

sp ri n gs gives better results than regula r tool steel I t i s th ere
’

f ore a g oo d p ol icy t o state th e re q u i rement s of a s p ring when

o rdering material f o r it .

Tem p ering s p rings o n a smal l scal e i s generally don e by

t h e b l a z i n g off o r fl a s h i n g p r o ces s T h e s pr i n g i s fi r s t h a rd
.

e n ed i n the fi sh oil and then r e h eated wh il e still wet w ith O i l -

, ,

in th e fl ame o f th e fi re Whe n th e O i l on it blaz es up it i s

.
,

plu n ged for: an in stant i n t o th e O i l bath Th i s p rocedu re is .

c o n t inued until the o il bla zes u n i f o rmly ove r th e ent i re s p ring

at th e sam e tim e whi ch i s general ly a fter ab out th ree plunges
,

in the bath It i s then aga i n c o mpl etely c o o led i n th e O il

. .

S prings a re sel dom uni fo rm in thickness h e n ce the thin pa rt s ,

h eat mo re qu ickly tha n th e o th ers Th e mom e n ta ry p l u n ge .

int o th e o il bath co o l s the se th i n p arts s omewhat w ithout a f

fe cti n g the rest o f th e sp ri n g very much I n thi s way th e .

e i i t i re spring i s b r o ught t o th e flash po i nt temperatu re o f th e

-

°
oil wh ich i s ab o ut 600 F
,
.

When la rge numbers O f s p rings a re t o be handl ed an Oil ,

b a th ke p t at the p r op er tempe ratu re i s o ften provided f o r t em

pe r i ng The Springs a re placed in th i s bath a fte r bei n g ha rd
.

e n ed and a re all owed to remai n th ere fo r a certai n l e n gth of

‘

time depe n di n g u pon thei r s ize They a re the n rem o ved and
, .

c ooled in oil .

C a s e-H a r d e n i n g —O n
a c c o u n t o f t h e s m al l a m o u n t o f c a r
.

b o n in w r o ught i ro n and s o f t steel they ca n not be ha rde n ed ,

t o any a p preciabl e extent I f h o weve r they a re h eated to a

.
, ,

h 1gh temperatu r e wh il e in c o ntact w ith some substanc e co n

ta i n i n g ca rbo n such a s grou nd b o ne cha rc oal o r cha r r e d
, , ,
 C AS E H A R D E N I N G
-
1 13

l eath e r thei r outs ide su r faces w ill abs orb s o m e o f the ca rbo n
, .

This gives these su rfaces the cha racteri sti c p roperties o f tool
steel s o that th ey can be ha rde n ed a n d tempered i n the same
,

ma nn e r The p rocess of t reating the i r o n o r steel s o as t o

.

make th e o uts ide su rface h ard i s kn o wn a s case ha rdeni n g -

.

A p iece o f material wh ich has been ca se —ha rdened c o n

s ists o f a w rough t i ron o r mach i n e steel co re w ith a tool
- -

steel su r face M achi n e steel i s u se d o rdi n a rily f o r case

.

ha rde n i n g Steel t reated i n thi s way i s p a rticul a r ly valuabl e

.

f o r bicycle pa rts s ince it w ill no t be n d easily res ist s shocks

, ,

by reaso n o f its soft core and i s mu ch ch eape r tha n tool steel

, .

Th e d epth to wh ic h the m aterial i s ca rb on ized o r th e pe n e ,

t ra ti on of th e carbo n dep e n ds upon the tempe ratu re to which

,

th e m aterial is h eated w hi l e i n c o n tac t w ith the ca rbo n iz e r the ,

l e n gth o f t i m e i t i s mai n tained at that tem p eratu re a n d the ,

c arbo n iz i n g substa n ce u sed .

The re a re th re e p racti ca l Shop meth o ds w h ich a re used f o r

cas e ha rdening
-
.

F I R ST M E T H OD — Smal l p i eces and p ieces wh ich requ ire

only a very th i n shell o f ha rd st eel a re fi rst h eated to a h igh
red heat the n removed f rom the fi re a n d sp r i n kl ed with cyan
,

i de o f pota ss ium Th e latte r must b e reaso n ably pu re i n o rde r

.

t o o btai n th e b e st results Th e pi ece s a re reh eated fo r a few

.

s ec o n ds to all ow th e ca rbon f rom th e cyanide time t o soak in

, ,

a n d a re then qu ickly c ooled in wate r Thi s m etho d i s also u sed .

wh en o n ly th e su r face o f a hol e o r a small part o f a p iece i s

t o be ha rdened .

B y taking a ha n d ful o f shar p san d a n d s cou ring th e p i ece

u n de r water whil e it i s stil l h o t al l o f the di rt and scal e may ,

be rem o ved .

S E CO N D M E T H O D — It i s O ften des i red to give t h e su r fac e

o f a tool a m ottled e ffect wh en cas e ha rde n ing i t Thi s can -
.

be d o ne in th e f o ll o wing mann er
Th e t o ol i s fi rst po l i shed and th en p laced in a ca st i r o n po t
1 14 A N N E AL I N G H A RD E N I N G T E M P E R I N G
, ,

c o ntaini n g m olten cyanid e o f p otas sium Th i s p ot i s kept On .

th e fi re unt il a ft e r th e tool i s removed T h e tool i s all ow e d .

t o remai n i n the cya n i de u nt i l the desi red a b sorpti on of car

bo n ha s b e en r e ach e d Te n m i nutes i s requ i r ed f or a pen e
.

t ra t i on o f a b out 001 i n ch It i s th en r emoved w i th a pai r o f

. .

t on gs and dro pp ed th ru a distance o f 5 o r 6 f eet i nt o c o ld

wate r .

The sam e e ffec t can b e o btained b y p a ss ing the p iece th ru

a s p ray o f water a fter its rem oval f r om t h e cya n i de p ot a n d ,

the n cool in g it Whe r eve r a fin e spray st rikes th e piec e a

.

v ine l ike e ffect i s p r o duced

-
.

C a u ti on — not di p wet tongs int o m o l ten cyani de a s th i s

Do ,

wi ll cause th e cya n id e to spatte r a rou n d Cyan i de c ry stal s a re .

deadly p o i s on C are shou l d also b e take n t o avoi d th e fumes

.

from th e cyani d e a s much a s p os sibl e fo r they a re ve ry po i s ,

onou s

TH I RD M E T H O D P a ck H a r den i n g — In m o s t c o m m e rc ia l
.

p racti ce ca se ha rdening i s d o ne in th e f o l l o w i n g m anner :

-

The ca rb o n ize r wh ich may be gr o und b o ne cha rcoal o r

, , ,

cha rred leath e r i s d ri ed w ell and redu ced to a fi ne po wder

, .

A lay e r o f it ab o ut 1 % i n ches th ick i s p l aced o n the bottom

o f a ha rd e n i n g pot and on top o f i t a l ay e r o f the a r ticl es t o
,

b e h arde n ed These mu st not touch e ach o ther A n oth er

. .

laye r o f ca rbonize r i s added a n d o n top o f it a n othe r layer o f ,

th e piec es Th is bu ild i ng u p p rocess i s c o ntinued u ntil th e

.
-

pot i s f ul l wh en a fi n al coveri n g o f ca rbo n ize r i s a dded A l id

,
.

i s p ut o n a n d all j o i n t s a re cl o sed w ith cla y t o p revent oxi da

,

ti on Th e po t i s th en p lace d i n a f u rnace and heated t o a tem

.

pe r a tu r e o f ab o ut 1 800 F a full o range hea t

°
.
,

Wh en th e ca rb o n i z ing ac t i o n ha s c o ntinued l o ng en o ugh ,

abou t six h o u rs being requ i red for a p enet rati o n o f about fl ;

i n ch the pot i s rem o ved f rom th e fu r n ac e and allow e d t o c ool
,

slowly It i s th e n ope n ed and th e a rticl es cleaned with a

.
,

brush Th ey a re rehe a t ed t o a t em p e ratu re o f a bo u t

.
 HI GH -
SP E E D S TE E L 1 15

and quickly cooled i n c ol d wate r or o i l Th i s reh eating . re

fines th e g r ain maki n g th e final p r o duct tough and str on g

, .

H a rdeni n g pots made o ut o f eith e r cast i r o n O r w rought

a re

i r o n The l atte r stand the h eat better a n d last l o nge r bu t a re

.
,

m o re ex p ens ive .

