E N G I N E E RI N G I N SPE C T I O N

E . A . A LL C U T ,

file m. Am . Soc . ME . .
,
A . M . I ns i . C E
. .
,
A . M . I . Ri c e/1 . E .
,

A . F R . . Ae. S .

A ssoo f Th e rmody n a m ics i n [ b e Un ib ers i/y

z a te Professor o '

f
o Toron /o

AN D

CH A S .
j . KI N G

WI T H N U ME R O U S D IAG RAMS
AN D TA B L E S IN TH E T EX T

LOND ON
GE O RGE R O UTLE D GE S ONS . LT D .

B R O A D WA Y H O U SE , 6 8 7 4 -
, C A RT E R L A N E , E C .

1
92 2
 PR E FA C E

Much descrip tive m atter has already been written On the detai ls of
th e vari ous i nspecti on m eth ods employed i n di fferen t engin eeri ng work s ,
but th e obj ect of th is work i s to pres en t to th e reader i n a compact an d
,

conveni en t form a d escrip ti on o f th e vari ous pri nci ples i nvo lved i n the
,

i nspecti on of an en gi neeri n g job fro m th e raw m aterial to th e fin ish ed

arti cle I t i s obvi ously imp ossible to go ful ly in to d etai l i n each case nor
.
,

i s i t n ecessary to d o so Every engin eer an d m an ager has di fferen t

.

problem s to face but i f h e has a thorough grasp of the pri ncipl es required
,

for their soluti on i t is n ot usually di ffi cult to work ou t th e n ecessary

,

deta ils Th e examples given are chosen to be repres en tative ( as far as

.

possible ) of gen eral engin eeri ng practi ce and to i llustrate th e di fferen t

pri nci ples of in specti on and m easurem en t i n co m m on us e Fro m .

consi derati on s of space m echan ical engi neeri ng O p eration s only are
,

described as th e spe cial appara tus an d m ethods use d in electri cal an d civi l
‘

engi n eeri ng are too num erous and vari ed to be i ncluded i n any wo rk of
reasonabl e si ze .

I t frequen tly happens that th e works inspector touches only one or

two parti cular processes or op erati on s an d i t i s highly desirable that h e
,

should have som e idea of the work d on e before th e m aterial reach es hi m ,

and to be don e after i t leaves h i s hands H e is thus enabled to do h is own

.

work m ore i ntelli gently to avoid bad work manship an d unn ecessary scrap
, ,

and to fi t hi m s e lf for the h igh er branch es of hi s profess i on .

I t i s hoped a lso that this work wi ll be us eful to engi neers and draughts
m en by i ndi cating what i n form ati on is necessary on workin g drawi n gs
, ,

how such i n fo rmati on i s used i n th e shops an d by givi n g as sistance i n

,

sp eci fyin g material or machi n ery and i n dicating th e defects that are li kely
to b e en coun tered i n d i fferen t cases .

All bran ches of engi neeri ng s ci en ce are to a certai n exten t i nter

d ependen t and acquaintance wi th any one secti on i s frequen tly useful to
,

thos e wh o are occupi ed i n others .

E A . . ALLC UT .

C .
J KING
. .
 C O N TE N TS

C H AP . PA G E
I .
—
O BJE CT S OF I N S P E CT I O N
II —TH E R E C E I P T A N D S T O R A G E O F M AT E R I AL
.

I I I —M A T E R I AL T E S T S A N D S P E C I F I C A T I O N S
.

IV — .I N S P E CT I O N O F RAW M A T E R I AL S
V .
—I N S P E CT I O N OF P A RT L Y F I N I S H E D M AT E R I A L
VI .
—I N S P E CT I O N OF F I N I S H E D M AT ER I A L
VI I .
—
G A U G E S A N D M E AS U R I N G I N S TR U M EN T S
V I I I —M A C H I N E S H O P I N S P E CT I O N
.

IX .
—F I TT I N G A N D E R E CT I N G S H O P I N S P E CT I O N
X .
—F I N A L T E S T S
XI .
—R E PA I R S RE CT I F I C A T I O N S A N D
, O B S O LE T E P A RT S

XI I .
—TH E H U MAN E L E M EN T
A PPE N DI X .
—
Phys ical T est a nd Accep tan ce Sh eet
T A BLE I . Reduction of Area in Tensil e Tes t Pi eces
2 . Properties of M etals an d All oys
3 . Brin ell N umb ers a nd Approxi mate Tensi le
S trengths for S teel ( a t 3 0 0 0 K g load ) .

4 . B ri nell Hardn ess N umbers for Pressures less than

3 000 K g .

5 . Hardnes s Values of M etals on Shore S cleroscop e

S cale
6 . Sheet Gauges
7 . C ontracti on of C astings

8 . M etric Equival en ts
 LI ST O F I LL U ST R A T I O N S

D iagram of I nsp ection Sys tem

I
. Arrangem en t of S tra in ing Gear for T es ti ng M achi n e
-

2
.
—D iagra m O f Multipl e Lever Tensi le Testing Machi nes
3
.
—Tensi 1e Tes ti ng Mach in e ( electri cally driven ) wi th Torsi on
Tool s Attach ed C apaci ty 2 5 3 0 tons
.
-

4
. Bar Testing M ach in e for Tran svers e T ests and sm all
Ten si on T ests
5
—Types o f Tensi on Gri ps
6 —Broken Tensi le Test Sp eci m en
.

7
.
— A utographi c S tres s Strai n R ecorder
8 —Stres s S train Curves for I r on and S teel
.

9
.
— S tress S trai n C urv es for N on —Ferrou s M etals
I o
. Bri n el l Hardn ess T estin g Machi n e
”

I I
.
—
Th e Shore Scl eroscope
1 2 — D iagram showin g Prin cipl e of I mpact Tes t
.

I 3 — Notch es for I z o d I mpact Test Speci m ens

.

I 4 —
. I z o d I mpact Tes tin g M achi n e
15. Alternative I zod I mpact Tes t Pi eces for s mall Sp eci m en s
-

I 6 — Ch ar I mpact Test an d T est Pi eces

.
py
I 7
. Eri chs en Sheet M etal T es t
1 8 —C haracteristi c
. Eri ch sen Bulges
1 9 —Workshop Tes ts for Wrought Iron
.

2 o —D efects i n S teel Bars

.

2 1
.
—Bendi ng Test on M i ld S teel Bars
2 2 —Tens il e and I m pact Test Pi eces i n C as e hard eni ng Steel
.
-

2 3 — C em en t Tes tin g Machi n e ( capacit

y
. 1 2 00 lbs )

24 —
.

. C em en t Testing Apparatus
2 5 —Tests
. for Ti mber
26 —
. Fabri c Testi ng M ach in e ( capaci ty 1 2 0 0 and 2 40 lbs )
.

2
7
.
— Gri ps for Fabri c Tes ti ng M achi n e
28 —D iagram of S ch opper Ten si le Tes t for Rubber
2 9 —Thurston s O i l Testin g Mach in e
’
.

30. B en ch for H ot and C old Water Pressure T

-
estin g
3 1 — Rep ort of Rough Vi ewi n g and Marki ng O ut
x iii
xiv LI ST O F I LL USTR A TI O N S

FIG .

32
— Form ati o n of Lap s i n Forgi n g down roun d S ecti on s
.

F
”

33 . lash o f Overheated Stamp in g

34
— D irecti on of Fibre i n Forgin g G ear Wheels
.

35 O ffs et an d E ccen
”
tri c Forgin gs
3 6 — Sp i nn i n g Tabl e for Eccentri c Forgi ngs a d Castin gs
. n
37
—Tes
. ts for C opp er and Brass Tub es
3 8 — C o mpressi on Tes t on Aeroplane Tub e s
.

39
— M achi n e for Tes ti ng C oil and Lami nated Spri ngs ( electrically
.

driven ) C apaci ty 4 ton s

.

4 0 —Gri ps for C onti nuous C hai n Tes ti n g

.

4 I —.Rop e Tes ti n g Grips

4 2 —.Fracture o f C ase harden ed Part
-

43
— E ffect O f D i fferen t Thi ck n ess es of Case on S trength of Gear
.

Teeth
44
—.Workshop T ests for Rivets ( S teel )
45
—.D iagram i llu strati n g U n ilateral Sys tem of Lim i t Gaugi ng
,

46 .Plug Gauges
- ~

47
—
.Use of Plug Gauges i n E llip ti cal H oles
4 8 —.Large Plug Gauges
49
—.Protected C en tre
5 0 —.Ri ng Gauge
5 1 —.Snap Gauges
2 — D iagram i llustrati n g Prin ci pl e of Taper Gaugi n g
5 .
,

53.
— Tap er Gauges
54
—
.Vern i er H ei gh t Gauge
55.
— Prof i le o r Form Gauges
5 6
.
— S crew Threads
57
— S crew Thread Gauges
—
.

5 8
. C urves o f Pi tch E rror

59.
—Th e M easurem en t of S crew Threads
6 0 — C ombi n ati on An gl e Gauges
.

6I. Testi ng I nternal D i a m eter of Ri n g w i th J ohansson Gauges

-

62 — M i crometers
6 3 —Thread M i crom eter
.

64 —
.

. Two p oi n t I ns id e M i cro m eter with exten si on bars

-

65 —
. Thre e p 0 i n t I nternal M i crom eter
-

66 —
. M ethod of Read ing Vern i er S cal e
67 Vern i er C alipers
-

68 —
.

. Gear Tooth Verni er

 LI ST O F I LL USTR A TI O N S XV

FIG .

69 — Multiplying Lever Gauge

D iagram shewing Principl e of Hirth Minime te
.

7 0 —.
, r

D iagram of Lever and S egm ent D i al I ndicator

71
D iagram of Rack an d Pi n i on D ial I ndi cator
7 2 —
.I nspecti on Stamps on C onn ecti ng R od

73 C rankshaft
-

74
—.Piston
Registeri ng Speed I ndi cator
Tachom eter
6 — Mahler B omb C al ori m eter
7 .

77
—.D iagram of Junker
'
s Ga s C alori m eter

7 8 —.Gauge for S mall Pressures

79
—.Tes tin g Pressure Gauge
8 0 —Arran gem en t of D i fferent i al Gauge for M easurin g
.

Quan ti ti es of Gas or Air

8 1 — C alibrati on Curve for D i fferential G a
. uge
8 2 — I ndicator
.

8 3 — Steam E ngi n e I ndi cator D iag ram s

’

-
.

8 4 — Rop e Brak e for E ngi ne Testi n g

.

8 5 — Froud e Water Brake

.
 C H A PT E R I

O B JE CTS O F I N S PE CT I O N
The average m echan i c an d h i s f orem an l ook up on th e i nspector an d
th e in sp ect ion d epartm en t as thei r natural enem i es an d are ap t to ,

i magi n e that th es e exi st sole ly for th e purp os e of ann oying the m an d _

their ki nd .

Thi s i dea i s qui te errone ous An i nspector i s only con cerned firstly
.
, ,

to preven t was te of ti m e or m ateri al ; whi ch ulti mately results i n wast e

of m on ey ,
and s econ dly to s ecure th e producti on of a high class arti cle
,

i nstead of an i mp erfect one even i f output is reduced temp orarily to

, , ,

obtai n th is Too often th e m ach i n e sh op m an class es i n specti o n as one

.
-

of the ann oyan ces i m p o sed bya m ali ci ous m anagem en t for th e torm en ti n g
.

of i ts employees But properly organ ised an d han dled an i nsp ecti on

.
, ,

system can be of v e ry re a l ben efi t b ot h to m anagem en t and workm en

_
.

Any system that ten ds to i n creas e production an d to save waste i s ,

b eneficial to i ndustry g e ne ra lly pr

/

ovid e d that i t i s not over elaborated -

.

The exten t to whi ch i n sp ection i s tak en dep end s largely upo n th e , , ,

character of th e work to b e i nsp ected For i nstance a er op lan e wor k .

,

d emands a very rigi d i nspecti on as weigh t i s reduced to th e lowes t ,

p ossibl e li mi t fact ors of s afety are unusually low an d th e product i s a

, ,

hi gh speed machi n e M otor cars and other r olli n g stock co me up on a

.

lower p lan e as m ach in es i n wh ich th e factors of s afety are greater and th e

,

risks of fai lure l es s .

Gen erally wh en th e c on sequences of failure i nv olve dan ger to human

,

life i ns p ecti on mus t be i ns tall ed up on a safety basi s but when there

,
” ”

i s no such risk i nspecti on must be organ is ed up on an ec on om i c basis

,
.

I n th e form er cas e th e system i s n ecessarily elaborate and far — reachi n g ,

and as th e price of securi ty mus t be pai d by th e con sum er the i n evi tabl e ,

result i s that th e fin ish ed arti cle mus t b e sold at a hi gh figure .

Where i nspecti on can be organ ised up on an ec ono mi c basis i ts ,

M on e y saved by inspecti on .

e fiic x e nc
y m ay be expressed by th e rat i o
C os t of i nsp ecti on .

I f thi s rati o i s greater than 1 0 th e system o f i n specti on i s m ore or l ess a

,

success th e d egre e of success dependi ng on th e m agni tud e of th e rati o

, .

B
 EN G I N EE RI N G I N S PE C T I O N

I f the ratio i s les s than i nsp ectio n d oes not pay an d should b e ,

d i fferen tly arran ged or ab olish ed .

Th e m on ey saved by i nsp ecti on h owever i s so m etim es di ffi cul t to

, ,

a ss ess, as th e m oral value of i nsp ecti on i s o ften an i mportan t i tem and ,

one d i ffi cul t to es ti mate .I n a s hop m aki n g dr op forgi ngs i t was found ,

tha t large quan ti ti es of scrap were being produced and although th es e ,

were detected an d thrown ou t on exam i nati on th e l oss i n m aterial a nd ,

labour on th e forgi ngs was a s eri ous m atter An i nspector was th en .

u t i nto th e shop to watch th e production of th ese forgin gs an d to i mpress

p ,

h i s stamp on a ny that were forged a t too hi gh temp eratures Th e res ult .

was that greater care was exerci sed by the workm en an d th e p ercentage ,

of s crap due to thi s parti cular fault di m i nish ed practi cally to n oth ing
,
.

C asual observers kn owi ng n othi n g of what had gon e before n oti ced tha t
, ,

th e i n sp ector had li ttle to do a nd obj ected to the n eedless exp ens e

, ,

bu t i n p oi nt of fact th e m oral e ffect o f th e man s presen ce i n th e sh op ’

s aved th e firm m any hundreds o f pounds I n thi s case th e very fact

tha t th e i nsp ector had practi cal ly n o work to d o was th e b es t argu m
.
,

, en t
for th e conti n uati on of h is duti es .

x
Th e obj ects of i nspection are m ani fold an d vary wi th th e class of
,

work i nvo lved but the general pri nciples m ay b e sum m ari sed as follows
,

( 1 ) To d etect and i s olate faulty m aterial or work at th e earli es t ,

p oss ibl e stage i n th e l ife of th e j ob concern ed an d to decid e whether th e

,

fault i s capable of recti ficatio n or wheth er th e pi ece m us t b e scrapped I n .

th e form er case the cos t of rectificati on is s om eti m es so great that i t i s

,

m ore econ om i cal to scrap th e pi ece an d totally replace i t Thi s p o in t .

is usually d eci ded by the producti on sta ff .

( )
2 To prot ect th e b uyi n g firm agai ns t paym en t for faul ty or defective

goods Early insp ecti on after th e receip t of goods d etects many troubles
.

that would o th erwi s e n ot b e di scovered unti l a certain am ount of machi ni ng

or han d work h ad been don e
-
. This ofte n entails a d elay of s everal weeks ,

durin g whi ch ti m e th e goods are lyin g i n th e s tores an d perhaps have

been pai d for I n th e m eanti m e th ousands of si mi lar p arts h avi n g th e
.

s am e d efects m ay have been produced by the supplyi n g firm wi th c onse ,

quent los s and furth er d elay before these ca n b e replaced .

( )
3 T o preven t th e production o f bad work i n th e shops by callin g ,

a tten tion to i nci p ien t d efects before they becom e s erious I n i ns tances .

o f this ki nd a sli gh t fault i s n oti ced whi ch gradually becom es wors e a s

producti on p roceeds an d i f allowed to con ti nue woul d result i n a con

,

s id e rab le am ount of scrap b ein g m ad e .

 O B JE CTS O F I N S PE CT I O N 8

( )
4 T o preven t O p erators from bei n g pai d for faulty or i naccurate
w ork or for work not actually perform ed
,
Wh en m en are pai d by th e .

iece on the number of correct arti cles produced by th em ) i t is

p
necessary to se e that th e n umber of pi eces c orrectly produced corresp onds ,

w ith th e number for whi ch pa ym en t i s clai med an d als o tha t th e work ,

i s properly don e I f th e pi eces p roduced are n ot carefully i nsp ected th ere

.

i s a tendency for quali ty to be sacri ficed to quan ti ty an d m oney wil l ,

h ave to b e sp ent at a later stage to recti fy or compl ete th e op eration s

already pai d for .

( )
5 T o preven t further work fro m bei ng done on p ieces that are
a lready faulty I n m os t cas es i t i s not eco no mi cal to i nspect work after
.

t h e completion of each operati on b u t c e rta in s tages of m anufacture are

'

chosen and th e work is exam ined at th es e poi n ts I f th e work i s foun d

, .

t o be faulty after sa y a roughi n g O perati on i t m ay frequen tly b e

, , ,

rectified or sp ecially treated to pr oduce a sati sfactory fi n ished articl e .

I f however th es e faults were allowed to rem ai n un ti l the finishi n g

, ,

o perati on ,th e arti cl es con cern ed would probably b e entirely s crapped ,

o wi ng to th e fault bei ng d isc ov e re d too late As an examp le of thi s th e .

,
p

c as e of s om e imp ortan t steel castings m ay b e taken Th ese showed .

som e fine cracks wh en th e surface of th e castin g was rem oved by rough

m achi ni ng Th e casti ngs is olated at thi s stage were rep aired by w eldi ng
.

and a sati sfactory j ob resulted I n cases where th e cracks were n ot

.

o bserved until th e finishin g s tage i t was foun d i mp oss ibl e to repair i n

,

t hi s way as th e d istortion cons equen t upo n th e appl ication of th e weldi n g

, ,

t emperature m ade th e cas ti ngs unusable

, They were therefore s crapped
.
,

a nd th e value of all th e expensive m ach i ni n g operati ons was lost

0

( 6) To en ab le large quanti ti es of standardised c ompon ents to be

p roduced wi th th e certain ty that th ey will g o t ogether i n erection wi thout
,

e xpensive hand or fittin g work an d to ch eap en th e production of

,

e ngineering work by eli m inatin g a s far as p os sible

,
s el ective assembly ,
.

G enerally speaki ng wh en large quan ti ti es of si m i lar arti cl es have to b e

,

pr oduced it i s econom i cal to p erform as m any operati ons as p ossibl e i n

,

the machi n e sh 0 p wi th th e obj ect of reduci n g hand work to a m i ni mum

, .

( 7 ) To protect th e reputation of th e s elli n g firm I t i s far cheap er .

to detect faults and to recti fy th em on th e m anufacturer s premi ses

’

than to all ow faulty arti cl es to go ou t an d to have th e defects discovered

b y the custom er ; I n th e latter cas e th e failure of faulty parts o ften ,

involves th e des tructi on of good com pon en ts that are adj acen t to th em ,

a nd wi th g oods s ol d u nder a guarantee both have to be rep laced A , .

4 EN G I NE E RI N G I N S PE C T I O N

seri es of such m ishaps m ay b e suffi ci ent ru in th e man ufacturer ’

'

to s

reputati on an d busi n ess .

( 8 ) To check th e work of th e d esi gner an d draugh ts m an and to se e ,

tha t th e engi n e machi n e or o ther un it gives the power or p erform ance

, , ,

required I n m any cases th e i nspecti on of a fin ished j

. ob reveals fault s

and d i ffi culti es that w ere not foreseen or expected when th e drawings

were m ad e By i nspecti on and testin g both th e com po nen t parts a nd
.

completed articl e sources of weakn es s troubl e and danger are weede d

, , ,

ou t a nd th e reliability of th e arti cl e i s i mproved

, .

( )
To p rotect th e custom er agai nst loss or dam age Th e economi c
9 .

aspect of th i s poi nt i s dealt wi th under but th ere i s th e further c on

s ideration that i f a m i shap occurs i nvolving l oss of life or s eri ous damag e
,

t o th e cus t om er th e m anu facturer is faced wi th th e p ossibi li ty of legal

,

acti on to recover dam ages i n addi ti on to th e p robab i li ty of loss of

,

busi nes s .

Th e forego in g p oin ts m ay b e sum m ed up i n th e sta te me nt th at

( 1 0)
'

th e obj ects o f i nspecti on are to reduce c os ts to i ncrease production , ,

an d to protect both producer an d consum er .

The n atural con s equen ce i s that c o i nciden t wi th th e i ns tallati on of

-

a n e ffi ci en t system of i nsp ecti on th e cost of m anufacture sh ould b e

,

reduced an d th e selli n g pri ce can then be lowered I f thi s i s n o t th e

,
.

cas e there i s som eth in g wron g with th e sys tem or th e p eopl e wh o work
,

i t I f th e reduction d oes m ateri ali se both producer and con sum er a re

.
,

b en efi ted the form er by i n creas i n g hi s output ( and cons equen tly h i s

,

profits ) th e latter by obtai n i n g at low er pri ces th e arti cl es h e n eeds

, ,.

or a better class of arti cl e for hi s m on ey .

 C H A PT E R I I

TH E RE C E I PT AN D ST O R A GE O F M A TE RI A L

The firs t s tage i n th e li fe of any engin eering w ork is its deli neatio n
o n pap er i n th e form of a drawing This i s usually ch eck ed i n th e
.

d rawi ng o ffi ce by the chi ef draugh tsm a n or on e of hi s sen i or m en bu t

, ,

th e duti es of th e i nspectio n departm en t d o not gen erally com m ence unti l

th e drawin g or a pri n t of i t i s i ssued for m anufacturi n g purpos es Th e .

inspecti on departm en t h owever can assi s t the drawin g o ffi ce very

, ,

materially by poi n tin g ou t m i stak es or i naccuraci es i n the drawi ngs

.

i m m ediately they are d is c overed i n th e m ach in e or erecti ng shops As .

ractically a ll com plai n ts have to b e dealt wi th by th e i nspect ors th ey

p ,

are i n the bes t pos i ti on to do this .

Furth er certai n p oi nts i n d esi gn such a s i nsu ffi cien t radi i un even

, , ,

thi ckn es s of m etal or diffi cul t mach i ni ng and erecti n g op erati ons
,
are ,

frequen tly tak en up wi th th e drawi n g o ffice by th e i nspector c oncern ed

“

, ,

a nd i n m any i nstan ces th e d es i gn can be m odi fi ed to av oid th e d i fficulti es

encoun tered i n m anufacture .

Thes e p oi nts are m erely I nc rd e nta l h owever and th e m ai n work of

, ,

i nspection co m m ences wi th th e p lacin g of orders for raw m aterial .

As an order i s a legal docum en t that m ay lea d to consi derable trouble

a nd loss ,
i t i s advi sable to m ake sure i n th e first i nstan ce tha t all
, ,

neces sary i nform ati on an d requirem ents are c overed by i t I t i s th erefore .

a dvi sable i n the cas e of large orders to send a copy to th e I n spectio n

, ,

D epartm en t so that th e latter m ay check over th e tech n ical detai ls As .

it i s i nadvi sabl e for purchase pri ces to be gen er a lly kn own i n th e works ,

thi s c opy sh ould b e unpri ced Th e i n spector con cerned m ay th en ch eck

.

th e si zes given on th e order wi th the drawi ngs of th e fin ish ed arti cle

, ,

a nd satisfy h i m self that th e m aterial on arrival w ill be of sui table d ime n

s ion s for completin g th e j ob M any firms also issue thei r ow n

.

specificati on s for quality of m aterial an d tests to b e i mp os ed ei ther a t ,

t h e suppli er s works or on arrival at th e purchaser s p rem is es

’ ’

, Th es e .

p oints must be s tated o n th e order o r o n a c overin g letter sent wi th i t ,

s o that th e suppli er wil l kn ow exa ctly what qual i ty of materi al h e ha s t o

supply and wha t tests or s everity of i nspecti on wil l be i mpos ed I f th i s

, .

i s not don e at th e outset th e suppli er can refus e to accept any stipulations

,

o f thi s ki nd that the purchaser wishes to i m p ose a t a later date .

G E N GI N EE RI N G I N S P E CTI O N

There is a further reaso n for supp lyi ng th e i n spector with a cop y

of the ord er When the m aterial arrives a t the purchaser s works it ’
.
,

ha s to be i n sp ected to s om e s tan dard Th e usual standard i s th e suit

.

ab ili ty of th e m aterial suppl ied for m aki ng th e fini shed arti cle Thi s
, .

i mpli es th e co ns iderati on of process es of m anufacture an d n eces si tate s ,

certai n allowan ces for m achi n i ng etc I n som e cases h owever th e usual
,
.
, ,

si z e or quality of m aterial can no t b e obtai ned a t th e m om en t and a ,

con tract i s m ad e for an a lternative supply The basi s of i nspecti on

.
,

th erefore mus t always be th e te rms of th e ord e r as faulty m aterial c a n

, ,

on ly b e re turn ed to th e m akers for free replace m ent i f i t fai ls to m ee t ,

th e co nd i ti ons under wh i ch th e ord er was placed .

Bri e fly th e order i s a n ag re e me nt b etwee n th e two firm s an d th e

, ,

i nsp ector i s resp on sibl e for seei n g that th e term s of the agreem en t are
correctly s tated and fully observed .

I n s om e orders i t i s s tipulated by th e supplyin g fi rm th a t faulty

, ,

m aterial wi ll n ot b e rep laced by them un less i t is return ed withi n a

certai n p eri od after th e date of d elivery I t i s th e busi n es s of th e
.

i nspector to s e e tha t thi s ti m e i s a reas onabl e one b eari n g i n m i nd th e ,

p eri od tha t w ill n aturally elaps e before th e m aterial i s drawn from th e

s tores and als o th e add iti onal ti m e taken by th e vari ous p rocesses of
,

m anufacture .

O n th e arrival of m ateri al at th e purchaser s works i t should b e ’

hand ed at once by th e Receivi n g D epartm en t to th e parti cular s ecti o n of

i n specti on con cerned wi th that clas s o f goods I t wi ll th en be kep t i n .

” ”
bon d un ti l released by th e forem an or head of that s ectio n as satis ,

fact ory for the part i t i s requi red to m ake U nder n o circum sta n . ces shoul d
ma terial be releas ed from th e b on d until it ha s b e e n a pprov e d i n thi s way ,

as wi th qua ntity producti on on ce th e m aterial gets in to th e s tores i t i s

, ,

a very d i ffi cul t ( an d som eti m es i mpossible ) m at ter to separate ou t th e

las t consi gn m en t should a faul t subseque ntly be dis covered I n thi s way
,
.

i t ca n b e assum ed wi th reason abl e safety tha t th e material actually in

, ,

th e s t ores i s sui table for i ss ue to th e vari ous m anu facturi ng d epartm ents
w
.

Should a faul t b e d iscovered h i ch i s not n ecessarily fatal b u t

, ,

entai ls special care i n m achi ni n g or handl i n g certai n parts the con si gn m en t ,

i n questi on ca n be speci ally stam ped pai n ted or otherwis e mark ed before
, , ,

leavi ng the bond I n this cas e th e d epartmen ts con cern ed mus t b e

.

n otified to give S pecia l atten ti on to th e marked articles when th ey arriv e

i n th e sh ops N eglect o f thi s precauti on may entai l exten sive scrappi n g
.
,

a nd waste of m on ey i n m aterial an d wo r km an ship .

 TH E RE CE I PT AN D ST O R A GE O F M A TE RI A L

When si m i lar ar ti cl es are bei ng rece ived fro m m ore than one s ource
of supply i t is n ecessary to stam p the parts i n ques tio n wi th i dentificati on
,
’

m arks so that i n cas e of fau lts sub se q u e ntly bein g di scovered duri n g
,

m achi ni ng proces ses th e m atter m ay b e taken up wi th th e suppl iers an d

, ,

“
i n cas e the latter agree to replace th e faulty m aterial th e rej ects m ay
be s en t to th e c orrect firm I n m arki n g such m ater i al i t i s advisable to
.
,

i mpres s th e s tamp o n a surface that i s not to be m achi n ed as otherwi s e ,

i t may b e rem oved i n th e cours e of m anufacture Where thi s i s i mp ossible .

,

arrangem en ts sh ould be mad e to tran sfer th e i den tificati on m arks betwee n

th e m achi ni n g operati ons concern ed I t is n ecessary that th e trans ferenc e
.

sh ould b e e ffected before th e org inal m ark is e ffaced to obvi ate th e ri sk ,

o f losi ng th e i den tificati on mark altogether or of h avi n g th e m aterial ,

wrongly s tamped .

I f faults are found th e m atter sh ould i m m edi ately b e taken up by th e

,

i nspector concern ed wi th the Buyi ng O ffi ce to preven t further deliveri e s

, ,

of th e sam e ki n d and to enabl e th e suppli ers to alter their raw material

,

or m e thods of m anufacture a nd eli mi nate th e troubles complai ned of In .

som e cases thes e faults are capable of recti ficatio n by d oi n g extra work
, ,

and sp endi n g m ore m oney on th e ma te rial I n th is even t i t i s n ecessary .

,

before rectification i s com m en ced to enquire wh ether th e suppli ers ar e

‘

wil lin g to receive th e m ateri al ba ck at th eir works for rectification by

them selves or whether to save t im e an d carriage they are wi lling to
, , ,

a ll ow credi t to th e purchasers for th e cost of recti ficati o n by th em I n .

som e cases i f th e m aterial i s urgently wanted a comprom is e m ay b e

,
.
,

o ffered an d accepted on th is p oin t to enabl e producti on to procee d ,

qui ckly .

I f rectifi cati on i s imp ossibl e ( or costs m ore than th e j ob i s worth ) ,

i t i s usual for th e supplyi ng fi rm to allow credi t for th e value of th e faulty

-

m aterial or to replace i t free of charge Th e value of th e work don e by

, .

th e purchaser on th e faulty m aterial is n ot cred ited unless special arran ge

m en ts to th i s e ffect are m ad e wh en placi ng th e order , .

Material rej ected by th e purchaser s i nspector an d subsequen tly ’

rectified by th e suppli er mus t be special ly d ealt with as i n s om e i nstance s

, ,

the proces s of rectificati on weldin g of s teel castings ) introduces

*

'

other faults ( such as dis tortio n or c rac ks) from whi ch th e m aterial was ,

previ ously free For this reason any rej ected m aterial sh ould be sp eci ally
.
,

m arked or stamped so that i f an attemp t i s m ad e by the suppl ier to

return rej ected m ateri al i t wi ll i m m edi ately b e d etected on arrival .

See C h pt r
a e V .
8 EN G I N E E RI N G I N S P E CTI O N

I n som e i ns tances a ttempts have been m ad e by suppli ers to get r id of

rej ected cas ti ngs or s tamp in gs by sendi ng them b ack a few a t a ti m e , , ,

a m on g consi gn m ents of n ew a nd p erfect work i n th e hope tha t th ey wi ll ,

es cap e d etecti on Th e rej ectio n m ark therefore should be such tha t i t

.
, ,

c ann ot eas ily be erased O f course th e easi es t way of avoi d in g thi s is

.
,

to deal on ly wi th good firm s wh o have reputati ons to m ain tai n but whi le ,

there are fi rm s an d i ndividuals who wi ll resort to shady tri cks of thi s

k i nd i t i s i mpossibl e to b e too careful
,
.

A further safeguard is to s tamp e ach arti cle pass ed with the ,

d isti nctive m ark o f th e i nsp ector or viewer respon sibl e I n thi s way .
,

a ny attemp t to rem ove materia l fro m bond without passi ng i nspectio n ,

’
m ay be frus tra ted as th e absence of the i nsp ector s s tamp i s li kely to b e
“

n oticed wh en the m aterial i s i ssued fro m th e s tores to th e m ach i n e

shop Thi s pro cedure i s also a check agai nst careless ness on th e part
.

o f th e vi ewers I t i s also advi sabl e for th e I nwards R eceivi n g N ote

.

a ccompanyin g each consi gn m en t received to be d elivered to th e Materi al ,

B o nd when th e good s are s en t for i n sp ectio n When th e goods are .

released th e Receivi n g No te i s stamp ed by the I nsp ector with p arti culars ,

o f th e nu mb er pas sed rej ected an d to be rectified Th e good m aterial s

, , .

are then s en t on to the s tores an d th e B uyi n g O ffi ce n otifi ed of th e number

,

of faulty p ieces so tha t th e m atter can b e tak en up by th em wi th th e

,

pp lie rs . A sampl e I nwards R eceivi n g N ote i s sh own belo w .