Thi s p r o ces s i s s o m e t im e s em p l oy ed t o enric h the su rface

o f low grade t o ol steel Th e to o l steel i s p acked w ith a ca r
-
.

bon i z i n g material in i ro n boxes a n d h eated i n a fu rnace The , .

conte n ts of th e box a re kept at a t emperatu re o f ab o ut 14 7 5 F °

.

fo r a b out two h ou rs depen di n g upo n the dept h o f ca rboni z i n g

,

requi red A fte r rem o vi n g the b o x f r o m the fu rnace th e p iec es

.

a re w ithd rawn an d co o led in o il , .

'

TRE A T M E N T OF H I GH SP E ED ST E E L
-
.
*

H ig h Sp eed steel generall y requ i res di fferent t reatme n t f r o m

-

h igh ca rb o n steel on acc ount o f the pecul iariti es of s o m e o f

-
,

its constituents T h e same general method i s u sually f ollow ed

.
,

but slight m o difi cati ons a re sometimes requ i red to O bta in th e

best results Fo r thi s reason it i s advi sabl e t o f o ll o w the
.

s p ec ia l di recti on s given by th e ma n u factu re r .

C u tt i n g S t oc k — H i gh s p ee d s t ee l S h o u l d b e h e a t e d f o r
.
-

c utting since b reaki n g it col d ha s a tende n c y t o p rodu c e

,

c racks Small stock i s o ften cu t by grinding a gr oo ve a r o u n d

.

it w ith an eme ry wheel a n d then breaki n g it .

F o r gi n g H ea t —Th e p rop e r t e m p e ra t u re f o r f o rgi n g t h i s

.

steel i s ab o ut 1800 F a yell o w heat I t sh o ul d be heated

°
.
, .

slowly until i t becom es red h dt a n d may then be h eated fa ste r ,

u p t o a y e ll ow h eat I f heated t oo qu i ckly the outs ide o f th e

.

steel may bec o me h ot wh i l e the ce n te r i s still compa ratively

c o l d H ammeri n g i t i n thi s condit i o n i s l iabl e t o caus e inter
.

n al c racks .

F o r fu r t h er in fo r m a t i on on th e t r ea tm ent o f h igh s p e e d st e e l -
th e
“ ”
d ent
s tu is r e fer r e d to O n the A r t o f C u tt ing M et a l s by M r F , . . W .

T ay l or .
1 16 A N N E AL I N G H A RD E N I N G T E M P E R I N G
, ,

T he F i r e u s ed f o r h ea t i n g h i g h s p e e d s t e el s h o u l d n o t b e
-

a f reshl y made o n e It shoul d have bu rned f o r s o m e tim e in

-
.
,

o rde r t o p r o duc e the inte n s e h eat necessa r y f o r p r op e r ha rd

en i n g Ther e sh o ul d be a g o od bed o f h ot c o ke a r ou nd th e
.
,

steel t obring it to t h e h a rd eni n g h ea t q u ickl y

,
.

H ea t i n g for H ar deni n g — In h e a t i n g t h e e n d o f a h i gh
speed steel t oo l f o r ha rdeni n g i t sh oul d be b rought sl o wly t o a
full red h eat an d then qu ickly h eated t o th e m elting p o i n t
,
.

Wh ile doi n g th i s th e t o ol sh o ul d be tu r n ed f requ ently to i n ,

su re a uni form high h eat th ruout the e n t i re e n d A t th i s tem .

per a tu r e the n ose o f th e t o ol sweat s o r bec ome s w et The .

h ighe r th e temperatu re t o wh ich th e t oo l i s heated f o r ha rden

i n g th e greate r w il l be i ts p ro p e rty o f red ha rd n es s o r th e ,

higher th e tem p eratu re at whi ch it w i ll stil l h o l d i t s cutting

edge .

Care sh o ul d be tak en when re m o vi ng t h e t oo l f r o m t h e fi re

to s ee t hat th e p o int d o es n o t h it th e c o ke A t th is h igh tem .

p er a tu r e th e steel i s s o ft a n d c rumbl y an d w il l b reak ea s i ly , .

I f th e t oo l b ecomes p itted o r i f s o m e o f th e corners fal l off

,

due t o th e exces siv e heat it w ill still be i n g oo d c o nditi o n a fte r

,

g r ind i ng off th e i rregul a ri t ie s .

C ooli ng — Th e t oo l i s c o ol ed fr o m t h i s h i gh h ea t b y a n y
o ne o f several m eth o ds Its n o s e may be q u ickly c o o l ed by the
.

a i r blast f r o m an ai r c o mp ress o r o r p o wer fa n A n o the r way

-
.

i s t o Simply imme rse it in o il C ool ing i t i n wate r tends t o

.

c rack it but t o o l s a re s o metimes pa rt ially c o ol ed in water and

,

the n final ly c o ol ed i n o il Th e latte r m eth o d makes th e t oo l

.

s o mewhat ha rde r than eith er a i r o r O i l c oo l ing .

L ea d H e a t T r ea tm en t — St i l l a n o t h e r m e t h o d i s
to p l u n ge
th e h ighly h eated tool int o a vat o f m ol te n l ea d at a tempera
tu re o f ab o u t 1 500 F I t i s all ow ed t o remain there f o r a
°
.

time de p e n ding o n th e siz e o f th e t ool ( te n m i n utes fo r an

,

o rdina r y lathe t oo l ) and i s then t rans ferred t o anothe r vat

,
 A N N E AL I N G 1 17

at a l o we r t em p era t u re Th is m eth o d i s n o t suitabl e f o r small

.

sh op s a s i t i s m o re ex p en s ive t han the a i r bla st o r o il meth o d

,
-
.

An neali n g — H i gh s p ee d s t ee l s o m e t i m e s b e c o m e s r efr a c
.
-

to ry when d res sing i t s o that it c rumbl es I n such cases it

, .

sh o ul d be a nn eal ed Thi s may be d on e i n the sam e manner

.

that ca rb o n t oo l steel i s trea t ed .

 C H A PT E R VI I .

TOOL F OR G I N G .

Se l e ct i o n o f St e e l f o r T o o l s — Th e r e a re s o m a n y gra d e s
o f tool steel o n the ma rket that it i s very ha rd to select the
.

best mate rial f o r a tool without k no wing s o m ewhat o f th e

ch a ra cer i s ti cs o f each grade Th is informati o n i s generally
.

given i n th e catalogu es of th e manu factu rers wh ich sh o ul d ,

be c o nsulted be fo re o rderi n g th e material O n e o f th e best .

way s i s t o order th e steel f o r a stated pu rp o se without spec i ,

fy i n g any part icula r b rand thu s p utting the res p o n sibility o f

,

selecting th e right k in d o n th e manu factu re r o r h is agent .

S teel i s S o m etim es designated by th e number o f 01 % s o f .

’

ca rbo n that i t contain s I f th ere i s 1 % o f ca rb o n in i t it i s

.
,

kno wn a s 100 po int ca rbo n steel F i fty ca rb o n o r fi fty po in t .

,
-

carbon indicates a steel c o nta i n i n g 5% o f ca rb o n

,
. .

I n o rde r t o p rovide a r o ugh gu id e f o r th e student and t o

illu st rate the f act that di fferent tool s r equ Ir e di ffe re n t grades
o f steel th e f o ll o w ing tabl e i s given
,

CA RBON U S ED F OR
B la ck sm i t h s tool s s u ch a s r i v et s et s s l edg es h and
’
7 0 to 80 .
,
-
, ,

h a m m er s fu l l er s fl a tter s etc ; w edg es p i ck p oints

, , , .
,
-
,

a n d ot h e r to ol s t h a t a r e w eld e d .

80 to 90 S h ea r b l a d es ca u lking t oo l s p u n c h es fo r boil er m a k er s
‘

.
, , ,

ax es r o ck d r i ll s h and ch i s el s a n d d r op for ging di es

, , ,
-
.