I N WA R D S R E C E I V I N G N O T E .

O rd e r NO .

P rt
a No . D scr ipt ion
e

or Dr a wi ng No .

\Ve i g h t Q u a n tity

Ca s e No .
S PAC E FO R VI E WER
'
S S TA MP .

R ou g h or F in ish e d ?
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

R e ma r k s
o o o o o o o o o o o o

Vi e we r s S ig n tur
’
a e
 T H E RE C E I PT AN D ST O R A G E O F M A TE RI A L 9

I n very few cas es are all th e p arts required to build a complete ,

e ngine mach i n e or other en gineeri ng work m anufactured on th e pre mis es

, , ,

o f th e supplyi ng firm Wi th the present tend en cy towards spe c ialisia tion

.
,

s om e firm s buy ou t all their compon en ts and b ecom e m erely ass embl in g
,

shops I t i s obvi ous tha t firm s which sp eci ali se upo n th e productio n of
.

o ne parti cular comp onen t or access ory becom e experts i n tha t work
, ,

a nd can produce i t ch eaper than anybody els e S om eti m es these co m .

one nts i n clud e trai ns of gears , i mp ortan t l inks or levers and other p ieces
p ,

that are of vi tal i mportance to th e durab ili ty or e ffici en cy of the compl ete
m achi ne As it would be a very cos tly m atter to d iss embl e break or
.
, ,

c u t up such comp onents for t e s ti n g purp os es when th ey arrive a t th e

purchaser s st ores i t i s custom ary to i nsp ect m aterial an d workm anshi p
’

b efore and durin g manufacture at the supplier s works I n th e case of ’

, .

a large co ntract a resi den t inspector i s often employed wh o stamp s al l

, ,

the work passed by hi m and reports da ily or weekly th e quantity of

, ,

m ateri al p assed an d f orward ed so that a check m ay b e k ep t to ensure,

that all material i s exami n ed b efore bei ng s en t away

An altern ative i n th e case of sm aller con tracts i s for an i n spector
, ,

to vis i t th e supplyi ng firm at defi ni te or i rregular intervals to i nsp ect ,

th e work produced duri n g th e p eriod between h i s vi si ts or to ch eck ,

samples o f th e work i n operatio n at the tim e of his vi si t respectively .

Th e first m e th od has th e advan tage tha t every arti cle i s i nsp ected but ,

th e latter i s cheap er as th e s am e i nsp ector can cover a greater area

,

wh en samples only are vi ewed .

A furth er m ethod of d eali n g wi th work d one outsi de that is especial ly ,

u seful in d eali ng with foreign coun tri es i s to uti lis e the s ervi ces o f a re pu tab le
,

a gen cy to i nspect th e w ork before d ispatch Th is m ay b e done by agents .

s uch as Lloyds i n thi s c oun try or the Bureau Veri tas on th e C o nti n ent .
,

For con ti nuous worki n g i t i s ch eap er and h andi er i n th e lon g run

, ,

for the purchas i ng firm to have i ts own i nspectors on th e spot but for ,

sh ort ( an d costly ) con tracts such agen ci es are very conven i ent M on ey
, .

i s saved i n ti m e an d travelli ng expenses but i f n o i nspector were ,

e mployed th e exp en se of transport handling etc on faul ty m aterial

, , , .
, ,

would b e a very serious i tem Also m any goods have to be pai d for . .

o n receip t of bi lls of ladi ng and i n any di spute arisi n g after this tim e
, ,

th e purchasing firm i s at a d eci ded di sadvan tage as th e d is tance between ,

th e disputan ts mak es n egotiati ons very slow an d troublesom e In ’

additi on th e fact that such agen ci es are qui te i mpartial and frequen tly
,

h ave rules and speci ficati on s of th eir ow n pu ts them alm os t i n th e p osi tion
,

o f arbitrat ors an d tends to preven t d isputes from taki ng place .

 C H A PT E R I I I

M A TE R I A L T E STS AN D S PE C I F I C A T I O N S

B efore any d etailed i nsp ecti on i s p erf orm ed on material arrivi n g a t

a n en gineeri n g works i t i s obviously advi sabl e to ascertai n wh ether its
,

quali ty c on form s to th e specification laid down i n th e ord er an d sampl e s ,

m ust b e taken to veri fy th is .

Th e proporti on whi ch these sampl es bear to th e total con signm en t ,

a nd the m ann er of thei r s election i n di fferen t cases are detai led unde r ,

th e s everal headi n gs i n subs equent chapters but the equip m en t necessary

,

for such tes ts m us t now be con si dered .

The firs t an d m ost i mp ortan t i tem i s a tens ile tes ti ng m achi n e Thi s .

i s requi red to m easure th e tensil e stren gth an d ducti li ty of the sampl e

'

chosen as representative of th e bulk c on si gn men t and th e poi nts to b e ,

observed are th e elasti c l i m i t or yi eld p oi nt breaki n g strength

, , ,

elongati on an d reducti on of area of th e test speci m en .

Al th ou gh th e breaki n g stren gth or ulti m ate tensi le strength of

th e material i s often taken as th e sta ndard of quali ty th e m os t i m portan t ,

p oi n t i s u sually th e elasti c l i m it The latter is th e s tres s at whi ch

.

H ook e s Law breaks dow n or th e p oi nt at whi ch th e strain i n the m ateri al

’

ceases to be proporti o nal to th e stress For practi cal purposes th e yi el d

.
,

p o in t i s gen erally tak en as i t i s s i mpler to observe bein g i ndi cate d by a

, ,

sudden drop i n th e bea m of th e tens ile testi ng m achi n e whi le the loa d
i s b ei ng appl ied to the speci m en and m arki ng th e p oi n t where p erm an en t
,

elongation c om m en ces . Al th ough th e subsequen t behavi our o f th e

sp eci m en or tes t piece i s of great in terest an d val ue th i s po in t mark s ,

th e li m i t of use fulness of th e m aterial to en gi neers an d upon i t factor s ,

of s afety sh ould be based .

The elon gati on of th e test p i ece or th e d i fferen ce between i ts length

,

after and before breaki ng is a m easure of i ts ductili ty an d the rati o

, ,

b etween its secti onal area a t th e p oi nt o f fracture before an d after testin g

i s als o an i nd icatio n of ductil ity bei ng term ed reducti on of area
, .
”

Th e tens ile te sti n g m ach in e is comp osed of two p arts a strai n in g ,

m echani s m for applyi n g th e load to th e speci m en an d a wei ghi n g ,

apparatus for m easurin g that l oad Th e form er m ay be appl ied by

.

gravity manual lab our hydrauli c belt or electri c p ower Th e gravi ty

, , , .

10
 M A T ERI A L T E ST S A N D S PE CI F I C A T I O N S

loadin g whi ch i s appli ed by a falli n g weigh t th rough geari n g c an

, ,

obvi ously only b e app lied to very s mall speci m e n s or very w eak m aterial ,

such as paper fine filam en ts etc Han d l oadi ng is li m i ted by th e p ulli n g

, , .

p ower of a m an and should n o t be appli ed to m achi n es of m ore than

,

5 ton s capaci ty, a s otherwi se i t b eco mes v e ry slow an d i ne ffi cient i n vi ew -

of th e am oun t of gearin g required Hydrauli c p ower gives a quick and .

accurate tes t but n ecessi tates pump s an d an accumulator for s tead y

,

work and thes e add to the cost complicati on an d space occupi ed by

, , ,
‘

th e plant unles s the power i s used for o ther purpos es on th e works I n

, .
.

addi ti on th e hydrauli c pressure usually employed ( ab ou t 1 ton p er squar e

,

i nch ) i s hi gh and trouble i s experi enced w i th leaky j oi nts l eathers

, , ,

valves etc which gives the tes t h ouse rather an un tidy app earan ce
, .
,

The machi n es us ed wi th bel t an d el ectri c p ower are gen erally s i m ilar ,

save that th e former i s driven by belti ng and th e latter through si len t ,

gearin g by an electri c m o t or O f th e two electri c drivi n g i s preferable

,
.
.
, ,

as i t eli m i nates belt slip give s easi er s tarti n g an d s toppi n g an d ( i f a

, ,

variable speed m otor is used ) p erm its ea sy variati o n of speed to sui t

di fferen t c ondi ti ons .

Th e power i s usuall y appli ed to th e sp eci m en through w orm geari ng ,

an d on e or m ore s crews S in gle s crew m ach i nes are used up to 3 0 ton s

.
,

and above that two three or four screws are u sually employed ( Fi g
, , .

’
a r/ re/r

ff Arra ryem e n f off /ra h }? Gea r 7 2, E s/M

g
'
Ma ri /fi e
12 EN GI NE ER IN G I N S P E C TI O N

Th e wei gh ing or i n dicati n g m echani sm i s usually a lever or levers ,

p endulum , di aphragm o r gauge . E ngli sh m ach i nes are gen erally o f th e

s i ngle or multiple lever types ( Fig . Th e load i s taken through the
sp eci m en to th e top grip h old er an d th ence through a shackl e to a kn i fe
,

e d ge of harden ed s t eel resti n g on a large lever This l ever i s supported

.

o n a s econ d kn i fe edge resti n g on th e fram e of th e m ach i ne an d th e ,

M a c/ w
oe

a re
p / Vo /e a
’
on fla m e

fig 2
“

flx qg ra m le t/ e r Rwy /e Mda /fi e

d istan ce between thes e two kn ife edges i s an i mp ortan t feature i n th e

d esi gn of the m achi n e . I t shoul d be at th e ra te of 3 i nches for every 1 00
t ons of loadi n g but i n th e case of s mal l mach i nes th i s i s exceed ed a s
, ,

c lose k ni fe edges mak e d esi gn and erection very diffi cult The d istan ce .

b etween th e m ai n k n i fe edges should n o t b e less than th e figure given

 M A TE RI A L TE ST S AN D S PE CI F I C A T I O N S 13

above but i f greater m ore s en s itiven ess i s obtai n ed

, ,
Th e len gth of .

such kni fe edges should be at th e rate of 1 i nch for every 5 ton s of l oadi ng ,

but thi s has been greatly exceeded wi th out great detri m en t to th e l i fe

of the m achi n es I f only one lever i s employed th e load i s balanced .

.
,

by a m ovabl e p oi s e prop elled alon g i t preferab ly by a s crew an d geari n g

, ,

and the lever then bears a s cale s tati ng the load i n ton s corresp ondi ng to
an d th e
”
steely a rd
“
any p osi ti on of th e p oi se I t is then called th e .
“

machin e i s a si ngl e l ever m achi n e This typ e has the greates t sens itive
.
~

ness an d accuracy of any typ e but i n l arge m achi n es th e steelyard an d

,

pois e are very unwi eldy an d o ccupy a large am oun t of sp ace Th e li m i t

“

.
.

for this type is 1 00 ton s bu t i t is not usual to exc e ed 5 0 ton s sav e i n

,

speci al cases Wi th com poun d or m ultipl e levers th e s i ze of th e s teel

.
~

yard and p oi se may b egrea tly d im i n i sh ed bu t th e number of kn ife edges i s ,

i ncreas ed an d the se ntitiv e ne ss an d accuracy of th e m ach in e are reduced .

K n i fe edges fail by fl atten in g i f so ft or crackin g i f hard but in , ,

m any cases th e kni fe edges consist of square pi eces of s teel m ounted i n

gro oved b ars i n such a way tha t th e suc c e ssw e SI d e s of th e square may
be us ed wh en on e Or m ore of th e edges b eco mes worn I n th is event .
,

'

th e m achi n e should b e c h e c ke d over by m eans of known w eights b efor e ,

usi ng I t i s adv isable that any adj u stm ent n ecessary should b e p erform e d
.

by th e makers .

Typi cal si ngle l ever m ach i nes are those m ad e by M es srs Avery .
,

Buckton and D en i son whi le m ultiple lever m ach i n es are m ade by th e

, ,

foll owin g En gli sh firm s — M essrs Avery B uckton D enis on Greenwood

.
, , , ,

and B atl ey an d by M essrs O ls en an d Ri ehl e amon g Am eri can firms

,
. .

Pendulum i n dicatin g machi n es are largely con tin ental i n origi n and
manufacture Th ey are s i mple an d conven i en t but have n ot usually th e
.
,

accuracy of lever machi n es on accoun t of th e di ffi culty of m ai ntainin g a

,
’

fixed and d e finite di stance between th e l i n e of loadi n g an d the fulcru m

'

”
o f th e p endulum The bes t of th es e m ach in es i s th e Am sler type
.
,

whi ch has the advantages of compactn ess and si mpli ci ty S m aller .

examples of th e s am e pri ncipl e are th e S ch opp er rubber an d paper testi n g

mach ines and th e Bailey wire tes ter
, .

The E m ery m achi n e tran sm i ts th e load to a large diaphragm an d ,

the hydrauli c pres sure produced i s taken through pipes to a sm all

diaphragm wi th a l ever m echan is m to m easure th e reduced load thus
obta in ed. I t i s worthy of note th at th es e l evers are balanced on thin
strips of steel ins tead of kn i fe edges This m ach in e h owever i s not .
, ,

used in E n glan d
14 E N G I N E E RI N G I N S PE C TI O N

Machi n es wh i ch d epend upo n hydrauli c pressure gauges for load

i ndicati on should be very carefully watched a s variati ons are liable to
,

o ccur and th e gauges s eld om keep accurate for any length of ti me

,
.

The relative advan tages of vertical and hori z ontal mach i nes
m achi n es i n whi ch the specim en i s teste d i n the vertical or h ori zo ntal
p osi tion ) n eed n ot be enum erated h ere but gen erally th e verti cal m achi,
n e
i s th e m ore conveni en t of th e two for c om m erci al work excep t where
lon g speci m ens such a s chai ns ropes or struts h ave to b e tested i n
, , ,

w hich case hori zon tal m achi n es m us t b e us ed .

Tens ile m ach i nes are usually adap tabl e for tests i n compress io n ,

b endi ng sheari ng an d torsi on a nd the n ecessary tools are suppli ed by

, , ,

t h e m ak ers a t extra cost wh en requi red ( Fi g ,

.

FIG . 3 .
—T ns il
o T st in g M ch in ( l ctr ic lly dr iv n ) w ith t ors ion t ools tt ch d
e e a e e e a e a a e .

Ca p c ity 25 30 t ons
a -
.

( By p r mi i n f IV nd T A ry L td )
e ss o o . a . ve , .
 MA T E RI A L T ESTS AN D S PE C I F I C A T I O NS 15

Sp ecial bar testi ng machi nes are d es igned for m aking transverse tests
‘

o n th e ordi nary foundry bars 8 6 x2 x

”
an d i n so m e i nstan ces the sam e
”

machi ne can be used for m ak in g sm al l ten s il e tests on cas t i ron

s peci m ens Th e capaci ty o f th e m achi n e i llustrated in Fi g 4 is 4 ton s
. .

i n tensi on an d 5 0 cwt i n b end i ng

. .

The prop erties desi rabl e i n a testi ng m achi n e are s ens itiveness ,

a ccuracy speed conven ien ce reliabil ity and sm all space o ccupi ed but
, , , , ,

as som e of th ese are mutually exclus ive a compro m is e must usually b e ,

a dop ted i n favour of th e m ore n ecessary of th es e properti es .

FIG 4 . Bar T st in g M ch in
e a e tr nsv rs t sts nd s m ll t n s ion t sts
for a e e e a a e e .

C p c ity t ns ion
a a e 4 t on s tr nsv rs 5 0 w t
, a e e c .

( B y pe rmissmn of W nd T A
. a y L td ) . v er , .

The calibrati o n of testi ng m ach i nes by m eans o f large weights i s a

c umbersom e and c ostly process and is replaced i n som e i nstances by th e
,

c rushin g of c opper cyli nders whi ch collapse a t kn own l oad s Any .

a l ternative of th is ki nd h owever should b e adopted with caution as an ,

, ,

i naccurate tes ti ng mach i ne i s worse than us eles s .

Pois es are usually pr opelled by han d though geari n g to eli m inate

b acklash to a m i ni mum but i n som e cases autom atically propelled poises
,

d riven by chai ns or cables are used Th ese are c onven ien t an d rapid
.
,
16 E N G I N E E RI N G I NS PE CTI O N

bei n g parti cularly us eful i n th e com m erci al m anufacture of wire wher e

m any tes ts h ave to be m ade per day but are n ot s o ac curate as han d
,

propulsi on Poi ses spli t i nto two or m ore parts are O ften used on larg e
.

m achi n es to give greater accuracy i n readin g s m all loads but i n thi s ,

cas e two or m ore l oad s cales should b e used to m i n i m is e th e ris k of

m i s tak es i n multipli cati on Th e 3 00 ton tes tin g m achi n e at the U n iversi t y
.

of Bi rm i n gha m has 7 p ois es an d 7 load scales so that any desired c om ,

bi nati on givi n g readi ngs fro m to lbs can be em ployed . .

fl/eafg g

7 ( o/
" “
m r

Cl
o/b f

p/a fi of

’
b
MC g m
eo

j/oec /m e n en tre
ra .

P4? . 5 _ T
yp e: of E ris /on

Wedge grips are generally used ( Fi g 5 ) for fl at sp ecim en s an d for

.

round speci m en s cut from th e bar bu t wh ere collar speci m ens are used
, ,

spl i t bushes worki ng i n sph eri cal s e a ts are n eces sary and usually giv e ,
 M A T E RI A L T ESTS AN D S PE C I F I C A T I O N S 17

better load in g Wi th fl at speci m ens di fficulti es du e to th e sp eci m e n

.
,

bein g slightly taper i n s ecti on often resul t i n teari n g an d premature

,

fracture To avoi d thi s th e grip h olders are s o m eti mes m ounted in

.
,

FIG . 6 .
—B r o k n t ns il t s t sp c im n sh
e e e e e e e n r duct ion
wi g e r
of a ea a t p oin t of fr ctur
a e .

cylindri cal sockets or are mad e wi th slightly convex surfaces so that th ey

bi te i n th e centre of th e bar Handle control led grips are us eful for
.

quick operati on i n th e cas e of wire and s mall speci m ens For bri ttle or .

C
18 E N G IN E E R IN G I N S PE CT I O N

w eak m ateri als special grip s m oun ted on ball s ockets are so m eti m es
, , ,

u s ed to get true a li gnm en t but i f care i s taken th e ordi nary ten s il e gri p s
, ,

a re sati sfactory for com m ercial testi ng .

The s tretch i n g or elon gati o n of tes t p ieces i s gen erally m easured

“ ”

b y m aki ng tw o ligh t cen tre pun ch dots on th e parallel part of the sp eci m en
a t a fixed di s tan ce apart and after th e sp eci m en i s brok en ( Fi g 6 ) th e
, .

two p i eces are put together agai n an d th e i ncreased d i stance between

t hes e d ots i s m easured by d ivid ers The resul t i s express ed as a p ercen tage
.

of the ori gin al m easured l en gth thus ,

O ri gi nal m easured len gth

L en gth after fracture
E lon gati on = 27
% of ori gi n al l engthr
.

I n e s ti mati ng th e value o f th is tes t care S h ould b e tak en to s ee that ,

t h e m easured l ength c orrespon ds to that origi nally sp ecifi ed as th e ,

e lon gati on con sis ts of two parts

( )
1 A un i form elongati on alon g the speci m en .

( 2) A local extensi o n i n the n ei ghbourh ood of th e fracture .

I t i s obvi ous th at i n sh ort sp eci m en s ( 2) i s likely to h ave a m uch

g reater e f fect than i n l on g on es Tes t pi eces
. for gen eral engi n eeri ng

w ork are therefore gen erally taken wi th a m easured length of 2 on a ”

sp eci m en 5 64 diam eter ( , sq i nch area ) but i n conti n en tal work a

‘
” 1
2 .
,

m easured length of 1 00 m m i s usual Thi s sh ould b e all owed for i n

. .

c on si d erin g forei gn sp ecificati on s an d resul ts Adm iralty and oth er sh ip .

b ui ldi ng sp eci fication s for ship pl ates etc are based on a m easured
,
.
,

len gth of Th e ra ti o of m easured l en gth to s ectional area is als o

imp ortan t an d i f th e latter i s altered th e l e ngth sh ould b e varied i n such
, ,

l en g th
a m an n er as to keep th e ra tI o con stan t .

area
Th e E ngi n eeri n g S tandard s C om m i ttee sp ecify a gauge l ength of 8 ”

a nd maxi m um wi d th s of 1 2 an d
”
for thi ckn ess es over g g to g
” ” 3 ”
, ,

a nd un der resp ectively i n plate or s trip work .

R eductio n of area i s gen erally esti m ated by m easurin g the reduced

s ecti o n a t th e broken en d of th e tes t pi ece with a m i crom eter an d ,

e xpres si n g the di fferen ce b etween thi s and th e ori ginal area a s a p ercen tage

o f th e ori gi nal area .

( S ee Tabl e
C o mpression sp eci m en s sh ould b e as short a s p oss ible i n com paris on
w i th th ei r diam eters the usual rati o bein g
,

Length I } diam eters t .

 M A TE R I A L T E STS AN D S PE C I F I C A T I O N S 19

This precaution is n ecess ary to eli m in ate the liabi li ty of bend i ng or

b uckli ng wh en th e l oad i s appl ied The compres si o n platen s sh ould al so
.

have spheri cal seats to enable them to adj ust them selves to a parallel
p osi ti on
.

Exten som eters are i ns trum ents for m easuri ng th e sm all elas ti c
e longati on s i n tes t pi eces at stresses lower than the yi eld p oi n t but a s ,

t hese are d eli cat e m echa n is m s an d take a lon g ti m e to adj us t th ey are ,

u al ly only empl oyed i n laboratory or research work and are n ot greatly ,

u sed i n c om m ercial practi ce .

Th e behavi our of sp eci m en s duri ng th e plasti c s tage precedi ng fracture

is observed by m ean s of the aut ographi c recorder wh ich gives i n d ia ,

g ram matic form a record o f the exten si ons ob tain ed wi th success ive

4 . A ut og r ph ic S tr ss S tr in R c ord r sh
-
a e a e e ,
n g tt ch m n t
e wi a a e to sp c im n
e e .

( B y pe r miss ion o f IV . a nd T . ry L td )
Av e , .

i ncrem en ts o f loadi ng Where thi s i s emp l oyed th e total extens i on i s

.
,
'

i ndicated on th e diagram and m easurem en t of th e sp eci m en m ay b e

,

d ispens ed wi th A n arrangem ent of thi s apparatus m oun ted on the testi n g

.

machi n e i s sh own i n Fi g 7 The exten si on i s taken by m eans of th e c ord

. .

or wire which i s attach ed to th e lower clip s on th e sp eci men passes over ,

a pulley on th e upper cl ip s and round one o f th e pulleys on the dru m

.
20 E N G I N E E R I N G IN S P E CT I O N

of th e i ndi cator . Th e scale of thi s extens io n m ay be i ncreased by usi ng th e

s m aller pull eys on th e drum Th e h an d wheel whi ch p ropels th e p oise is
.
-

H DN
‘ og x z a g u o ! H a u l 9 g e u r o-L ,

H °N
'"
l
l

s ; u s e ” H
Q-J N D N e
q
‘
9
9
conn ected b y gearin g to a verti cal s crew whi ch carried a penci l Thus th e .

h orizon tal m ovem en t caused by th e turni ng of th e d ru m is proportiona l

 M A T ER I A L T E ST S A N D S P E C I F I C A T I O N S 21

to th e exten si on of the s peci men a n d th e verti cal movemen t of th e

,

penci l on the s cre w i s prop orti onal to th e l oad th e result b ei ng a load

e xtensi o n curve Typ i cal curves are sh own I n Figs 8 an d 9 but i n
. .
,

°
MD N 1 “ a w l al g a

“ ll -9
D u H aw;
g

8 9 4 W wa s”
N DR
'as 0 ] ”
9 8 3 4 c u o ‘
22 EN G I N E E RI N G I N S P E CTI O N

thes e cas es th e scal e of th e d iagram s i s al tered to S h ow th e relati onshi p

between s tress an d strai n .

H ARD N E ss TESTS .

Th e defini ti o n of hardn es s is a d i ffi cult m atter as i t i s n o t so

m uch a s i mpl e pr operty i n i tsel f as a combi nati on of prop erti es Two
of th e d efi n i ti on s of hardn es s are Res istan ce to Penetration an d “

Resi stance to Wear an d thes e are two di fferen t prop erti es When a
, .

h ard body is press ed i nto a softer one th e m aterial below th e p en etratin g ,

surface becom es work hard ened an d m ore resi stant but wh en a hard b od y ,

rubs a gain st a s ofter one th e s urface of th e latter i s re moved bri ngin g

, ,

fresh m ateri al i n to play .

W i th som e m aterials als o a sk i n hardness i s form ed when th e ”

surfaces are rubbed together an d this i s co ns iderably m ore res i stan t than
,

th e mass of th e m aterial .

Pro f Turner i n consi deri n g resi s tan ce to wear divi des m aterial s
.
, ,

i nto two class es

( )
1 Hard m aterials i n whi ch th e particles are not read i ly d ispla c e d .

( )
2 Plasti c m aterials i n wh i ch th e parti cl es are n ot readily re mov e d .

B oth of thes e prop erti es are n eces sary for a good weari n g m etal Pen e .

tra tion tes ts are divi sible i n to two clas ses t e s tati c an d dynam i c tests , . .
,
.

I n th e form er th e m etal is given ti m e t o flow i nto i ts fi nal form an d i n

, ,

th e latter th e full ti m e n ecess ary for such fl ow to tak e place i s n o t allowed

, .

Th e bes t kn own static test i s the B ri n ell ball test i n wh ich a ball ,

1 0 m m d iam eter i s press ed i n to th e surface to be tested under a load of

.
,

ki logram m e s Th e l oad should b e m ai n ta i n ed for at l eas t 1 0

.

s econds a fter w hi ch i t i s rem oved a nd th e d iam eter o f th e i mpress io n

, ,

p roduced is m ea sured by m eans of a m i croscop e with a s cal e wh i ch p erm i ts

a n accuracy of m m to be obtai n ed Obvi ously s oft m ateri als will
. .
,

give large i mpres si on s a n d hard m ateria ls small impressi on s

,
.

Th e ordi nary Brin el l m achi n e applies th e load by m ean s of a hydrauli c

p lun ger actuated by m eans of a han d operated O i l pum p When th e -
.

required pressure i s reach ed a weigh t loaded plun ger ris es an d prevents

,
-

th i s pressure fro m bei ng exceed ed ( Fig .

The pres sure an d ti m e given above are sui tabl e for steel but for so ft ,

m etals a p ressure of 5 00 k g i s sus tai ned for 3 0 s econd s . .

“
H a rd n e ss a nd H a rd e n in g , I n st itu t e of M e t a ls , S pte .
,
1 91 7 .
 M A T E R I A L TE ST S AN D S PE C I F I C A T I O N S 23

Th e Brin ell number i s calculated by d ivid in g th e pressure appli ed by

th e sph eri cal area of th e i ndentation thus
H = H a rd ne s s ( Bri nel l ) n umber .

P Pressure appli ed ( kilogram m es )

: .

A = A re a o f i nden tati on .

r = R a d iu s of bal l

a z Ra d iu S O f i nden tati on
P
Th en H
A
an d A= 2 1r r ( r —a
H
—a ,
27 r (r

A table givi n g th e B ri n ell n umb ers for a ball 10 mm . d iam eter an d

a pressure o f ki l ogram m es i s S hown on p age 176 .

FI G . 10 . B i r n ll
e H a rdn ss T st in g M c h in
e e a e .

( B y pe r miss ion of Mess r s . ll " j k m n nd C o

. ac a a .
, L td .
)

Th e pressure sh ould be appli ed for a tim e su ffi ci en t to enable th e

i mpressi on to take its fi nal form an d i n steel 1 0 s ecs i s generally
, ,
.

suffi cien t for th i s purpose . The hardn es s of th e bal l i tsel f li mi ts th e

applicati on of th is test and , i t is th erefore us eless for m aterials havi n g
24 EN G I N E E RI N G I N S PE CT I O N

a hardn ess nu mber greater than 000 ( B rin ell i mpressi on s less than 25 mm .

di am eter ) .

FIG . 11 .
—Th o Sh or e sh win g s win g m fo t st in g l r g p i c s
S c le rosc olne , e ar r e a e e e ,

a nd r f r nc b rs ( h rd nd s oft )
e e e e a a a .

The sp eed o f pump in g or applyi ng th e load should be reason abl e

, ,

and uni form as otherwis e accid en tal vari ations are li kely to b e obtai n ed
, ,
.
 M A TE RI A L TESTS AN D S PE C I F I CA T I O N S 25

Th e surface of th e m ateri al to b e tested sh ould be as s m ooth as p oss ible ,

and h ori zontal as oth erwi s e th e I mpressi ons wi ll be irregular i n form

,

a nd di ffi cult to m easure .

Th e approxi m ate ten s il e s trength s given i n th e table are us eful for

many purpos es but care sh ould be taken i n th eir appli cati on as th e rati o
,

b etween th e tensi le s trength an d hardn ess i s n o t always cons tan t for th e

sam e m aterial I n the cas e O f casti ngs parti cularly wan t of un i form ity
.
, ,

i n the m aterial th e exi stence of hi dden fl aws or blowholes an d oth er

,

a ccid en tal circum s tances are always liabl e to affect th e results .

Th e s cleroscope ( Fi g 1 1 ) i s th e bes t known dynam i c hard ness tes ter

.
,

a nd consi sts of a sm all d iam on d faced h am m er oz ) wh i ch is rel eased -

.

by a pneumati c m echan is m an d fall s from a h eigh t of 1 0 in ch es on to th e

s mooth surface of th e arti cl e to be tes ted Th e ham m er i s surrounded .

by a glass tube 002 to 003 larger i n bore than th e d iam eter of th e

” ” ‘ ‘

ham mer an d th i s con tai n s a s cal e read i ng fro m 0 to 1 4 0 O n reachi n g

, .

the speci m en th e ham m er mak es a s mall i nden tati o n i n th e surfa ce an d

,

rebounds up th e tube Obvi ously th e sm aller th e i ndentation

. th e ,

harder th e speci m en ) th e grea ter will b e th e h eigh t of reb oun d an d the ,

reading o n th e s cal e d uri ng th e firs t reboun d i s taken as a m easure of

the hard nes s of the m aterial Thi s i n strum en t can be used on surfaces of .

a ny hardn ess but for soft m ateri als a m agn i fier ham m er is suppli ed
, ,

whi ch gives hi gh er read in gs Th ese m ay b e tran slated i n to s tan dard .

read ings by m eans of a s cale suppli ed wi th th e i nstrum en t S teel bl ock s .

are also s uppli ed to check th e accuracy of the i ns trum en t a t hard ness es

o f 3 0 and 1 00 resp ectively .

The foll owin g are errors tha t m ay b e expected an d rem edi ed

1 . L ow R e a ding s
D ue to dirt i ns id e tube or on ham m er clogged
.
,

vent holes caus i n g a i r cush ion under ham m er glass tube too sm all or to o ,

large diam on d s pli t or l oose i n strum en t n ot verti cal speci m en not

, , ,

h ori zontal or l evel face of diam ond not cl ean

, .

2 . H ig h R e a d ing s . D ue to wear on dia mond p oi n t .

o . H a mme r
f a ils to fa ll w h e n bu lb is pre s se d D u e to catch h ooks .

b eing too fa r apart or close togeth er edges of h ooks out of centre hooks , ,

not worki ng pr op erly plunger i n pn eum atic cyli nder n o t worki ng ful l
'

s tr oke .

4 . H a mme r d oes n ot
p D ue to c a tc h on h ooks w h e n su c ke d u .

ho oks are too farapart or close together spri ng tensi on n ot fl exibl e sucti on , ,

too weak ( new bulb or rubb er tube requi red ) .