90 t o M ining a n d r ock d r i ll s c h i s el s di es s h ea r b l a d es
, , , ,

knives a n d a x es
, .

to L a t h e cent er s ; sm a l l h and t ool s ; kn iv es a x es a n d , ,

fl a t d r ill s .

to L at h e a n d p l an er to o l s t w i s t d r ill s tea m er s m i lli n g

, , ,

cu tt er s g r an i t e cu tt er s too l s l a t h e cent er s
,
’

, .

to W o od an d m et a l t u r ning t ool s g r av ing t oo l s etc

-
, ,
.

to T ool s for t u r ning c h ill e d a n d h a r d m et a l s ; fi ni s h ing

t ool s an d cutt er s
, .
 C O LD C H I SE L 1 19

B e fore attem p ting t o f o rge a n d ha rden h i s fi rst t oo l a s tu

de n t shoul d e xp eriment w ith a sampl e of the tool steel i n o rd er , .

t o determine i ts refining heat and t o lea rn h ow t o rest o re th e

grain i f it i s o verheated H e sh o uld als o p racti c e drawing t he
.

col o rs o n p i ec es o f sc ra p mach in e steel .

T oo l steel st o ck shoul d be cut wh il e h ot I f i t i s cu t cold

-
.

c racks a re l ikely to b e f orm ed whi ch wil l ap p ea r when the

,

t oo l i s hardened .

P r o j ec t 26 . C o ld C h i s el .
( Pl a t e X X I X ) .

ST E P O N E — H eat the head end t o a y ell o w heat and ta p er ,

it a s sh o wn at 1 .

ST E P T w o — F o rge the o ther end t o the f o rm sh o w n at 2

at a yellow h eat A b out M , inch o f th i s end sh ould extend
.

ove r th e sharp edge o f th e anvil and the tapering sh o ul d be

,

conti n ued u p t o that edge T h e finish i n g may be do n e w ith

.

a flatte r at a tempe ratu re j u st ab o ve the refi n ing h eat I f it i s .

hamme red out w ith heavy bl o w s when black the grai n will be ,

c rush ed .

ST E P T H R E E — Th e ext rem e end A m ay be cut off w ith , ,

th e ha rdi e o r it m ay be cu t p a rtly th ru a n d b rok e n a fte r the

,

ch is el h a s been harde n ed and tem p ered Th e latter method .

exp o s es th e grain a n d indicates wh ethe r th e h eat was c o rrect .

I f the edge o f th e tool i s too th in w he n cut it sh o ul d n o t b e u p

set a s thi s makes i t likely to c rack It mu st b e cut off sh orter
,
. .

Th e ch i sel should b e al l o w ed t o c oo l sl o wly in o rder t o t e ,

m ov e a n y i n te rnal st res ses that may have been cau sed b y i m

prop e r hamm e ri n g .

Th e cutting edge is tempered to a blu e tinged with red - - -

col o r in th e ma n ner al read y described in th e previ ou s chapter

, .

Th e t i p i s then gr o und o n a n eme ry wheel t o an angl e o f

a s sh o w n .
P roj ects 26 and 27 . Plate X X I X .

COLD CHI SEL

tock 6 }
1
65 O l l l
.

S -
cta
g on a foo s t e e .

CAPE CHI S EL .
 CA P E C H ISE L 121

Test th e chi sel by chi pp ing a piece o f ca st i r o n I f the cut .

ti n g edg e i s too s o ft it shoul d be reha rde n ed at a highe r tem

t r e ; whil e i f it breaks show i n g a coa r s e ra i n it sh ou l d
p e r a u g , ,

be reha rdened at a l o we r tem p eratu re .

Pr oj ec t 27 . C a p e C h i s el .
( Pl a t e X X I X ) .

Th e cape ch i sel Fig 49 i s u sed f or c utti n g gr oo ves and

,
.
,

fo r w orki n g at th e bott o m o f nar r o w channel s Th e cutt i n g .

edge A sh o ul d be w ide r than th e rest o f th e blade Th e

, ,

”
taper sh oul d extend to B Thi s perm its the blade to cl ea r .

Fig . 49 . CAP E CH I SE L .

th e si des o f a gr oo ve o r sl o t when the g r oo ve i s being cu t to

, , .

the w i dth o f th e edge A .

ST E P O N E — Cu t th e s to ck to l en gt h and ta p er t h e head ,

end .

ST E P T w o — The o th e r end i s b r o ugh t t o a y ell o w heat ,

and ta p ered squa re a s Sh o wn at 2 ,

.

ST E P TH R EE — M ake th e ful ler ma rks sh o wn w ith or

-
i n ch to p an d bottom fullers Th ese ma rks sh o ul d no t be-
,

made t o o deep o r the blade w il l not be th ick en o ugh Thei r

, .

o bj ect is t o p revent th e bl a de f r o m b eing made t oo l o ng .

ST E P FO U R — Plac e th e end o ver th e l a rge p a rt o f th e h o rn

a n d flatten it w ith a hand hamm er i n th e manner Sh o wn at -
-

A in Fig 50 Since th e h orn acts a s a full er thi s st retch es

. .
,

the st o ck le n gth wi se and enables on e to make th e end of th e

blade A i n Fig 49 wide r tha n th e section at B with out mak
, ,
.
,

ing the n ick s or shar p C o rne rs wh ich w oul d be f o rm ed i f th e

edge o f th e anvil wer e u sed .

E xtend th e end M sh o wn a t B in Fig 50 o ver the shar p

, , .
,
 1 22 TOOL P OR C I N O

edg e o f th e a n vi l a n d fi nish th e blade by tu rning i t o n edge

,

a n d hammering it t o a poi n t Smoothing may be done with

.

a s et hamm e r a n d a flatter a s show n at C and D in Fig 50

-
, . .

H a rde n and tempe r th e cutti n g edge i n the sam e manne r a s

th e flat ch isel .

P r o j ec t 28 . R o u n d- N o s e C a p e C h i s e l .
( Pl a t e X XX ).

Th e r o u n d n ose cape ch isel i s u s e d f o r cutti n g O i l grooves

-

a n d f or centeri n g d rill s I n th e l atter ca p acity it i s k n own a s

.

a c e n tering chi sel .

Thi s ch i sel i s m ade in th e sam e manner a s th e cape C h i sel

exc ept that o n e edge Of the blade i s rou n ded a s show n at 5 ,
.

Thi s i s done by p laci n g th e blade o n a b ott o m swage and u sin g -

a ha n d hamme r o r a flatte r on th e t op edge

-
.
 C E N TE R P U N C H 123

Pr o j ec t 29 . C en t e r - P u n c h .
( Plate XX X ) .

Th e center punch i s s o s impl e t o make that n o deta iled de

-

sc ripti on o f th e ste p s requ i red i s neces sary I t i s ha rden e d in .

th e same manner a s th e cold ch isel but i s tem p er ed t o a brow n ,

"

or pu rpl e col o r When tempered th e center punch should

.
,
-

ma rk t ool steel w ith o ut having its poi n t dulled .

L a th e T o o l s — In m o s t m a c h i n e s h op w o rk h i gh s p ee d - -

steel tools a r e employed in p re f erence t o ca rb o n to o l s b e cau se

'

th ey can be u s ed fo r faster cutti n g a n d a re m o r e ec o no mi cal .

F o r l ight lath e w ork high sp e ed steel may be obta ined i n small

,
-

p i eces al ready h a rdened Where a fi n e fi n i sh i s d e si red a n d

.

the cut s a re l ight ca rbon steel t o ol s a re u sed Th ey w ill take

,
.

a kee n er edge than h igh speed steel but th e cutting mu st be

-
,

d o n e m ore slowly Th e f o ll o w ing five p roj ects give th e

.
”

m eth o d o f forming and tem p ering s o m e o f the c o mm on f o rm s

o f h igh ca rb o n lathe too ls
-
.

P r o j e ct 30 . R o u n d- N o s e T o ol .
( Plate XXX I ) .

ST E P O N E — F o rge o n e en d o f the stock f rom th ree s ides

t o a bl u n t po i n t a s sh ow n at 1
,
.

S T E P T WO — H amm er out thi s e n d s o that th e top edge i s

th icke r than th e l o we r on e an d ha s cl ea ra n ce all a round a s ,

sh o wn at 2 This i s d o ne becau se all the cutting d o ne by th i s

.

Fig . 51 .
Proj ects 28 and 29 . Plate XXX .

ROUND NOSE CAPE CHI

S EL
3 3xfi f Od agona l tool t l
'

-“
fl ock s ee .

j
. _ —
l
 T OOL F O R G I N G 1 25

to ol occu rs at o r n ea r th e tip Trim off th e e n d w i th a h ot .

ch i sel a n d be nd i t up sl i ghtly as Sh o w n
, , .

The ha rde n i n g i s done in th e sam e ma nn e r a s w ith th e col d

ch isel T h e nos e sh o ul d b e h e ated u p to th e l i n e B B i n Fig
.
, , .

a n d th e n c o oled a s f a r a s C C Th e fi n al c o ol i n g i s d o ne .

wh e n th e tempe r c o l o r at the tip i s l ight y ellow .

P roj e c t 31 . C u t t i n g O ff T o o l
-
.
( Pl a t e X X X I ) .

Th e cutting O ff tool i s u sed f o r making a n ar row gr o ove i n

-

w ork on a lath e I t i s forged w i th th e b lade e ither o n o n e S i de

.

o r in th e center O f th e stoc k The easi e r way i s t o have on e .

s ide o f th e blade flu sh w ith th e s i de O f the tool a s i n th i s ,

p r o j ect .

ST E P O N E — Cu t th e st o ck t o l en gt h and c enter p unch it ,

-
,

a s sh o wn at 1 .

ST E P T w o — M ark with a ful le r and draw o ut th e p a r t A ,

.

either w ith a hand hamme r on th e r ounded edge o f th e a n vil

-

o r w ith th e t rip hamm e r Th e hammeri n g shoul d b e done

-

i
.

w ith th e fu lle r e d s i de dow n i n th e sam e m a n ner a s the fi r st ,

ste p i n f o rging flat —j awed t ongs .

'

ST E P T H R E E — T a p e r th e s ides o f the bla de a s sh o wn at 3 .

S in ce th e cutt i ng edge o f th is t ool i s th e ext reme end it m u st ,

be made th icke r than th e rest o f th e bla de s o that it wil l h av e ,

clea ra n ce .

ST E P FO U R — Cu t off th e en d o f th e bl a de with a h ot ch i s el
.
,

mak i n g it a p pea r as at 4 .

In t em p e ring thi s t o o l it i s h ea t ed t o th e l ine B B an d , ,

co o l ed t o th e l ine C C in th e sam e manner as the r o und n o se

, ,
-

tool Th e tempe r c o l o r sh o ul d b e l ight y el l ow

. .

P r o j ec t 32 . T h r ea d i n g T oo l .
( Pl at e X X X I I ) .

ST E P O N E — C u t and ma rk th e stock a s Shown , .

P r oj e cts 30 an d 31 . Pl a t e XXX I .

ROUND NOSE TOOL

l
'

{x l x7
’

510ck root s tee .

h r ~
l m
-

CUTT'NG OFF TOOL

S mck —t it lit r fool s te cl
'

'

Us e t fu llen
 T H R E A D I N G TOOL 1 27

ST E P T WO . Full e r the en d a s at 2 .

ST E P TH R E E —D r aw O u t th e blad e with a
.
-
s e t- hamme r a
,

t op full e r o r u n d e r th e t r i p —ham m er
,
.

S T E P F O U R — C u t off th e e n d with a h ot ch is el . Th e cut

t i n g edge i s g e n e r ally g r ou n d by th e pers o n u si n g th e tool .

H a rd e n it i n th e sam e ma nn er a s the c ol d chis e l t empe ri n g it

,

to a l i ght st r aw c o l o r
.
Proj ect 32
.
Plat e XXX I I .

T HQ E AD IN G TOOL
t l
s ee .

Use f
”

r
o top a nd bofl om f u ller
‘

S P la ce
cen ter of fu ll
er on cen e r t pu nc h m ar k

Cu r offa long dotte d

'
l an e a nd gr and pa i n t
to OU ang le
 S I D E T OO L

P r oj ec t 33 . Si d e To ol .
( Pl a t e X X X I I I ) .

S i de t o ol s o r s ide fi n i s h i n g tool s a re shaped a s sh o w n at

,
-
,

4. They a r e m ad e w ith the blade at e i the r th e righ t or th e l eft

si d e a n d a re called right o r l e ft ha n d s i de t o o ls Th e blades
,
-

’
.

may be bent B e n t s ide t ool s a re fo r ged i n the sam e m a nn e r

.

a s th e o th ers th e blade bei n g be n t t o wa rd th e shank a ft e r

,

w a rds .

ST E P O N E — C u t the stock to le n gth and ma rk i t a s show n ,

.

S T E P T WO — M ake a full e r m ark a s Sh o wn at 2 tippi n g th e ,

full er so that th e groov e i s cut deepe r at o n e s ide .

S T E P T H R E E —D raw O u t th e e n d o f th e stock C at th e
.
-
, ,

rounded edge o f th e anvi l w ith a h eavy ha n d hammer th e -

,

full ered side bei n g d o wn Sm o oth i t w ith a set hamm e r

.
-
.

T rim th e blade w ith a h o t ch isel a l ong the dotted l in es sh own

at 3 .

ST E P FO U R — F i n i sh th e t oo l by givi n g th e top edge O f th e

blade th e p r op er o ffset To do th i s it should be plac e d with
.

th e fl at S ide dow n o ve r the rou n ded edge o f th e a n vi l a s shown ,

i n Fi g A Th e sh oul de r o f the bl ade sh oul d exte n d about

. .

i n ch beyon d the out er edge A s et—hammer i s p laced o n th e .

blad e cl o se t o th e sh oul de r an d given a few bl ow s w ith a sl edge ,

to p r o du ce th e n eces sa ry o ffset .

I n ha rdening th i s t ool i t sh o ul d b e p laced i n th e fi re w ith

th e cutti n g edge up in orde r t o avoid ov erh eati n g The blade
, .

i s ha rdened b y di p ping it i n water a s sh own i n F i g B O n ly , . .

th e smal l c o rne r o f th e blade D sh oul d b e all owed t o rema i n , ,

red h ot Th e t oo l i s rem oved f rom th e wate r qu ickly p o l

-
.
,

i s h e d o n th e flat side o f th e blade an d tempered o a l ight

t ,

y e ll ow c o l o r The e n ti re cutt i n g edge Sh oul d be u ni f orm in

.

c ol o r I f thi s i s n ot th e cas e an d it i s blu e at on e e n d a n d

.

st raw at th e o th er th e bl u e end ha s n o t been c o ol ed e no ugh

, .

Th e t o ol Shoul d th e n be reh ardened thi s tim e ti pping it s o ,

that the e n d o f th e blade wh ich was t oo s o ft w ill b e dee p e r

i n the wa t er .
Proj ect 33 . Plate XXX I I I .

S IDE TOOL
S tock i x Fit 8 tool s teel
' ' '

Use t
“
f ll
u er
 CRO S S PE E N H A M M E R
-
13 1

P roj e c t 3 4 . B o ri n g T o ol .
( Pl a t e X X X I V ) .

ST E P O N E — C u t th e st o ck t o l ength an d ma rk it a s Sh o wn ,
.

S T E P T WO — M ake a fulle r ma rk a s shown at 2 .

ST E P T H R E E — D raw o ut f o r the thi n shank either u n der

-

the t r i p hamme r o r at th e r o unded edge o f th e a n vi l w ith a

-

sl edg e o r heavy ha n d hammer Th e l e n gth o f th i s sha n k va ri es

-
.

according t o th e depth O f th e h o l e in wh ich th e t o o l i s t o be

u sed .

ST E P FO U R — B end th e n o se a s Sh o wn O nly th e ti p o f .

thi s n o se n eed be ha rde n e d a n d tempered Th e temper c o l o r

“

i s th e sam e as fo r th e othe r l ath e t o ol s e light yel l o w , .

,
.

It i s som etimes n eces sar y t o u se a b oring t o ol f o r tu rn ing -

a r e c e s s havi n g sha rp cor n ers I n th i s cas e th e nose i s ham .

m e red flat befo re bend i n g a s sh ow n i n Fig A I t i s th e n

, . .

be n t up a s i n Fig B and the cutting edge gr o u n d squa re

, .
,
.

Proj ect 35 . C r o s s - P ee n Hamm er .

( Pl a t e X X XV ) .

I n f orgi n g th e c ross pee n hamme r O f th i s p roj ect two stu

-

d e n ts shoul d wo rk togeth er Th e stock u sed sh oul d b e 8 % .

i n ch es l on g givi n g e n ough mat e r i al f or tw o Whe n o n ly o n e

,
.

hammer i s re qu i r e d th e stock sh oul d b e l on g enough t o w o rk

i t w i th out th e u se o f to n gs With h a n dle i t Shoul d weigh .

about 2% lbs .