Q EN G IN E ERI N G I N S PE CTI O N

o . H a mme r d oes n ot ris e to top o f tu b e . D ue to spli t or leaky bulb

or ai r conn ecti on s wet , or oil s oaked bulb .

G . R e a d ing s e rra tic . D u e to bore of glass tub e bein g too large or

l oose d iam on d .

S cl eros cop e tes ts sh ould not b e taken cl os er together than

a n d the sp eci m en m us t be of reasonab le thi ckn ess an d well supported A .

j i g i s us eful when a large number of si m ilar arti cles have to be tested .

I n a ll cases th e average of a numb er of read ings S h ould b e taken as th e ,

area of th e diam on d poi nt is sm all and isolated readin gs are liabl e to b e ,

m isleadin g Roun ded surfaces m ust b e n orm al to th e cen tre li n e of fall

.
,

a s o th erwi s e a glancin g blow i s g iven and low readi ngs are obtai ned D ry
'

gri ndi n g sh ould b e avoided i n preparin g tes t surfaces as i t i s ap t to ,

softe n th e ma te ria l .

S cleros cop e readin gs of 8 0 an d upwards are obtai nabl e on mi ld case

h ard ened s teel surfaces but for alloy steels ( case harde ned ) a h ardn es s
,
-

of 7 0 i s m ore usual .

Th e i mpress i on s m ade by th e scl eroscop e test d o not s eri ously a ffec t

fi n ished surfaces s o tha t thi s i nstrum en t m ay b e used for hardened an d
,

gr oun d work .

Mach i ni n g hard n es s d oes not always follow th e i ndi cation s of th e

p en etratio n test an d theref ore a drill test i s s om e ti m es used to i ndi cate
,

this property A Standard drill under c on stan t speed an d l oadi ng i s us ed

.

to cut i n t o th e surface of the speci m en Th e depth of p en etrati on i n a .

given tim e i s a n i ndi ca ti on o f th e eas e wi th whi ch th e m ateri al i n questi o n .

may be m ach ined .

Abrasi on an d s cratch tests hav e also be en used for th e m easurem en t

of hard n ess but thei r us e i s at presen t re stri cted to lab oratory w
, ork so
tha t th ey will n o t be d es crib ed here .

I M P ACT .

Th e value of drop tests for d eterm i n i ng th e sh ock resis tin g quali ti e s -

of rai lway an d oth er m ateri als has b een kn o wn for som e con s iderabl e,
‘

ti m e but th e standardi sed I mpact tes t on ly r ose to practical i mp ortanc e

,

durin g th e G reat Wa r wh en t ough en ed and h eat treated m ateri als wer e

, .

extens ively used i n large quan ti ties for aeronauti cal and m ot or work .

Th e sp eci men s used i n i mpact testi n g are usually no tch ed i n ord er to

give greater sens i tiven es s t o th e test whi ch i s p erform ed by breaki n g ,

For h rdn ss fi g u r s g iv n by Sh or I nstru m n t

a e e e e e a nd M n uf ctur in g
a a Co . se e T bla e 5 .
 M A T ERI A L TE ST S A N D S PE C I F I C A T I O NS 27

th e speci m en wi th a sharp ham m er b lo w Th e en ergy los t by th e ham m er .

durin g thi s opera ti on i s a m easure of th e tough ness of th e m ateri al a nd ,

to enabl e thi s to b e m easured easi ly th e p en dulu m h am m er i s us ed ,

.

Assumi ng that th e ham m er of w eigh t I V swin gs freely fro m a h ei ght H '

F
( gi. 1 2) and a fter breaki n g th e speci m en ris es to a hei gh t h on th e

G RA D vA T C D S C A L E .

I
1 EN e c v E X PE H O £D l N

(I
DR E /MO N O : S PE C i M E H I s

fig /2 fl/ag f d m J /ww mg e o/e of

'

O ppos ite si de th e en ergy absorbed i n breaki ng the speci m en i s DV ( H —h)

,

and thi s i s i ndi cated by a loos e p oi n ter wh ich is push ed forward by the
p endulum rod an d left i n th e furth es t p osi ti on reach ed Th e s cale is .

calibrated i n foo t lbs or k il ogram m etres

. .

The sp e ci m en used i n the I zod m achi ne is roun d or square i n s ection

F
( ig 1 3 ) an d is s truck by a harden ed s teel kni fe edge i n th e p endulum
.

at a d istance of 22 m m ab ove th e centre a f th e n o tch The 1 20ft lb

. . . .

machin e ( Fig 1 4) has a 6 0 lb weigh t falli n g through a h ei gh t of 2ft

. . .

( angl e an d th e l5 0ft lb m ach in e has th e sam e wei gh t w ith a fal l of

. .

26 feet . The r oun d tes t p i eces are notch ed i n a j ig wi th a s tandard

turni n g tool carefully cut to th e f orm of th e n otch as thi s together wi th , ,

the depth of th e n otch i s very im portan t Th e d istance b etween th e .

b ottom of the n otch an d the back o f th e test p i ece sh oul d b e made to a

limi t gauge an d th e notch i tsel f to a form gauge
, .

I n s om e cases th e speci m e n has three n otch es cut at ri ght an gles to

each other s o that th e average i m pact strength i n three d irecti on s m ay
28 E N G IN EE R I N G I N S PE C TI O N

b e obtai n ed I f th e th ickn es s of th e part to be tested i s i nsuffi ci ent to

.

give th e stan dard i mpact p i ece s maller sp eci m en s m ay be m ad e to th e

,

d i m ens ion s sh own on Fi g .

Th e Ch arpy I mp act m achi n e i s n ot greatly us ed i n thi s country ,

bu t i s prevalent on the C onti n en t H ere th e sp eci m en i s i n th e form of a

.

b eam a nd h as th e
,
“
C op enhagen n otch sh own i n Fi g 1 6 Th e . .

s p eci m en i s struck by th e kni fe ed ge directly opp os i te th e cen tre of th e

FL ” .

fiau nd jpec/meo fil m ed

RA o °
O l

fi a c md fip ec / m ex ;

fi g ?/J _ _ A ofch es
/ ‘
fa? /z ac/ /moa cf '
fer/ t
sow / m ea l
s .

n o tch bu t i n oth er respects th e m achi n e i s s i milar i n pri nciple ( though

,

n o t i n con structi onal d etai l ) to the I zod m achi n e .

Th e si z e of m ach i n e m os t conveni en t for gen eral engin eeri ng work

i s 3 0 kilogram m e m etres an d th e vel oci ty of stri ki n g is s om ewha t high er
,

than tha t i n th e I z od m ach i n e bei n g m etres p er s econ d as agai nst 3 5

,

m etres per sec on d i n th e latter cas e .

Th ere i s not a great deal to ch oos e b etween th es e two m achi nes as

far a s accuracy i s con cern ed but as th e I zod m ach i n e has been chosen as
,

E n g in r in g S t nd rd Sp c ific t ion
ee a a e a , No . 1 31 —1 920. 28 , V ict or i S tr t
a ee ,
 M A TERI A L TE STS AN D S P E C I F I C A T I O N S

FIG . 14 .
—I z od I mp ct T st in g M ch in
a e a e, Ca p c ity 1 20 foot
a

( B y p r m i i n of IV nd T
e ss o . a . Av e r y L td )
, .

'
—
lS M ri .

RA o w s N
"
o r OTC H
°
2 5 MM

5 1g A/fem a f/ re /2 0 d d cf
‘

first Preces for s m a

s ow/ m
30 E N G IN E E RI N G IN S PE CT I O N

th e s tandard typ e for th i s c ountry and m os t sp eci fica ti ons are based upon
i t th e I z od m achi n e i s th e m ore us eful of th e two
, .

O ther types of machi n e are th e Gui llery and Am s ler m ach i nes but ,

th ese agai n are n ot used to any great exten t i n thi s country I n all cases .

i t i s advisabl e that th e I mpact m achi n e S h ould b e firm ly b olted t o th e fl oor

'

o f th e tes t h ous e a s otherwi se i t i s l iabl e to m ove about

'

, .

O GG L
‘
:

Pe n d u lu wl

I t has been s tated i n vari ous places that th e I mp act tes t is valuel es s ,

b ei n g errati c and unreliabl e but i t is n ow gen erally recognis ed i n

,

auth ori tative circles that a n accuracy of 5 p er cen t can b e ob tai n ed i f

.

reaso nable care i s tak en i n m aki ng the sp e ci m en and p erform i ng th e test .

Th e i mpact test i s certai nl y s en sit ive to s li gh t vari ati ons an d th e form

,

a n d s i ze o f th e n otch are v ery i mportan t but though a poor i m pact test

,

m ay o ccas i onally be O bta in ed i n good m ateri al a bad m aterial has never

,

been known to give a g ood i mpact t est Th e i mpact tes t certai nly shows
.

vari ati on s that are n ot i nd i cated by tensile or oth er tes ts and there is
,

n o doubt that i ts use i n the future wil l b e m ore extended th an i t i s a t

pres en t
.
 M A TE RI A L TE STS A N D S PE C I F I C A T I O N S 31

A variety of the i mpact test that is used on railway axles tyres etc , ,
.
,

i s th e drop test I n th i s cas e the wh ol e arti cl e i s tested an d n o n otch is

.

u sed. Axl es are supp orted a t fixed di stances apart d epend in g o n th ei r ,

length and a weigh t i s dropped upo n them from a fixed h ei gh t Thi s i s

,
.

0 after th e firs t
rep eated five ti m es th e axl es bei ng turned through 1 80
,

a nd th ird blows s o that th e blows fall on both s id es Th e axle m ust stan d

, .

thi s treatm en t wi th ou t givi n g way .

Tyres are tested i n a s i mi lar way save that they are supp orted on a
,

ri gi d b lock of m etal not less than 5 ton s i n wei gh t an d th e h ei gh t of fall

, ,

v ari es fro m 1 0 to 20 fee t an d upwards .

Th e Erich sen mac hi n e ( Fig 1 7 ) i s a handy i nstrum en t for testing

”
.

s heet m etal
. Th e speci m en i s placed b etween tw o fl a t gripp in g

MR R
‘ O R
S C RE W r o w
.

C LA M P ON G S P E C M
' C H

5 /7ee/ Me/a / 7ejf

s urfaces an d clamp ed i nto p os iti on A p lunger A i s th en m oved

.
”

f orward by a hand wheel an d s crew to form a bulge i n the speci m en

-
”
.

T hi s is i ncreas ed u ntil a crack i s form ed wh ich is i m mediately obs erved

,

i n th e m irr or and at th is p oin t a read in g of the h ei gh t of th e bulge i s

,

t aken on th e m ach i n e Thi s gives a n i n dicati o n of th e hard nes s and

.

d rawing quali ti es of the sh eet but no defi n ite s tan dard can be laid d own
,

for di fferen t purpo ses Th e only m eth od O f us i n g thi s m achi n e i n

.
-

c onn ection wi th press work i s for th e manufacturer to t es t a n umber o f

samples whi ch have proved sati s factory i n the pres ses for di fferen t j obs ,

a nd to use th e results thus obtai ned as a standard for future suppli es B efore .

fi xing this stan dard i t is advisabl e to tes t as m any a s p oss ible of the
,

sheets that have failed i n th e pres ses s o tha t th e margi n of safety m ay be

,

a scertai n ed wi th reasonable accuracy .

32 E N G I N E ER I N G I N S P E C TI O N

S o m e C haracteri sti c bulges on E ri chsen test sp eci m en s are show n

i n Fi g 1 8 The s i z e of test pi e ce requi red i s 3 4 x
. .
”
or preferably a

s trip 3 4” wid e so tha t a number of tes ts m ay b e taken I t i s better .

to tak e th e average of 5 tests I t i s n ot advisable to test sh eets th i cke r

.

than g i n th i s m achi ne
”
.

Th e q uesti o n of fati gue “

tes t in g has exerci se d th e m in ds of
en gi neers an d m etallurgi sts for a number of years but although i nteresti n g ,

resul ts an d i n form atio n have been obtain ed by various i nves ti gators thi s ,

form of tes t has not been adopted to any great exten t i n com m ercial work .

O n e of th e pri ncipal di ffi culties i s the tim e tak en to m ak e th es e tests ,

an d an other i s th e wan t of un i formi ty i n th e vari ous forms of fatigu e

test Un ti l so m e s tandard ised form i s agreed upon th e fatigu e tes t can n o t
.
,

FIG . 18 .
—C h r ct r ist ic E r ichs n bul g s
a a e e e .

b e gen erally adopted an d up to th e present the tes ts described abov e

, ,

have b een con s id ered su ffi ci en t for practi cal workin g

A sui table testi n g equi p m ent for a large engineeri n g or manufacturi n g
works is th e followi n g
1 —3 0 or 5 0 ton Ten sil e testi n g machi n e ( wi th compressi on bend in g ,

an d torsi on tools i f n ecessary) .

1 —1 0 or 5 ton Ten si le testi n g m achi n e for s mal l

spec i m en s Alternative
1—
.
.

3 ton Wire tes ti ng m ach ine

l—
.

Bri n ell testin g m achi n e with m i croscope

1—
.

1 20ft lb I zod I mpact tes ti n g machi n e

1 —
. . .

E richsen tes ti n g m achi n e ( i f pres s work i s d on e )

1 —S cleros cop e ( or m ore i f case hard en i n g an d gri nd in g i s don e as a
.

-
,

standard i nstrum en t shoul d b e kep t i n th e tes t hous e for -

reference ) .
 M A TERI A L TE STS AN D S PE C I F I C A T I O NS 33

Special tes ti n g appliances have to be bought or mad e for any special

work but th e above i s a nucleus tha t wi ll provid e all n ecessary i n formati on
,

i n most shops .

S P EC I F I CA T I O N S .

The proper sp ec ification of m ateri als i s an i mp ortan t p oi n t a s err ors

or om issi ons at th is s tage m ay i nvolve the los s of large s um s of m oney to

the purchas i ng firm . Many firm s issue thei r own sp ecificati ons an d ,

others rely on th e Bri ti sh s tandard speci fication s As th es e or other .

,

standard sp eci ficati ons have to be worked to i n Govern m en t co ntracts ,

suppl iers have b ecom e fam i liar wi th th eir provisi ons a nd i f they were ,

more widely adopted would keep stocks i n han d to m eet th e vari ous
standard specificati on s called for Thi s would save m uch was te an d over
.

lappi ng and would frequently avoi d d isputes For many purpos es h ow

, .
,

ever the standard specific ati on s are nOt sui tabl e or availabl e an d speci al
, ,

specificati ons have to be drawn up .

Som e buyers m erely speci fy the m echan ical tests requi red without
enteri ng i nto details of an alysis tes ti n g procedure etc an d they j usti fy
, , .
,

this by the contenti on that an elab orate speci ficati on restricts suppli es an d
tends to rais e th e p ri ce of th e articles suppli ed so that th e degree of ,

completen es s required i n th e sp ecificati ons is largely a m atter for in divi dua l

j udgm ent .

Th e followi ng poin ts however m ay profitably be born e i n mi nd

, ,

when drawi n g up sp eci ficat i ons and any or all of th em i ncluded accordin g
,

to th e co nd iti on s of supply
1 C lass of material from whi ch th e arti cles are to be made and i f
.
, ,

n ecessary n am e of firm or firm s supplyi n g that m ateri al

, .

2 M eth od of m anufacture i n m ore or less detai l

. notin g any ,

sp ecial poi nts requi red .

D
D i m en si on s an d lim its of accuracy
t Faults to be avo ided i n materia l an d gen eral quali ty required .

fl
C C hemi cal compos itio n of materi al wi th li mi ts if necessary .

O M echani cal tests required an d c onditio n of test pi eces ( whether

m achi ned norm alis ed h eat treated
, ,when tested , .

7 Form and sizes of tes t p i eces wi th li m its

.
, .

8 S e lection of tes ts i n cludin g prop ortio n of tests taken procedure

.
, ,

of selecti on an d method of markin g and numb ering test pi eces

, .

9 M ethod of inspection by who m carri ed ou t and wh en

.
, , .

1 0 Specifi cati on of heat treatm en t i f requ ired

.
,
.
34 EN GI N E E RI N G I N S P E CTI O N

11 Return of m aterial previously rej ected by i n sp ector an d procedure ,

to b e adop ted .

12 Provisi on for i ndep enden t tests i n case of disagreem en t b etween

suppli er an d purchaser .