ST E P O N E — M a rk th e st o ck as sh o wn a t 1 w ith a ch isel
and a cente r pu n ch -
.

ST E P T w o —B ri n g th e steel sl o wl y t o a y ell ow h eat and

.
,

pu n ch i t with a n ey e p u n ch simil a r to th e on e sh ow n in Fig

-
.

52 T h e e n d of th i s pu n ch i s shaped som ewhat l i ke a dull cen

.

te r pu n ch so that it can be ea sily d r ive n th ru th e stock w ith

-
,

ou t cutti n g out too mu ch material The pu n ch Sh oul d be r e .

mov e d f r om th e h ol e a fter each bl ow i n o rde r t o see i f th e

.

h ol e i s bei n g punch ed st raight Th i s al s o cool s th e pu n ch a n d .

,
P r o ject 34
. P late XXXI V .

BORI NG TOOL '

s rock e exlk oé rool s tee

’

l
 C R OS S P E E N
-
HAM MER 13 3

p reve n ts i t f rom be n d in g Whe n th e hol e has bee n pu n ched

.

n ea rly th ru f rom th e o n e s ide the punch should be rem oved ,

and cool ed Pu n chi n g i s th e n fin i sh ed f rom th e oth er Side

. .

Fig . 52 . E Y E -P U N C H . Fig . 53 . D RI F T - P I N .

ST E P TH R E E — D rive a tool steel d ri ft p i n F ig 53 i n to the - -

, .
,

h ol e Th e bulgi n g Sides of the piece Sh o ul d th en be hammered

.

do w n to th e s ize o f th e ba r w i th a sledge a n d smoothed w ith ,

a flatte r A lway s remove th e dri ft pi n bef o re reheating th e

.
-

p i ece .

ST E P FO U R —D raw Ou t th e face end t o the f o rm sh o wn

.
-
.

ST E P F I V E — T rim th e fac e w ith a h ot chi sel D rive th e .

d ri ft pi n i n f rom each S ide mak i n g th e sh ap e o f th e ey e as

-
,

show n C u t off the stock at th e m i ddl e a n d d raw out th e

.
,
-

pee n e n d i n th e sam e ma nn e r a s a ha n d ch i sel i s f o rged e i ther ,

u n der th e t rip hamm e r o r with a h eavy hand hammer Finish

- -
.

i t w ith a fl atte r .

ST E P Su e — F i n i sh t rimm i n g b o th e n ds making th e ham ,

m e r appea r as at 6 .

ST E P SE V E N — When c o ld gri n d th e face a n d peen slightly

.
,

c onvex as sh o wn
, .

F o r ha rde n i ng th e enti re ham me r i s sl o wly h ea t ed to th e

,

r efini n g h eat I n rem oving it f r o m th e fi re one j aw o f a pai r

.
,

o f t on gs Sh o uld be i n serted i n th e ey e The fac e i s ha rden ed .

fi rst by sl o wly i n serting about IV ; inches o f the end in wate r a s ,

Proj e ct 35
. Plat e XXXV .

CROS S P EEN HAM ME R .

S to k
c “ 1 8 5 1 0 0! s
I{xI5 t el
e .
 C R O SS P E E N H A M M E R
-
13 5

wa s done W i th the cold ch i sel When it ha s c oo led e n ough

.
,

t h e pee n i s ha rd e n e d i n the same man n e r ca r e b e i n g tak e n n ot

,

to cool th e stock a rou n d th e ey e Whil e cool i n g th e pee n

.
,

w at e r should be all owed t o d r i p o n th e ce n ter of th e face .

Th i s pr eve n ts th e col o rs f rom ru nn ing dow n b e f o re th e pee n

h a s b e e n c ool e d e nough a n d insu r e s a u n i formly h a rdened face
, . .

I f th e fac e were c o ol ed by m erely dippi n g it in wate r th e out ,

s ide edges w o ul d ha rd e n faster tha n th e c ente r a n d be m o re

l i kely t o c rack .

A fte r c o ol i n g th e ends a re pol ish ed w ith an eme ry b ri ck

, ,

th e heat a r o u n d the ey e being hel d f or t emperi n g D a rk .

br o wn i s a good t e mper c o l or f or th e face a n d brown o r pu r ,

ple fo r th e peen I f th e des i r e d c o l or reach es th e face fi rst

.
,

th e fac e shoul d be placed in water until th e p roper C o l o r ha s

reached the p ee n Th e tw o e n ds a re the n dipped alt ernately
in w
.

at er Thi s al l o w s th e ey e t o c oo l sl o wl y making it t o ugh

.
,
.

P r o j ect 36 . Sm al l C r o s s -P e en
( P la t e X H a m m er
X X V I ) . .

Th i s hammer i s f orged a n d t e mp e re d in th e sam e manner

a s the cross p e e n hamme r o f
-
P roj ect 3 5 I t sh o ul d weigh .

w h e n fi n i shed a b out 1 % pou n ds .

P roj ect 36
.
Plate X XXVI .
 SM ALL C RO S S —P E E N H A M M E R 13 7

P r oj ec t 3 7 . B al l - P ee n Hammer .
( Plate XX XVI I ) .

I n making the 2—po und bal l p een h ammer sh own a piece -

,

O f l % inch square t oo l steel 6% inches lo n g i s u sed

-
_ Thi s i s .

e n ough st o ck f or tw o hammers ; i f on ly one i s wa n ted th e

stock shoul d be l o ng enough to w o rk w ith out u si n g tongs .

ST P O
E N E — M a rk th e st o ck a s Shown w ith a chi se l and a
ce n te r p unch
-
.

ST E P T w o — Flatte n o ut th e end a s sh o w n a t 2 I f th i s i s .

done a fter p u n chi n g th e h ol e th e h ole i s likely t o b ec o m e t oo

,

la rge.

ST E P TH RE E — Punch th e h o l e in th e sam e manner a s in

Proj ect 3 5 . D rive in a d ri ft p i n and hamm er down th e S ides
-
,

a s shown at A i n Fig 54 u n til th ey a re st ra ight

. .

ST E P FO UR .
— R oughly Sha p e th e hamm er w ith top and
b o tt o m fullers
-
, as sh o wn at B i n Fig 54 . .

Fig . 54 .

S T E P F I V E — R ound th e body o f the hammer at t he r o unded

edge o f th e anv il w ith a t op f uller a n d a s et hamme r T h e
- -
.

b ody sh o ul d tape r i n both di recti o n s and b e th icker at th e ,

center than at th e edges .

ST E P SIx C u t the st o ck a t th e ch isel ma rk f r o m f o u r

.
-
Proj e ct 37 . Plat e XXXVI I .
 H OT E Y E C H -
I SE L 13 9

sid e s i n o rde r to i n su r e a squa re e n d D raw out th e face

,
.
-
,

s w ag e it a n d trim it w ith a hot ch is el The p e e n shoul d th e n

,
.

b e cut to l e n gth a n d th e cor n e rs cut o ff I t i s rou n ded i n a

,
.

bottom —s w age T h e rea so n fo r fi n i sh i n g th e face b e f or e t h e

.

pee n i s that it i s ha rd t o hol d th e p een w ith a pai r O f to n gs .

G r i n d both e n ds maki n g th e edges O f th e face sl i ghtly

,

rou n d e d to p reve n t th e hamm e r from ma rki n g h ot mat e r i al

, .

Thi s ha m m e r i s ha rd e n e d a n d temp e red i n the sam e ma n

n e r a s th e c ros s —pee n hammer .

P roj ec t 38 . H ot E y e - C h i s el .
( Pl a t e X X XV I I I ) .

I f o n ly
on e h ot ch isel i s necessa ry it may b e f o rge d o n th e ,

e n d of a ba r lo n g e n ough t o ha n dl e e as i ly ; but i f two are

wa n ted the s t o ck should be cut 10 i n ch es lo n g

, .

ST E P O N E — M a rk th e st ock as Sh o wn .

ST E P T WO — Pu n ch th e h o l e i n the ma nn e r d e scr i b e d i n
P r oj e ct 35 .

ST E P T H R E E —D raw —O u t th e h ead eith e r u n d e r th e t rip

.

h amm e r o r with a sl dge F in ish it w ith a flatter a n d cut of

e .
”
,

t h e end w i th a h ot eye chi sel I n trimm ing the e n d it Shoul d

-
.

b e mad e Sl ightly co n vex .

ST E P FO U R — M ake f ul l e r ma rks a s sh o wn at 4 w ith , ,

i n ch top a n d bottom fullers Th e stock shoul d be tur n ed over

-
.

i n d o i n g th i s to i n su re a u n i form de p th o f the cuts

, .

Pu n ch an d d raw o ut th e h ea d f o r a ch isel at th e other en d

-

O I th e stock i n t h e sam e ma nn er C u t th e stock at th e c e n te r .

fr om tw o S i des o n ly in o rder t o have the blades square across

,

the e n ds wh en d rawn o ut -
.

ST E P F I V E — D raw o u t t h e s to ck f o r th e bl ade eith er under

.
-

the t ri p hamm er o r with a sl edge a n d smo o th it with a flatter

-
,
.

Wh e n t rimm e d th e blade i s ha rde n ed a n d tempe r e d t o a bl u e

'

c o l or i n th e sam e manne r a s the hand cold ch isel o f

,

Pr o j ect 26 .
P roj e ct 3 8 . Plat e XX XVI I I .
 O
C LD E Y E - C H I SEL 141

P r oj ect 3 9 . C ol d E y e -C h i s el .
( P la t e X XX I X )
.

Fo r a cold ch is el the st o ck i s ma rked the ey e p unch ed

, ,

a nd th e h ead d raw n out an d fi ni sh ed in th e same wa y as f or

-

th e h ot chis el A fte r cutting th e st o ck at th e m iddle th e blad e

.

i s d rawn out eith e r under th e t ri p hamm e r o r w ith a sledge

-
,
-
.

C a re sh o uld be take n i n d o ing thi s t o kee p the si des r o undi n g ,

since a ch is el o f th i s f o rm i s much str o nge r than o ne with

st raight Si des Th is chi s el i s ha rde n ed l ike a ha n d ch i s e l and
.
,

tempered to a brow n o r pu r p l e col o r The edge shoul d be

.

grou n d sl ightly c onvex .

P roj ect 39 . Pl ate XXX I X .
 GE O OL G I ST S P I C K
’
143

G e o l o gi s t ( Pl a t e X L )
’
P roj e c t 40 . s P i ck . .

Th i s p i ck wh i ch i s i n te n ded f or th e u s e o f stud e n ts of
,

geol ogy should weigh ab o ut 2% p ou n ds w h e n fi n i sh e d

, .

ST E P O N E — M a rk th e l % x l % inch st o ck w ith a ce n ter -

pu n ch a n d C h isel a s Sh o wn , .

ST E P T w o — P unch th e h o l e f o r th e eye .

ST E P TH R E E — Insert a dri ft p in in th e h o l e a n d fl atten -

,

th e Si des With a h ot ch i sel cut the st ock pa rt way th ru at a

.

di sta n ce o f 1 3 i n c h f rom the e dge o f th e h ol e o n b oth s i des

3
,

o f the eye Th e se cuts sh oul d be fi n i shed with a very th in

.

full e r o r with a h ot chi s e l havi n g a rou n d e d edg e i n o r de r

, ,

to make the bottom o f the cuts round a s sh o w n at 3 , .

Th e material sh oul d th e n b e cut al o ng th e l i n es M N a n d , ,

OP . Th e mat e rial cut ou t i n th i s way m i ght b e d raw n out -

in stead but thi s woul d be di fficult w ith out a bevel ed s et

,

hamme r C utting it out i s s o m ewhat ea si er a n d qu icker

. .

T P — D raw o u t th e end C und er th e t rip h ammer

“

S E FO U R .
-
, ,
-

t o th e s ize Sh o w n .

I f on ly one pick i s being ma de it sh oul d b e cut off o f th e ,

ba r at the ch i sel m a r k show n at 1 ; but i f two a re wa n ted th e ,

seco n d pick i s sta rted i n th e sam e man n er be f ore cutt in g The .

e n d D i s the n d raw n out u n de r th e t rip hamm er t o th e f orm

, ,
- -

sh own at 5 .

ST E P F I V E — I nsert th e d ri ft p in in th e eye and sm oo th th e -

,

st o ck a r o und it w ith a set hamm e r a s shown i n Fig A Fin -

, . .

ish th e h ea d w i th a set hamm er an d flatter and cut it t o -

l e n gth with a h ot chi sel t rimming f rom f ou r S i des t o i n su re a

, ,

squa re cut .

S T E P S I x — Fi n ish th e po in t ed en d with a fl at t er a n d cut it

.
,

to l e n gth Th e face a n d poi n t a re th en grou n d h a rde n ed a n d

.
, ,

tempered Th e poi n t i s fi rst t reat e d i n th e sam e m an n e r a s

.

th e col d ch i s el b e in g t em pe r e d t o a da rk bl u e Th e h ea d i s
, .

then heated fo r ab o ut 2 inch es and h ardened i n th e sam e ,

P r o j ect 40
. Plat e X L .
 HAND RO CK -
DRI LL 14 5

ma n ner It i s tempered to a brow n o r a da rk st raw c o lor In

. .

heati n g th e head ca re Shoul d be taken t o p r eve n t th e heat from

,

flow in g back a n d so fte n i n g th e harde n ed po i n t Th i s may be .

do n e by keeping dam p coal s a roun d th e poi n t .

P r oj e c t 41 . Hand R o c k-D ri l l .
( Pl a t e X L I ) .

ST E P O N E — Cu t a p iec e o f i n ch octag o n to o l steel 16

-

inch es long H eat th e e n d a n d d raw it out maki n g it about

.
,

i 35 inch thick a s Sh own at 1

3
,
Th e ham m e ri n g shou ld be done
.

o n O p p os ite sides and th e stock all owed t o w ide n a s much

,

a s p ossibl e .

S T E P T w o — Trim th e end at an angl e with a h ot ch isel a s ,

sh o wn .

ST E P TH R E E — Fini sh t rimm ing th e end with a simila r cut ,

formi n g th e cutting edge sh o wn at 3 .

ST E P F OU R — Sha r p en th e edge with a hand h amme r h o l d ~

,

ing th e st o ck flat o n th e fac e o f th e a n vil Th e bl o w s sh o ul d .

c o m e at an angl e O f t o f o rc e th e m etal back ; a n d th e drill

sh o ul d be r o tated about th e cutting edge in o rde r t o m ake it ,

c i rcula r .

A fte r sha r p ening th e d rill i t i s b r o ught t o th e re fi ning h eat

,

and ha rden ed i n th e same ma n ne r a s a col d ch isel The tem .

per c o l o r sh o ul d b e a da rk s t raw .
Proj ect 41 . P lat e XLI .
 M AC H I N E R OC K - D R I LL 14 7

P r oj e c t 4 2 . M a c h i n e R o ck D ri l l -
. Plat e X LI I ) .

ST E P O N E — Cu t a p i ece of 94 —inch octag o n t o ol steel 20

i nches l on g .

S E TW
T P O — U p set the e n d a s Sh o wn at 2 and sm oot h it ,

w ith a flatter .

ST E P T H R E E — M ake smal l gr oo ves al o ng f o u r s ides a s

-
.

shown at 3 with a th in f ulle r o r w ith a h ot ch isel having a

,

roundi n g cutting edge Th ese gr o oves exte n d back 2% i n ch es

.
,

a n d a re made f or th e p u r p ose o f gui ding or h o l di n g th e t o p

and bottom V full ers in pl ac e when full eri n g
-
.

S T E P FO U R — D eepen th e gr o oves with th e t op and b o tt o m

Fig . 55 .

T OP AN D B OTTO M
V - F U LL E R S .

V full e rs sh ow n in Fig 55 The st o ck sh o uld be tu rned du r

.

i n g th i s O p erati o n t o in su re uni f o rmity i n th e de p th o f th e

,

f ul ler cut s .

ST E P F I V E — M ake th e sides o r w ings O f th e d rill th inner

, ,

and w ide r u si n g a bottom s ow o r win g swage Fig 56 a n d

, , , .
,
Pr o j ect 42
. Plat e X L I I .
 H U N TI N G AXE 149

a squa re s et hamme r Trim o ff the end o f t h e d rill wi th a ver y

-
.

thi n h o t chisel mak ing i t s q ua re as sh o wn a t 5

, , .