13 Arrangem en ts wi th reference to th e proportion of th e cost of

prepari ng test p i eces an d testi ng to b e borne by suppli er and
purchaser .

14 M ethod of m arki n g or pa i nti n g accep ted an d rej ected m aterial ,

and by who m th is i s to be d on e .

15 S tipulati ons wi th referen ce to the repair or patch i ng of faulty

pi eces an d procedure to be adop ted .

16 Procedure for rough m ach i ni n g p i ckli ng sand blasti ng or clean , ,

i ng arti cles be fore leavi ng suppli er s works so that d efects m ay ’

be obs ervabl e .

17 M ethod of protecti n g articles from corrosi on duri ng s torage or

transport an d th e degree of such protection to b e provided
,

by suppli er .

Th ed scr ipt ions of t st in g m ch in s g iv n in th is ch pt r

e e n c ss r il y br i f bu t a e e a e a re e e a e ,

fu ll r p rt icu l rs m y b obt in d b y r f r nc
e a a a to th f ol l ow in g wor k s
e a e e e e e e

T st in g of M t r i ls b y W C U n win
e a e a ,
”
. . .

A H ndb oo k of T st in g M t r i ls b y C A S mith
a e - a e a ,
”
. . .

M t r i ls of C on struct ion P oppl w ll

A ppl ic t io n of M t r i ls to E n g in r in g D s ig n —A ll t nd M ill r
-
a e a e e .

Th e a a e a ee e cu a e .

A ls o th f oll owin g p p rs
e a e

Us
“
nde Equ ip m n t of E n g in r in g L b or t or i s —Si A B W K n n d y
a e ee a a e r . . . e e ,

Pr oc 1 88 7
M c h n ic l Pr op rt i s of M t r i ls —
. .

e a a I V C U n w in
e Pr oc
e No 1 91 8 a e a . . . . v .
, .

R s rch s m d p oss ibl b y th A u t og r p h ic L o d E xt ns ion I nd ic t or J ou rn l ”

I nst of M t ls —
e ea e a e e e a a e a , a

.W E D lb y M y 1 91 7
e a . . a . a , .

Sh oc k T sts nd D t r min t ion of R s il i nc —C h py nd C orn u Th n rd I r on

e a e e a e e e ar a -
e a .

nd S t
a l I nst S pt 1 91 7ee e

S in g l B l ow I mp ct T s t on N otc h d B rs —G r v s nd M or
, ,
. . .

e a Pr oc
e e a ea e a e

S h oc k T s ts nd th ir St nd i tion —Si R H d fi ld nd M in
. .

In t C E
I mp ct T sts —
e a e a a r sa r . a e a a . s . . .

C h r ct r ist ics of N ot h d b S t n t on nd B ts on ”
a a e c 1 920 e -
ar a e a a a . .

B r in l l M th od of T st in g th H rdn ss of M t ls P g s \V k ly J n 8 1 909 ” ’

R s ist nc of M t ls to P n tr t ion u nd r I mp ct —C A E d w rds I nst of

e e e e a e e a . a e ee , a .
,
.

e a e e a e e a e a . . a . .

M t ls S pt 1 91 8
e a , e .
, .

R por t of H rdn ss T sts R s rch C mmitt

e a e Pr oc No e 1 91 6 e ea o ee v

H rdn ss T st in g —A F S h r
. . . .
,

Pr is m H rdn ss —B P H ig h
a e
Pr oc I r on nd S t l I nst S pt 1 91 8
e . . o e . . a ee .
, e .
, .

a e 0 Pr oc I nst a

M sur m n t f H ig h D g r s f H rdn ss —J I n n s f M h E O t 1 920

. . . . .

ea e e o e ee o a e . e . ec . .
, c .
, .

N ot s on th B l l T st —T B k r 8 T F R uss l l I r on 8 S t l I nst M y 1 920

e e a e . a e : . . e . : ee .
, a , .

Th B r in ll
e nd Scr tc h T st fo H rdn ss
e a \V C U n win E n g in r in g
a e r a e -
. . . ee .

N ov . 21 , 1 9 1 9 .

r n ll
B i e a nd Scr tch T sts
a e for H a rd e n e d S t l —Hee a d fie l
d a nd M in a . Pr oc .

O ct .
, 1 91 9 .
 C H A PT E R I V

I N S PE C T I O N OF RAW M A TE RI A LS
The natural d ivis i on of m ateri als i nto thre e classes—raw partly ,

manufactured an d fi nish e d —is a di fficult m atter i n any gen eral treati se

, ,

b ecause the fi nished m ateri al of on e factory or trad e i s th e raw m aterial ,

o f another Any d ivis i on of thi s nature therefore i s n ecessari ly arbi trary

.
, ,

and vague but as thi s treati se i s wri tten fro m th e s tandp oi nt of a gen era l
,

e ngi neerin g works raw m aterial i s a ssumed to b e m aterial that is li kely

,

to enter such a works for the purp ose of havi ng furth er m achi n i ng or o ther
e ngin eeri ng work don e upon i t I t i s also assum ed that th e firm i n .

q uesti on has i ts ow n foundry s m ithy etc and therefore cas ti ngs an d , ,

.
,

forgi ngs are class ed as partly manufactured materi al .

The raw m aterials used i n gen era l m echan ical eng i neer i ng practi ce
a re divi sible i n to two m ai n class es —m etalli c a nd n on m etalli c -
.

The form er m ay b e d ivided i nto F errous m ateri als wh i ch are generally ,

t h e m ost num erous and i mportant an d non Ferrous an d thes e two m ai n ,

-
,

sub divisi on s
-
m ay b e again spl it up i nto di ffere nt secti on s as i n th e
followin g tabl e
M E T A L L I C M AT E R I A L S .

F E RRO U S . F
N O N - E RR O U S .

n
o
b
r
a
s
C
m
l

e
e

u S
i

3 d

M
e

Thes e classes do n ot cover all th e ki nds of m ateri al us ed i n

e ngineeri ng practi ce but are th e m os t importan t m etalli c materials that
,

mechani cal eng in eers have to dea l wi th .

Si m ilarly non Metalli c materials m ay be class ifi ed as follows

-

N O N M E TAL L I C M AT E R I AL S - .

S TO N E S E ARTII S . TIM BER . F AB RI C S . O I LS F UE LS .

U w we w
‘
A
( to to c: to 2 U
“

c a: " a;
O g "
5 c 3 8 I“ “5 I: “3 2
3 C E a. t: m E U
‘ C
E
E (n
m
5
8 75 8 3
3 6 {3 n
E x
52
0
2
L 3
4)
3 2 0)

m m
°
3 E
‘

0 z: cs .
9 3
M ‘

5 . 9 0
1 , E

(n
0
Hi k‘ 0
3
U)
_ _ j
36 EN G I N E E RI N G I N S PE CTI O N

FE RR O U S M A T E R I A L S .

C A S T I R O N —C ast i ron is a nam e given al m os t i ndis cri mi nately to th e

raw materi al fed i nto th e cupola and to the fini shed produc t of th e foundry
,
.

Th e form er i s m ore p opularly known as pi g I ron and is th e form in

“
-
,

whi ch cast iron is s ent ou t fro m th e blas t furnace I t i s generally .

class ified i n to grey and whi te iron s an d th e vari ous quali ti es may ,

b e d i s tinguished to so m e exten t by exam i n in g th e appearan ce of th e

fractured surface when a p ig i s broken but m ore s a tis factorily a nd ,

a ccurately by chem i cal an alysi s .

N o 1 iron ha s a coars ely crys tall i n e s tructure of dark grey colour

.

and black en s th e han ds when touch ed Thi s i s due to th e fact that p late s
.

or fl akes of graph i te C arb on are i n term ingle d wi th th e crys tals f iron

( ) o .

N os 3 an d 4 are of S i m i lar form ati on bu t th e crys tals are m uch s maller

.
, ,

an d th e a m oun t o f graphi te less Th es e iron s are stronger than N os 1

. .

a nd 2 an d are not s o easi ly fus ib le th e lower numb ers b ein g us ed alm os t

, ,

exclus ively for ornam ental work an d for m aki ng sp eci al m ixtures .

Th e foundry m an m ixes h is i n gredi en ts al m ost lik e a doctor s pre ’

scri pti on and has h i s own p et m ixtures for di fferen t clas ses of work
, .

The various grad es an d ki nds o f p i g are us e d by h i m for produci n g th e

qual i ty of m ixture that h e has found to be succes sful i n th e pas t Thi s is .

o nly th e cas e wi th old foundri es an d foun dry m en as qualiti es even of ,

recogn i sed brand s vary so m uch n owadays that m os t foundri es work on

ch em i cal analysi s .

Whi te iron contai n s practi cally n o graph i te an d i s gen erally used for ,

m ak in g m alleable casti ngs I t i s hard an d bri ttl e and th e fractured

.
,

surface i s al m ost whi te and s i lky i n t exture sh owi ng non e of th e crys talli n e
,

app eara nce characteristi c of grey i rons M ottl ed iron i s a qual i ty m i dway
.

between wh ite i ron a nd N o 4 grey an d poss ess es som e of the character

.
,

istic s of bo th .

Th e bes t way of i n spect in g p ig or cast i ron i s to tak e one or two

sample p i gs fro m each co ns ign m en t en teri ng th e foundry an d a fter break ,

i n g observ e th e fracture to see that th e correct grad e has b een suppli ed

, .

I f thi s i s sati sfactory th e broken p i gs sh ould be s en t up to th e lab oratory

,

for analysi s an d th e con signm en t carefully k ept apart fro m th e remainde r

,

of th e s tore un ti l it has been certifi ed correct O ften pi gs are kept i n .

p iles labelled wi th th e na m e of th e suppl i ers but wh en analys es are ,

sys tem atically and regularly taken classi ficati o n by Ch em i cal composi tio n
,

i s better as then th e buyi n g d epartm en t i s n ot t i ed down to any one

,

parti cular s upplyi ng firm .

 I NS P E CTI O N O F RAW M A TE RI A LS 37

Average analys es for th e d i fferen t grades ( E ngli sh ) of H aemati t e

cas t iron are as follows
*

M a n g a n e se S u lp h ur

Th e e ffect of th es e vari ous con sti tuen ts o n th e prop ert i es of cas t

iron m ay b e sum mari sed bri efly as follows
Graph ite —M akes casti n gs so ft an d easy to mach i ne d i m i nish es ,

shrinkage but makes casti ngs weak an d bri ttl e i f graphi te i s presen t i n
,

the form of flak es or plates

C ombine d C arbon —M akes casti ngs hard and bri ttle
.

an d ten d s ,

towards th e produ cti on of whi te i ron I f cas ti ngs are co oled rapi dly
.

( ch illed ) produces a very h ard surface practi cally

,
unm achinabl e .

Mang anes e — Partly n eutrali ses th e e ffects o f S ulphur S i li con and ,

Phosph orus i f presen t i n s m al l quanti ti es but a ny excess produces a

,

harden in g e ffect I t i ncreases shri nkage bu t p roduces sound er casti ngs

. .

Ph osph oru s —Mak es casti ngs fl uid hard an d bri ttle but di m i ni sh es
, ,

shri nkage I f s trength i s a con s iderati on i t sh ould not exceed 5 p er cent

.
‘

.
,

but is suitabl e for the product io n of thi n and ornam en tal c asti ngs .

Su lphu r —T ends to m ak e the iron thi ck and viscous i n pouri ng It .

produces greater shri nkage an d gives hardn ess and blowh ol es so i s a n ,

i mpuri ty to b e avoi ded I t i s gen erally derived from th e coke used i n the
.

cupola .

Silic on —Produces a s o ft grey fl ui d i ron an d i s useful i n h elpi ng

, , ,

to eli m inate blowholes an d i n givin g soun d cas tings .

Th e tens i l e strength of cast i ron vari es fr om 6 to 1 4 tons p er square

S E M I - S T EEL .

Thi s is an attemp t to i mprove the quali ty of cast i ro n by addi n g

a percentage O f s mall p i eces of s teel to the m ixture i n th e foundry Th e .

u sual quanti ty added is ab ou t 20 per cent the obj ect bein g to i ncrease
.
,

Turn r s
e
’
I r on .
38 E N G IN E E RI N G I N S PE CTI O N

th e stren gth an d ductili ty of th e cas ti ngs wi thout in curri n g the compl ica
ti o n exp ens e an d d elay of m ak i ng m alleable cas tin gs S emi s teel casti ngs
,
.
-

have been obtai ned w ith a tens il e strength of 28 tons p er square inch
a n d a n elon gatio n of 3 per cen t on a l ength of 2 i nch es but thi s m aterial .
,

sh ould be very carefully wa tched as frequen tly i t i s n o b etter than cas t i ron :
S em i s teel cas tings ( so call ed ) h ave b een ob tai ned with a ten sil e s tren gt h
-

of 6 to 8 ton s p er square i n ch an d n o elongati on but th e usual fi gu re is ,

about 1 5 to 1 8 ton s per square i nch and 2 per cent elongati on . .

M A LLE A BLE I R O N .

Th e greates t obj ecti o n to i ro n castings i n engin eer ing practi ce i s thei r

w eakness an d bri ttlen es s Mall eab l e casti ngs are m ade by pack in g whi te
.

i ron cas ti n gs i n iron oxi de ( red haemati t e) an d h eati n g for a consi derabl e
°
p eri od at a temp era ture o about 9 00 C Thi s results i n the abstraction of
f .

s om e of th e C arb on fro m th e cas t i ro n wh i ch then attai n s som e O f th e

”
ductili ty of wrough t iron an d i s therefore call ed m alleabl e “
.

The peri od of h eati n g vari es with th e s i z e of th e castin g as the d e ,

oxi dation or malle ablising e ffect takes lon ger to p en etra te a thi ck ”
'

casti n g than a thi n on e T hi s m aterial sh ould therefore be tes ted by

.

fracture as i n s om e i n stan ces i t w ill b e found tha t there i s a th i n sh ell of

,

m alleable i ron surround in g a h ard an d brittl e core of cast i ron A tensi le .

tes t sh ould al so b e appl i ed an d for i mportan t work an i mpact test , , .

There are two ki nds of mall eabl e cas ti ngs —whi te an d black Th e .

form er are gen eral ly m ad e by E ngli sh foundri es an d have tensi le s trength s ,

of 20 to 3 0 ton s per square i nch but li ttl e ductility ( gen erally 2 to 4 ,

p er cen t elongati on ) Black heart m alleabl e castin gs are usually m ade by

. .

A m eri ca n foun dri es but there i s one foundry i n En glan d t hat S p eciali ses
*
,

i n thi s product They are lower i n tens il e s trength than whi te heart
’

cas ti n gs ( about 1 8 to 20 ton s p er square in ch ) but have greater

d ucti li ty ( 5 to 1 0 p er cen t H i gh ten sil e strength i s often
.

ci ted as evi d en ce O f good qual ity i n m alleabl e cas ti n gs bu t this i s not ,

n ecessari ly th e cas e I n m any cas ti n gs i mm uni ty from breakage or crack

.

i n g under sh ock or vibrati o n is of greater i mportan ce than h igh ten si l e

T h s c st in g s
e e ann l d t l ow r t mp r tur th n wh it h rt c st in g s th
a re a ea e a a e e e a e a e ea a ,
e

t mp r tur b in g 7 5 0 85 0 C T h d ox id is in g ff c t i muc h l ss t t h is t mp r tur

e e a e e - °
. e e- e e s e a e e a e,

but th c rbo n i r t in d in th f or m of r os tt s inst d of fl k s th w k n in g ff ct

e a s e a e e e e ea a e , e ea e e e

in t h i c s b in g muc h l ss th n t h t of th
s a e e fl ky c rb on of c st ir on B l c k h r t
e a a e a a a . a ea

c st in g t h r f or
a s, on l y d
e e ox id is d o n th
e, a re su rf c bu t th in t r ior h pr ct ic ll y th
e- e e a e, e e as a a e

s m mou n t of c rb on th or ig in l c st ir on T h is i s h ow n by it fr ctu r
a e a a as e a a . s s a e .

t In m sur d l n g th o f 2 inch s
a ea e e e .
 IN S PE CT I ON OF RAW M A T ER I A LS 39

strength an d as th e latter i s gen erally associated with a correspondi n g

,

wan t of ductil i ty i t is often a p os i tive di sadvantage

,
.

I n n o cas e sh ould m alleable castin gs h ave a lower breaki ng stren gth

than 1 6 tons p er s quare i nch but where th e casti ngs are subj ect to l ive or
,

rapi dly fl uctuati n g loads th e other extrem e sh ould also b e avoi ded and
, ,

castings havi n g a greater strength than 25 t on s p er square i nch should b e

looked upon with suspi ci on .

WR O U G H T I R O N .

Thi s h as be en largely supers eded i n recen t years by m i ld s teel ,

whi ch i s cheap er a nd has very si m i lar characteri sti cs but i t i s s ti ll used ,

to s om e extent for i ntri cate forgings an d parts th at h ave to un dergo a goo d

f ra t / u r: 7es r fe /
f ‘
Wro g /zf
u

fig Works/50} 725 ‘
1s 6
7 x
"
Wroug h t /ro/7

d eal of c old work I t has a fibrous structure on accoun t of th e sla g

.

entan gled i n th e origi nal bl oom whi ch is rolled out i n to lon g threads I f
, .

a bar is cut hal f way through an d ben t over the fibres are a t once revealed , ,

and thi s c onsti tutes one of the tests for wrough t i ron I f th e iron i s h eate d .

a nd re rol led several tim es i t im proves with each rolli ng

-
and thus fro m , ,

comm on puddled iron th e superi or qual i ti es of b e st doubl e best an d trebl e , ,

best iron are obtai ned .

40 E N GI N E ERI N G I N S PE CTI O N

Th e tensi le s trength of wrough t iron i s usual ly 20 to 26 ton s per square

i n ch with a yield p oi n t of 1 3 to 1 5 ton s p er square i n ch The com m o n
, .

vari eti es have l ow ducti li ti es as shown by elongati on s of 5 to 1 0 per cent .

,

but th e b est Swedi sh or Yorkshire i rons m ay have elon gati on s up to 60

p er cent .

O n accoun t of i ts fibr ous nature th e tens ile s trength of test p i eces ,

taken acros s th e grai n i s usually fro m 2 to 4 tons p er square i nch lower

than that al on g the grai n bu t thi s di fference sh ould n ot be too pronoun ced
, .

Wrough t i ron i s th e purest co m m ercial form of i r on and i s sus cep tible to ,

th e pres en ce O f i mpuri ti es s uch a s Sulphur or Phosphorus s o that C h em ical ,

tes ts are advi sabl e i n cases of doub t The b e st prac tic al tes ts are forgi ng .
_

tests h ot an d cold to ascertai n wh eth er th e m etal wi ll spread wel l wi thout

, ,

cracki ng ( Fi g an d weld ing tests

. .

C old forgi ng t ests should be taken after heat ing and cooli ng rapi dly
i n water to prove that th e Carb on c on tent is suffi ci ently low to prevent any
h ard en ing from taki ng place .

S T EEL .

Th ere i s n o one substan ce that can be taken as repres entative of steel ,

as th e nam e I ncludes a great vari ety O f m aterials havi ng d i fferen t ,

p roperti es a nd us es I t i s th ere fore necessary to clas si fy s teel i n to two

.

m ai n d ivis ion s nam ely C arbon an d Alloy S teels

,
All s teels contai n
,
.

C arbo n an d th e p ercentage of th i s elem en t pres en t has a decidi n g i nfl uen ce

,

o n th e prop erti es of th e m aterial Plai n carbo n s teel s al so con tai n .

M angan es e S ili con Sulphur an d Phosphoru s th e two latter consti tuents

, , , ,

bei n g undesirable i m puri ties to be kept as low a s p oss ibl e G en erally .

,

th e addi tion of Carb on to pure I ron i n creases th e tensile s trength and ,

d ecreases th e ducti li ty of th e m aterial I f heated to redn ess an d rapi dly .

cooled such m aterial wi ll harden to a degree depend en t on th e p ercentage

,

o f C arb on pres en t so that th e n atural C lassi ficati on for such steels i s low
, ,

m edium and h igh C arb on There i s a good d eal of con fus io n i n com
, .

me rc ial an d en gin eeri ng work as to th e exact d efiniti on of m ild steel ,

.

S om e suppli ers when as ked for mil d s teel give carb on contents o f anythi ng
,

up to 5 p er cen t but thi s i s not a true m ild s teel

-
.
,
The latter .

term should only be appl i ed to steel th at wi ll n o t hard en very appreci ably

wh en h eated to a h igh temp erature and rapi dly cool ed Th e com m ercial .

l i m i t for mild ste e ls should b e ab out 3 p er cent C arbon an d an yth i ng

'
-
.
,

above th is and b elow 6 per cent C arbo n sh ould be class ed as m edium

-
.

C arbon steel .
 I N S PE CTI O N OF RAW M A TER I A LS 41

We therefore have th e followi ng class i ficati on for carbon s teels

C arbon .

1
‘

3 M i ld S teels .

3
‘

6 M ed ium C arb on S teels .

6 Hi gh C arb on S t eels .

I f oth er m etals such a s N i ckel C hrom ium Tun gs ten etc are i ntro
, , , , .
,

d u c e d i n to th e s teels the properti es o f th e m ateri al are cons iderably

,

a ffected an d th e C arbo n co nten t ceases to b e th e d eci sive factor S u c h

, .

s teels are therefore known collectively as Alloy S teels and i ndivi dually ,

a s N ickel N i ckel C hrom e Tungs ten or Vanadi um S teels accordi n g

, , , ,

to th e nam e of th e sp ecial elem ents i ntroduced .

The e ffect o f vari ous alloyin g el em en ts on the properti es of ste el

may be sum maris ed bri efly as fol lows

M A N GAN E S E .

Th is i s always presen t i n s mal l quan ti ti es but i f pr es en t ,

between 1 an d 5 p er c en t decreas es the s tren gth an d ducti li ty of th e

.
,

steel A further i ncreas e to 1 4 p er cent i mproves th ese quali ti es but th e

. .
,

tensi le strength and elongati on agai n d ecreas e with m ore than 1 4 p er cen t .
.

of M an g an es e Th e com m ercial form con tai n s 1 2 to 1 5 p er cent

. .

C arbon and 1 2 to 1 4 per cen t M angan es e an d gives s oun d casti ngs wi th

, .
,

a larg e c ontrac tion ( g p er foo t ) an d l ow tensi le s trength and ducti li ty

.
”
.

Thes e are en orm ously i ncreased by heati ng an d quen chi ng i n water Thi s .

m aterial forges wel l but i s unweldabl e When cold although s o ft to the .

,

Bri nell tes t i t is practi c ally un mach i nabl e an d is non magn eti c
, ,
-
.

The rolled bar has a tensi le strength of 4 0 t on s p er square i nch an d a n

elon gati on of 5 per cent on Thes e are in creased to 60 tons an d 4 0
.

per cent after heat treatm ent

. .

C H R O M IU M .

Thi s has a harden in g tenden cy i n st eel and i f increas ed to over 5 p er

cent th e steel wil l b ecom e hard wh en cooled i n air after h eati ng Wi th
. .

2 per cen t C arb on and up to 1 0 p er cen t Chrom i um the tens i le strength

‘

. .

i ncreas es and d ucti lity decreases th e m axi mum s trength aft er h eat treat ,

m ent being over 9 0 tons p er square i nch S tai nless S teel used for .
“

cutlery valves etc con tains 1 2 to 1 4 per cen t C hro m ium

, , .
, . .
42 E N G I NE ER I N G IN S PE C TI O N

T U N G STE N .

This caus es s teel to b e s elf— harden ing an d so i s used for cuttin g ,

tool s M odern high sp eed t ools have up to 1 8 p er cen t Tun gs ten an d

.
-
.

s om e C hrom ium but th i s d oes not i mply tha t th e steel i s harder when col d
,

than a good hi gh C arbon ste el I t do es i n d icate however tha t th e steel

.
, ,

can b e ru n wi th heavy cuts at a h igh sp eed a s tungsten s teel does not los e ,

i ts hard n es s to an y great exten t when h eated by thi s treatm ent and thi s ,

gives i t a great advan tage over C arb o n steel .

M O L Y B DE N U M .

Th e effect of thi s elem en t i s s o m ewhat s i m i lar to Tun gsten but i t has ,

n o t been ad opted to a ny grea t extent for cuttin g tools S teel con tai ni n g .

25 to 8 per cent C arbon 8 p er cent C hro mi um 3 p er cent N i ck el an d

‘ ‘ ‘

.
, .
, .
,

3 5 to 4 5 p er cent M olybd enum has been us ed for s mal l crank shafts givin g
‘
.
,

th e foll owi n g properties

Y i eld p oint 5 8 ton s p er square i nch
, .

U lti m ate ten si le s tren gth 6 5 tons p er square i nch , .

Elon gati on 20 per cen t ,

.

I m pact ( I zod ) 6 7 ft lbs ,

. .

N I CK E L .

Thi s i s a tough en i ng elem en t i n steel an d wh en used i n conj unc ti on ,

wi th C hro m iu m very hi gh ten sil e s tren gths ( over 1 00 ton s p er square

,

i nch ) can b e obtai n ed S teel wi th 1 — 3 p er cent N ickel is very go od for

. .

forgi n g an d i s very easy to heat treat succes s fully O n accoun t of th ei r

,
.

hi gh ductil i ty N i ckel steels are very useful when ever shock i s to be m et .

V A N A DIU M .

Thi s i mproves th e ten si l e stren gth and ducti li ty of s teel havi n g its ,

b est e ffect a t ab out 7 p er cen t I ts acti on i s gen erally supp os ed to be a

-
.

cl eansi n g one rem ovi n g gas eous i mpuri ties from th e steel but i ts h igh
, ,

cos t is a b ar to i ts exten ded use I t is now used for autom obil e spri ngs .

a nd other p ieces wh ere high res i s tan ce to shock i s requi red .

ALU M I N I U M .

Th is i s used i n sm all quantiti es to i ncrease th e fl ui dity of s teel bu t ,

i f any appreci able quanti ty i s presen t 5 to 7 5 p er cent ) th e s teel

‘ ‘

.
 I N S PE CT I O N O F RAW MATE RIALS 43

bec om es d i ffi cult to cast and pipes are produced i n th e i ngo ts owi ng to
,

th e h igh con tracti on M ore than 2 p er cen t of Alum ini um produces

. .

bri ttleness i n th e steel .

Th ere is a sti ll further complicati o n as m any arti cles such as gear

wh eels shafts etc are required to p ossess hard surfaces to res is t wear
, ,
.
, ,

an d therefore have to b e case hardened I f a m i ld s teed i s to b e cas e

-
.

hardened th e C arbo n co n ten t mus t n o t exceed 2 p er cen t a s o th erwis e

,
‘

.
,

th e s teel is i n cli n ed to b e crystalli n e an d brittl e a fter hard en in g Alloy .

steels also have to b e case hardened i n som e i nstances an d a t oth er ti m es

-
,

have to be harden ed by h ea t treatm en t on ly Th e classi ficati on of s teel s .

may b e expressed di agra m m atically as follows

ST E RES .

C AR B O N AL OY
L

Me d . Ca rb on H ig h Ca rb on s Ca e O il
H rd n in g
a e H a rd e n in g

ST O RA G E AN D H AN D L I N G .

I n vi ew of th e d i fferen t varieti es of steel that m ay be i n s tores or i n

us e a t the sam e ti m e the storage a n d han dling o f steel i s a m atter of
,

suprem e i mportan ce to th e i n sp ector concerned I t i s h i s busi nes s to se e .

that th e correct k in d of steel i s us ed on each j ob and that n o m is takes ,

are m ade .

Th e p ossibili ti es of error are num erous The wrong steel m ay b e .

i ssued the vari ous i ssues m ay b e m ixed i n th e cutti n g off stores the
, ,

issue m ay be tak en to the wron g ham m er at th e forge or to th e wron g

m
,

m achi n e i n th e shops or on e of th e s m i th s ay b e short of material of

,
’

that p articular si ze and m ay tak e th e wr on g steel fro m th e s tock i n th e

,

s mi thy whi le n ob ody i s looki n g Thes e s ources of error are n ot i magi nary
.
,

but have actually b e en encountered i n practi ce .

Th e u tm os t care should therefore b e taken i n drawi ng up that par t

of th e schem e whi ch d eals w ith th e han dli n g an d i nspecti o n o f steel bars ,

billets an d plates Th e steel sh ould b e bond ed on arrival and give n

,
.
“ ”

a defini te bond or cast numb er Where p oss ible i t i s advisable to g et

.
,
 E N G I N E E RI N G I N S PE C TI O N

th e m aker s cas t numb er an d employ i t i n th e sys tem as i n cas e of

’

, ,

d ispute n e go tiati on s are greatly facili tated by thi s procedure When th e

,
.

steel i s bon ded i n th e s tores parti culars of th e consign m ent should

“ ”

be s en t to th e I nsp ecti on D epartm ent i n dupli ca te as a n oti ficati on of , ,

arrival a nd a req u es t for exam i nati on thus ,

B L A N K M AN UF AC T U R I N G co .

B ond NO .

ST E E L B O N D .

To M t r i ls I nsp ct ion D pt
a e a e e .

( o L b or t ory )
r a a .

Pl s
ea e i n sp ct e th e f oll ow in g ma t e r ia l r c iv d
e e e on th e

O ur O rd e r No . z R q u is it ion
e No .

O ur Sp c ific t ion
e a No . r t s h S td Sp c N o
B i i . e . .

C l ss of S t l
a ee M k r s B r nd
a e
’
a

M k r s M rks
a e
’
a Co nd it ion

F or m T Q
.

C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

TO BE F I LLE D IN BY M A TE R I A L S I N S P E C TI O N D E PT .

is
T h is S t l ee
IS not su it bl a e for Sp c ific t ion N o
e a nd m us t b
. a e

O urI d n t ific t ion m r k s

e a a

H t Tr t m n t r q u ir d
ea ea e e e

I ns pec t or o f Ma te ria ls .

O ur T ste No .

Th e top hal f of th e sheet i s fi lled i n by th e S teel B ond s torek eep er ,

a nd th e botto m hal f left blan k for completi on a fter th e tests are taken .

I n order to fa ci li tate h eat treatm en t an d allocation of faulty s teel i t i s ,

 IN S PE C T I O N O F R AW MATER IALS 45

advisable to keep a li s t o f symbols ( either l etters or fi gures ) allocated to

the vari ous s ources of supply a s follows ,

STE E L S U PP L I ER S .

N a me . Sy mbol . N a me . Sy mbol . N a me . Sy mbol .

M rsh ll
a a MA E S mit h
.

M istr l 8 C o
a 1 . MS J W S mith C o
. . .

M ol nd 8 N ph
a : e ew ML L S mith 8 J v o ns
. : e

C are
should b e taken i n allocati n g symbol s to avoi d rep etiti on an d
also i f th e i den tificatio n m ark i ncludes figures after th e l etters to avoi d
, ,

th e letters I an d O as th es e m ay b e m i staken for fi gures ( se e second

,

colum n of symbols ) Further i n cas e of th e sam e nam e occurri n g s everal

.
,

ti m es the s econ d letter or symbol m us t be changed e g S m ith m ay b e

, ,
. .
,

repres en ted by SM S T S H or other combi nations

, , , .

Th e steel i n the s tores should be d ivi d ed i n to s eve n class es an d each ,

class kep t s tri ctly s eparate fro m th e oth ers so that n o m istake or m ixi n g ,

m ay b e likely t o take place th ere I t i s advi sabl e al so to k eep th e various

.

consign m ents or bonds of si m i lar ma terial s eparate even after th ey are ,

pas sed for use so that i n cas e of mechan i cal or other defects b ei n g foun d
,

subs equently th e faulty cons ign m en t m ay b e i solated Th e vari ous classes

,
.

of s teel m ay be kn own by n umbers i nstead o f n am es as follows ,

1 M ild forgi ng or r ollin g

. .

e M i ld cas e harden in g
l .

M edi um carbon
a
s

e Hi gh carbo n
r .

Alloy cas e hard en i n g

1
7
C .

0 A lloy oil h ardeni ng

. .

Alloy a i r hard en in g
l

f .

Subsequen t fi gures m ay be used for plate or sheet work thus ,

8 B es t C RCA ( cold rolled clos e an n ealed )

. .

9 B est pi ckled
. .

10 D eep s tamp in g qual i ty

. .

11 C opper s oft C R CA
. .

12 B es t polish ed s tampi ng
. .

etc .