S T E P S u e — F o rm the cut t i ng edges, t ri m m i ng t he e dge s

a s sh o wn at 6 .

S T E P SE VE N — Fini s h th e end w i t h th e d o ll y sh o w n i n F i g
. .

57 . Thi s d o lly ma y b e p laced w i th i ts head res t ing o n the

anvil the drill p o int b eing driven down int o i t wh ile h o t A n
, .

o the r meth o d i s t o h o l d th e dri ll acr o s s th e face o f th e anvil

w ith th e d o lly against th e cutt ing end and then strike th e h ead ,

o f th e d o lly w ith a backing hamm e r I f a very keen edge i s

-
.

d es i red o n th e d rill i t sh o uld be fil ed wh il e h o t w ith a s q ua re

,

fi le .

T he h a rdenin g and t em p e r ing i s d o ne i n the same m anne r

as th e c o l d ch i sel t he c o l o rs being d rawn to a da rk s t raw
, .

P r o j e c t 43 . H un t i n g A xe .
( Pl at e X L I I I ) .

f o rging the hunti n g axe sh o wn in the acc o m p any ing p l ate

In ,
“

tw o stu de n t s shoul d w o rk togeth e r Th e st o ck u sed sh o ul d be

.

a g oo d grade o f t o ol s t eel and sh oul d be 6% inches l on g

, ,

giving en o ugh material f o r tw o When o nly o ne axe i s r e .

qui red th e st o ck sh oul d be l o ng en o ugh t o w o rk i t w ith o ut

th e u s e o f t o ngs .

ST E P O N E — M a rk th e st o
ck w ith a chi sel an d c en t er -
p unch
as s h o wn a t I .

STEP T WO — B ring t o a y ell o w h ea t and p unch w i t h a n ,

-

eye p unch S imi la r t o th e o ne sh o wn in Fig A Th e cente r o f

-
. .

th e p unch being hel d di rectl y o ver th e c enter p unch m ark and -

th e na rr o w edge t o wa rd th e bl ade e n d o f th e axe Th e p unch .

sh o ul d be rem o ved fr o m th e h o l e a fte r each bl o w i n o rde r t o

s e e i f th e h o l e i s being p unch ed st raigh t Th i s al s o all o w s .

th e p unch t o c oo l whi ch p revents i t f r o m bending Fine c o al

,
.
,

pl aced i n the h ol e will p revent the punch fr o m sticking

,
.

When the hole has b een p unched nea rl y th ru f r o m o ne

P r o j ect 43 . P late X LI I I .
 H U N TI N G AXE

S i de th e p u n ch sh o uld be rem oved and c o ol ed Pu n chi n g i s

, .

t he n fi nished f rom th e othe r si de .

ST E P TH R E E — D rive a tool st e el d ri ft p in int o the hole

- -
.

Th e bulgi n g Sides o f the forgi n g shoul d th e n b e hammered

d o wn t o about the si ze of the ba r w ith a Sledge a n d smoothed ,

w ith a flatter A l wa y s rem o ve th e d ri ft p in bef o re reheating

.
-

th e p iec e .

Tw o dri ft p ins Sh o ul d be u sed th e fi rst o ne d riven into th e

-
,

h o le Sh o ul d be about o f a 1 inch na rr o we r than the one

*

u sed f o r fini shing I f o nly o ne pin i s us ed it sh o ul d not b e

.

d rive n in s o that th e h ol e i s ex p a n ded t o the full s ize unti l

th e ax e ha s b een f o rged t o nea rly it s c orrect shape A fter .

th e d ri ft pin has been driven into th e ey e a s desc ribed the

-
,

p o rti on f or the blade i s th en d rawn out with a p o wer hammer .

A s th e bla de i s fo rmed th e eye w il l st retch To avoid a c ol d .

shut o r ch eck at th e bott o m o f the ey e th e d ri ft p in sh o ul d -

b e driven in to take u p th e s p ace .

The blade i s th en hammered t o Sha p e w ith a h eavy hand

h ammer an d sm oo thed w ith a flatter The cutti n g edge i s .

f o rm ed i n th e same m anne r a s that f o r th e c ol d eye chisel

.
-
,

but th e bl ade i s n o t t rimmed until th e h ead i s shaped a n d cu t

t o length I f o nly o ne ax e i s b ei n g made it i s cut f r o m the
.
,

ba r at th e ch isel mark and th e h ea d i s drawn t o Size either ,

w ith a p o we r o r sl edge hamm e r A fter th e h ea d has been

-
.

cu t t o length the blade i s t rimmed t o shape Th e axe sh o ul d .

n o w be h eat ed t o a full red a n d a nn eal ed eith er in l ime o r ,

a sh es When c o l d it sh o ul d be g r o und o n an emery wh eel

.

and finish ed o n a bu ffi n g wh eel .

Th e ha rdening and tempering m ay b e d o ne by eith er o f t h e

f o ll o wing me t h o ds
F I R ST M E T H OD — Th e ax e i s h eated v e ry sl o wl y to th e r e
fining h eat and c oo l ed in te p id wate r Th e t empe r ma y be .

d rawn b y placin g tw o h o t i r o n ba rs o n ei th er si de o f it at th e
cente r T h e p r op e r tem p e r c o l o rs a re : F or t h e blade da rk
.
,
1 52 T OO L F OR G I N G

pu rple a n d f or th e h e ad bl u e Wh e n th e s e app e a r th e ax e
'

.
, ,

i s cooled quickly in wate r .

Th e SE CO N D M E T H OD i s that giv e n fo r ha rde n ing and temper

ing th e c ros s peen h amme r -
.

P r o j ec t 44 . H u n t i n g Kn i fe .
( Pl a t e X L I V ) .

I n making th e hunt i n g k n i f e sh o w n a p i ec e O f good grade ,

”
to o l steel x x 7 87 i s necessa ry A longe r p i e ce may .

be u sed m ore advantage o usly s ince th e tang can be drawn

d o wn with o ut the u s e o f t o ngs .

ST E P O N E — M a rk th e st o ck o n th e edge wi t h a cen t e r
'

p unch at ,
f rom th e end then h eat it sl o wly t o a yel low ,

h eat a n d f o rm th e shoul ders f o r th e ta n g w ith a squa re edge -

s e t hamme r a s sh o w n at 2 Fig A
-
A fter the shoul ders have ,
. .

been f o rm ed d ra w o ut the tang eithe r w it h a p o we r o r hand

,

hamm e r .

S T E P T w o — Th e s to ck at th e Sh o ulders i s h ea t ed and the y

a re t ru ed u p by p lac i n g the tang l oosely between th e j aws O f
a v is e a s sh own at 3 and h itting on the end o f th e p iec e with ,

t he hand hamm e r -
.

STE P T H R E E — Th e st o ck i s now h eated and bent a s sh o wn

at 4 , an d th e l i p C f o rm ed w ith a square edge , hammer ,
-
s et -
.

Th e blade i s th en d raw n o ut with a t wo a n d one hal f p o und -

hamm e r t o a w i dth o f at C and at th e wi de end .

Th e cutting edge sh o ul d be d rawn t o ab o ut 117; o f an i n ch

thi ck Th e bl ade i s now t rimmed w ith a h o t ey e ch is el al o n g
.
-

th e d o tted l ines sh own at 5 Th e kni fe sh o ul d b e anneal ed .

i n l im e O r at lea st al l o wed t o cool sl o wly be f o re grindi n g It .

i s now fi l ed a n d grou n d t o th e d esi red shape but n o t c o m ,

l l
p ete y fi n i sh ed T h e cutting edge sh oul d be l e ft about 3 7 o f
.
1

an i n ch thick A sha r p edge w il l wa rp whe n heated f o r

.

ha rdeni n g .
Proj ect 44 . Plate X L IV .
1 54 HU N TIN G KN I FE

H A R D E N I N G — Th e kn i f e i s heated sl o wly i n a p iece o f p ipe

.

in th e sam e manne r a s th e tap When i t ha s reached th e .

refini n g h eat it is di pp ed i n fi s h o il th e back o r th ick edge

,

fi rs t an d c oo led q ui ckl y
, .

T o d raw t he tem p e r th e kni f e i s fi rs t po l ish ed wi t h a bu ffi ng

,

wheel o r a p iece o f em e ry c loth it i s then h el d o ve r the flam e

,

O f th e fi re ( th e blast bei n g shut o f I ) and m o ved backwa rds

and fo rwa rd s u n ti l th e des i red c o l o r p u r p l e i s Obtained then
, , ,

c oo led q uickl y in o il .

A br o nz e guard i s c o mm o nl y u sed A va ri e ty o f h andl es

.

a re su itabl e : w oo d l eathe r fibe r l eather and al uminum discs

, , ,

o r wash e rs Wh en leath e r discs a re u sed th e end o f th e tang

.

i s f o rged r o und and a th rea d i s c ut o n it A Sl otted nut i s

, .

u sed t o h ol d th e wa sh ers wh i ch have been glued t o gethe r

, ,

tight aga i n st th e gu a rd Th e handl e i s then groun d t o sha p e

.

o n th e em er y wh eel .
Elem entary Machine Shop Practice
By T A L M AT E E R
. J . P
I ns t ru c t or i n M ac hi ne W k L l d St f or , e an a n or d , J r U ni v ers ity

A C om b i n e d T e xt b ook an d Sh e p M a n u a l for St u d e n t U s e

IS b ki
oo d a p ted for u s e i n h ig h s c h ools t e ch n i ca l s ch ool s a n d c oll eg es a n d w h er e v er
s a
e l e m e n t a r y s h o p p r a c t i ce i s t a u g h t I t p re s e n t s i n f o r m a t i on a b ou t t oo l s m a c h i n es
, ,
.

p roces s es a n d m a t e ri a l s a n d ou t l i n es a cou rs e o f p r o ble m s w h i c h h a s b ee n de v e lop ed

.
, ,

t h r ou g h s u cces s f u l t ea c h i n g e xp e r i e n ce Th e s e p ro ble m s h a v e b ee n s ele cted wi t h a v i e w t o

,

gi v i n t o t h e s tu de n t t h e m a xi m u m a m ou n t of i n f orm a t i on i n t h e s m a ll a m ou n t o f t i m e
.

u s u a l y a ll ot te d t o t h i s s u b j ec t T h e m a i n o b jec t o f t h e b ook i s t o b r i n g t h e s t u d e n t w i t h
.

n o p r e v i o u s s h o p e xpe r i e n ce t o t h e p o i n t w h e re h e i s a bl e t o d o s om e r ea l w or k
.

It i s
a b u n d a n t l y i ll u s t r a t ed w i t h l i n e d r a w i n g s a n d p h o t o g r a p h s
.

E LE C TR I C AL C O N S T R U C T IO N — We b er A com b i ne d t ext b oo k a n d s h op m a n u a l
p r e s e n t i n g a n e l em e n t a r y c ou rs e for v oca t i on a l s ch oo l s I t con t a i n s n i n e t y t h ree p r o bl e m s
.

w i t h a c co m p a n yi n g di a gr a m s a n d i n f o r m a t i on T h e p r obl e m s a r e g r ou p e d a cco r di n g t o
.

di fficu l t a n d v a r y fr o m s i m p le m a g n e t i s m t o m ot or s a n d g e n e ra t or s A w on de r f u l a i d t o
.

t h e t e a c er a n d a v a l u a bl e h e l p t o t h e s t u d e n t i n s e cu r i n g d efi n i t e l y a n d fi r m l y t h e c or r ect
.

p r i n cip les a n d p ra ct i ce s i n v olved .

AR T M E T AL WOR K— P a w r i t te n yn e
y a n expe r t cr a ts m a n a n d ex
A te xt b k
oo b f
h v l h ll
.

p e r i e n ced t e a c e r I t t r e a t s o f t h e a r i ou s m a t e r i a s a n d t e i r p r od u c t i on , o res , a oy s ,
lf l bl k iv
.

c om m erc i a or m s , e t c ; o f t oo s a n d e q u ip m e n t s s u i t a e for t h e w or , t h e i n e xp e n s e
l f l l k h
.

e q ui p m e n t o f t h e p ra c t i ca cr a ts m a n , a n d o f t h e c orr e a t i on o f a r t m e t a w or w i t d e s ig n
a n d o t er s c ooh h l b
s u jec t s b
It d es cr i e s i n d e t a i a ll t h e r o ces s e s i n o ed i n m a i n g l v lv k
l f h lv l v v h
.

a r t i c e s r a n gi n g r om a w atc fo b t o a s i er o i n g-cu p t gi e s n e w m e t o d s o f c o n
h bl b l b f ll ll h
.

s t r u c t i o n , n e w fi n i s e s , n e w p ro em s It i s a u n d a n t y a n d e a u t i u y i u s t ra te d , s o w
k by y h l l h
.

i n g w o r d on e s t u d e n t s u n d e r or di n a r s c oo con di t i on s i n a m a n u a t ra i n i n g s op
b k b
.

T he s ta n d a r d oo o n t h e s u jec t .

M E C HAN I C AL D R AF T IN G — M i lle r b k f dv A t e xt oo or a a n ce d h ig h -
sc h l oo s t u dent s
hi h p ft i g p t i i p ti l t tb k f h
.

w c t d res e n s ra n -
r oom ra c ce n rac ca ex oo o rm It i s s o w r i t t e n t a t i t
d wit h p bl l
.

y b
m a e yuse an c ou rs e o f i A di
e xer c s es o r t ro em s r ec a n d s i m p e t re a t m e n t o f
h i l d ft i g It i pl t y t d i w ll d h b k
.

m ec a n ca ra n s c om d
e e, d e co n en s e an s e a a p t e d fo r a n d oo u se
by t h t d t d d ft w ll i ll di b b
. ,

e s u en an ra sm an It t t d
i s e us ra e , an s o u n d i n fl exrb le i n di n g ,
p k t i A th g hl y p l d t xt b k
.

oc e s z e. or ou ra c ti ca , m o er n e oo .

WO O D P AT T E R N - M AKI N G — P u r fi e ld t re a t i s e o n t h e u n d a A l
c ea r , c on c s e i f
l l k b h
.

m e n ta p r i n c ip e s o f p a t t e r n -m a i n g I t p res en t s t h e e s t m et od s o f con s t r u c t i on a n d
h l b b b
.

t os e m o s t e as i y u n d e r s t oo d y t h e s t u d e n t I t i s n o t a rra n g e d a ou t a co u r s e o f p r o
l h l h h h l h l
.

em s , b u t m a y b e u s e d w i t a n y c o u rs e A p r a c t i ca t ext fo r ig s c oo , t r a d e s c oo ,
h l h l ll W b
.

t ec n i ca s c oo a n d e n gi n ee r i n g co e g e s t u d e n t s r i t t en y a n e xp e r i e n ce d p a t ter n .

k h
m a er a n d t e a c er of p a t t e r n -m a i n g a n d i n d re d s u jec t s k k b .

WO O D WO R K F O R SE C ON D AR Y S C H O O L S — G r iffi t h T he m os t c om p l e te a nd
p r e h en s i v e t ext b ook on s eco n d a r y s c h ool w oo d w ork i n g e ve r p u bl i s h e d T r e a t s of
.

-
com
C om m o n W oo d s T oo l s a n d P r oce s s e s W oo d w ork i n g M a c h i n e s J o i n e r y W ood T u r n i n g
.

I n l a yi n g a n d W ood C a r v i n g W oo d F i n i s h i n g F u r n i t u r e C o n s t ru ct i on P a t te r n M a ki n g
, , , , ,
- -

Al t h ou h w r i t te n for t he s t u den t e ver y t ea ch e r O f h ig h s c h oo l or n or m a l s ch oo l w ood w or k

, , , .

- -

w i ll fi n gt h i s t ext a v a l u a bl e a n d n ec e s s a r y v o l u m e for re f ere n c e u s e

,

I t c on t a i n s 3 7 0 p a g es .

a n d 58 0 s p ec i a l i ll u s t r a t i on s .

S en d for ou r I llu s tr a ted C a ta log ofbooks on M a n ua l Voca ti on a l a n d I n d us tr i a l ,

E du ca ti on F a r m M echa n i cs a n d H ou s ehold A r ts
,
.

THE MAN UA L A RTS PRESS

P E OR I A I LL I N O I S ,