I f th e s teel has to b e h eat treated a further number may b e allocated , ,

to i nd icate th e ki nd of h ea t treat m en t required to g i ve th e d es ired resul t .

46 E N G IN E ER I N G I N S PE C TI O N

Thus th e i den ti ficati on m ark con sists of one or two letters givi ng th e ,

n a m e of suppl i er a figure i n di cating th e class of s teel and a fi gure

, ,

i ndi catin g the numb er of h eat treatm en t required .

E x ample — ] C 5 2 m ean s J on es a nd C olm an s steel alloy case

’
.
,

hard eni ng h eat treatm ent N o 2 Thi s m ark sh ould b e stamp ed on eve ry
,
. .

bar or bi llet an d tran s ferred to every arti cle m ade fro m tha t bar or bi ll et
, .

When th e arti cles i n questi on reach th e har d eni n g shop for h ea t treat
m en t th e foreman hard en er wi ll look up card I C5 2 i n hi s card i ndex a n d
, ,

obtai n a ll parti culars n ecessary for th e h ea t treatm ent of th e part i n

q ues ti on .

H EAT TREAT M ENT CAR D .

S I
U PPL E R J n s nd
-
0 e a Co lm n a B RAN D -
A H S 55
—2 5
. . .

—N o H 3
.

O UR S e na . . B R I rI s n Sro . S PE C 15 .

H E AT T R E ATM E N T .

C O I S —900 C C ool sl ow ly in bo
AR B N E .
°
. x .

H —R h t r p idl y to 8 5 0 C s o k 1 5
AR D E N e ea a
°
a m in s qu nc h e in oil

T MP —
. . .
, ,

E R h t st d il y to 7 60 C q u nch
ER . e -
ea ea
°
, e in w a t r e .

Thus i f any m aterial s are found to b e faulty duri n g the later m achi n in g
or hard eni n g process es all other p arts m ad e fro m the sam e bran d of steel ,

m ay b e s eparated ou t i m m ediately an d th e suppl i ers n otifi ed of the ,

trouble .

S UR F A C E E X A M I N A TI O N .

Wh il e s teel i s i n bon d a certai n am oun t of ti m e m ay b e saved by

e xam in in g brands of kn ow n reli abi li ty for superficial defects As th es e .

d efects are co m m on to m ost bra nds of steel they are all included i n thi s
exam i nati on .

Bars sh ould b e as s trai gh t a s p os sibl e parti cularly i n th e cas e of ,

brigh t bars to be u sed for m ach i ni n g I n th e latter cas e also parti cular . ,

att enti on sh ould be pai d to th e ques ti on of l i m i ts as brigh t bar i s fre ,

uen tly ord ered to a li m i tin g si ze to save cos t of mach in i ng Suppli ers
q ,
.

however d o n o t always adh ere to th e l im i ts i mposed an d therefore rin g

,

gauges of th e prescribed si zes sh ould be provi d ed Gap gauges are .

q u icker i n operati on but are n ot so us eful a s the bars are

,
s om eti m es ova l ,

o r i rregular i n s ecti on .
 I N S PE C TI O N O F RA W M A T ER IALS 47

Standard li m its for bri gh t drawn bars are given i n B ri ti sh S tan dard
Specificatio n N o 3 2 .
l
.
ae

I n th e cas e of b illet s also a tten ti on mus t b e pai d to th e cros s sectio nal

,

d i m ens ions as i f th ey have to b e cut up i nto s tandard lengths for maki ng

,

forgi n gs or drop stampi ngs bi llets of sm all s ecti on wi ll not give su ffi ci ent
,

materi al to fill th e di es and th e forgings wi ll be s crapp ed

,
.

R oak s or s eam s are co m m o n to bars and billets an d consi s t of li nes

along th e surface followi n g th e di recti o n of rolli ng They are gen erally .

caused by slag or scale wh ich i s rolled i nt o th e s ecti on and m ay frequen tly

b e d etected by observing th e s h eared ends of th e billets wh ere th ey o ften
O pen ou t i nto crack s .By fi li ng or gri nd ing a Ve e n otch acros s th e b illets
th e depth o f th es e defects m ay b e observed an d i f n o t too deep th e s teel , ,

may b e allowed to go forward I f m ore than 3g d eep th e b i llets sh oul d

1 ”
.

n ot be used for i mportan t drop forgi ngs esp ecially wh en thes e have to ,

b e heat treated as th e sea m s op en ou t i nto cracks on hard en i ng unl es s

, ,

previ ously rem oved by m achi ni ng I t sh ould be rem embered h owever .

, ,

that the dep th of sea m ln th e forgin g i s gen erally greater than i n th e bar
from whi ch i t i s mad e an d allowan ce should b e mad e for thi s fact wh en
,

i nspecti n g.

Bars that have to be mach i ned m ay b e i nsp ected for s eam s by ,

bri gh ten i ng up th e surface at i n tervals of 3 or 4 fee t wi th a gri n dston e

or em ery wh eel I f th e s eam does n o t p ass righ t along th e bar faulty
.
,

e nds may b e cut off an d returned to th e m akers a s rej ecti on s Th es e .

defects are p arti cularly obj ecti onabl e i n case h ardened work as th ey -
,

b reak th e con ti nui ty of the case an d tend to open ou t as cracks I n case .

hardeni ng steel th ey frequ e n tl yappear b el ow th e surface an d are revealed

, ,

b y mach i ni ng . The appearan ce of th e surface h owever i s usually a fai rly , ,

good i ndi cati on of freedo m fro m thes e defects .

Pi pi n g i s als o m et wi th occas ionally i n bars an d bi llets I t cons ists .

o f an irregular crack or fl aw d own the cen tre of th e s ecti on an d is ,

d erived fro m the recess whi ch form s duri n g th e cooli ng of th e in go t fro m

which th e bi llet i s rolled I n m ost cases care i s tak en to se e th at the
.

top of the i ngot i s kept liqui d unti l th e lower p orti on has sol idi fied but ,

e ven th en s om e of th e i n got h a s to be cut off before rolli n g I f th i s cut .

is tak en too h igh up th e cavi ty wi ll be rolled i nt o th e cen tre of th e bi llets

, ,

b u t i f taken b el ow th e pip e th e b i llets wi ll be sound Th e only way of

, .

d etecti ng th i s i s to exam i n e th e cut ends of th e bill ets parti cularly wh en ,

t h ese are b ei ng s awn up for f orgin g purposes as it is gen erally easi er to se e ,

E n g in r in g S t nd rds
ee a a C ommi tt ee , 28 , V ict or i S tr t L ond on
a ee , ,
S VV 1
. . .
48 E N G I N E ERI N G I NS PE C TI O N

pi pin g fl aws on a freshly cut secti on than on one that i s obs cured wi th rus t
or scale .

H ard cen tres are also occasi onally m et wi th owin g to carburi sed ,

m ateri al wh ich s om eti mes form s the top of the i ngo t gettin g i nto th e
, ,

b ody of th e m etal wh ereas i n the ordin ary cours e i t woul d be cut off
,
.

n
ea r
é Fo
'
b/hf F/a n/

fi g 20 . d efects [0 e e/

Laps are s om ewhat sim ilar i n appearan ce to roaks but whil e th e ,

latter run fro m the surface towards th e cen tre th e form er as thei r nam e, ,

i n di cates run i n a n oblique di rectio n an d are gen erally e as ier to machi n e

,

ou t a s th ey d o not p ene trate so far i n to th e m ateri al ( Fi g .

For bars and bill ets tens ile an d i mpact tes ts are advi sab le wi th a n
,

o ccas io nal check by chem ical analys i s parti cularly i n th e case of s teels
,

Leng flz ’
. 9

that have to be heat treated B e n d tests are occas i onally useful i n the
.

case of mi ld steels but are n o t so s earch ing in character as i mpact te sts

,

( Fig A good i d ea of the s hock s trength of a steel may b e o b tai n ed

 I N S PE CT I O N O F RA W M A TER I AL S 49

by maki ng a n otch or saw cut i n th e s ide of th e bar an d breaki n g i t wi th

a ham mer Th e resistan ce to fractur e and the app earance of the frac
.

tu re d surface ( whether fibr ous or crys talli ne ) gives experi enced observers

a good i dea of the i mpact value l ikely to be obtai n ed und er tes t A .

B ri nell hardn ess test i s als o a useful acces s ory as thi s gives an i dea of th e ,

t ensile strength s o that for m any m ild steels a fracture and Bri n el l test
,

wi ll give all ne c e ssarv i n formati on .

A lloy steels m us t be m ore carefully treated The b est proc e d ur .

for cas e hard eni n g or oil temperin g st eels i s to cut tes t pi eces from th e
- -

bars or b i llets ( say on e tes t p i ece to 5 0 bars ) forge down to about 1 g ”

,

,
—
diam eter and about 8 9 long ( i f n ecessary ) and th e n sub mit thes e
”
,
»

pi eces to th e exact heat treatm en t foun d correct for that particular brand
i n th e past I f th e steel i s to be case h ard en ed th e carbon mus t b e turned
. .
-

off th e outsid e of th e test p i ece before hard en i ng as oth erwis e i t wi ll h ave ,

to b e ground off After h eat treatm en t th e test pi eces must b e carefully

.

turn ed to fi ni shed s iz e tak in g care to leave th e surface s mooth an d to

,

avoi d sharp corners or sm all i nternal radi i C hem ical analys es and .

m icroscopi c tes ts should always b e taken for n ew brands and occas ionally
as a check on regular suppli es .

Fu B m Te s
'

ns w c oc ro
c R R c LL n ?

/é/ fe yr P/ ec e rea dy fa f Hea f We afmefl f

( rn e a ’ af flx a m efef ’ a nd f fi d r
‘
/ a é on fa r
j .

N a rc n as

— >J
l
—
K

k
5
.
—
z —J
)
"
7éJ/ /moa cf 7 6 3 7
/
{ c} fi na / fé rm of 7 &5 f P
'

/ ec e

[ if 22 é
7é ns /V 6 /m ”
l
oa c/
'
7é §f P
/e ces ’
Ca re Ad m/em}? Sfee/ .
50 E N G IN E ER I N G I N S PE C T I O N

W ith sh ee ts pres s work one of th e chi ef ques ti on s i s that of

for ,

s urface For m any purp os es such as m o t or body p an els good surface i s

.
, ,

e ssen ti al an d i n th i s cas e th e m aterial must b e c old rolled close annealed

, , ,

p ickled to rem ove scale an d hydrauli cally fl atten ed I n th e last case

, .

there wi ll be an unus able s trip of about 1 i nch wid e on each si de of th e

s h eets W h ere they are held d uri n g th e fl atten in g process O pen an nealed .

s h eets with fl aws an d p i tted surface occasi onal ly fi nd their way i nto th e
,

works as C R CA sheets an d m ust b e rej ected a s even i f they will s tand

, ,

th e pres s work put up on th em th e surface of the fin ish ed articl e even, ,

a fter pai nti ng wil l sh ow up th e d efects badly The si ze an d gauge of th e

, .

s heets m ust als o be watch ed to see that th es e ful fil th e conditi on s of th e

,

contract o therwis e scrap p r

, essi n gs may result Th e press in g or drawi n g .

q uali ti es of th e sh eets may be esti mated by fl atteni n g over one corner

( wh en th ey sh oul d bend over fl at wi th out cracki ng ) an d by taki ng a n ,

an
“
Eri chs en or bulgin g tes t alrea d y d escribed ,
I n th e wri ter s .
* ’

exp eri en ce h owever thes e te sts have not proved entirely s atisfactory i n
, ,

i nd icati n g the ductili ty of m aterial for d eep press i ngs so that even i f ,

they are m ad e i t i s als o advi sable to try sample sh eets i n th e di es to

a scertai n w
,

heth er they crack i n pres sin g .

B oil er plates m ust be exam i n ed for buckli ng pi tti n g s cali ng an d , , ,

lam inati on The firs t thre e d efects are self explanatory and th e latter
.
-
,
'

( whi ch als o o ccurs i n strip steel ) i s a crack i n th e plate whi ch d ivides it

i n to two thi ckn ess es an d en tirely unfi ts i t for practi cal use .

Th ey sh ould always be tested ch em ically as well as physi cally as , ,

th e form er tes t shows th e q u a lity of the m ateri al an d th e latter i ts ,

c ond ition .

B oi ler plates should have approxim ately th e followi ng comp osi ti on

C arb on 16 S ili con 01
‘ ‘

Man gan ese 25 Sulphur an d Phosph orus

'

not m ore than 04 %

‘

A s tri p about 2 wi d e cut fr om th e p late sh ould bend through an

”

a ngle of 1 8 0 an d close d own fla t ( after b ein g heated an d q uen ch ed i n

0

warm water ) wi th out cracki ng D ri ftin g tes ts on pi eces about 3 square

”
.

s hould enab le a pun ched h ole g di am eter to be expanded to

”
d iam eter .

N ON -
F ERR O U S M A TERI A L S .

N on
ferrous m aterial s are usually bought i n th e form of castings or
-

forgings an d th es e will b e dealt w ith i n C hapter V but occasionally bars

, ,

wire and sh eets o f th es e materi al s are used i n en g i n eeri ng practice

, .

Se e C h pt r I I I
a e .
 IN S PE CTI O N O F RA W M A T ER I A L S 51

C opp er and alumi nium bars and wi re are extens ively used i n el ectri cal
e ngi neeri n g as c onductors b u t th e ir beh avi our electri cally i s outsi de th e
, .

scope of thi s work an d so wi ll n ot be considered M echani cally th e

,
.
,

o nly test that n eed b e appli ed i s th e ten sil e test an d ch em i cally th e ,

p ercentage of i m puriti es should be as low a s p ossibl e to ensure th e b es t

p ossibl e c onductivity .

Th e n on ferrous m aterials general ly us ed i n thi s form are th e vari ous

-

a lloys of copp er wi th z i n c and tin called respectively th e brasses an d

,

b ronzes . Bras ses c on tai ni n g high p ercentages of copp er are m alleable

a nd ducti le ,an d as th e p ercentage of zi n c i n creas es they becom e harder
a nd m ore fusibl e All oys c onta ini ng ab out 1 5 to 20 p er cen t z in c are th e
. .

m os t duct ile an d up to 3 5 p er cen t zin c can only be cold rolled or drawn

'

. .
,

A lloys wi th 3 5 to 4 0 per cent zin c can be ei ther h ot or c old work ed

. .

G en erally th e m el tin g p oi n t of brass es us ed i n en gi n eerin g i s 9000 to

1 000 C
,
0
. Bras s w ith 6 0 pe r cen t c opper an d 4 0 per cent zi nc i s .
, .

o ften mad e i nto bars of sp ecial s ecti on by

”
extrusio n i e by forci ng , . .
,

t h e h eated i ng ot thr ough a hard en ed di e of th e required shap e by m eans

o f hydrauli c pressure Th e in g ots treated i n th is way m us t b e free from

.

b lowholes and oxide i n clusion s The temperature of worki n g mus t be

.

c arefully regulated a s i f work ed too h ot

,
th e s tructure i s too coarse and , ,

t h e bars are weak and i f too cold th e structure i s d istorted and strained
, ,

b y excess ive cold work O th er n on ferrous alloys m ay b e treated i n thi s

.
-

w ay an d the temp erature of w orkin g vari es wi th the alloy us ed .

The tens ile strength i s greatly i ncreased by thi s process and th e ,

m etal mad e m ore un i form th an wh en rolled or drawn The followi ng lis t .

g ives th e avera g e s trength o f extrud ed bars

Ten sil e s trength E longation
t ons p er sq i n . . on 2”

Alumi ni um 17 5
A lum i niu m bras s ( 8 5 — 1 0 —
5) 4T 18
B rass ( 60—40) 33 35
C opper 40
D elta M etal ( N o 1 ) .
2
0
Magnalium 10
Zinc

Th e e ffect of iro n on brass i s to harden the m etal and i ncreas e its

t enaci ty but i t i s d ifl
,
i cu lt to d i ssolve i n copp er Thi s was overc om e by a .

“5
M t l I ndustry
e a H a ndb ook , 1 921 .
52 E N G IN EE RIN G I N S PE C TI O N

special proces s and M r D i ck i ntroduced a special alloy co ntai nin g 5 5 —5 7

, .

per cent co p p er 42 p er cen t z i n c 1 2 per cen t iron an d traces of

.
, .
,
.
,

ph osph orus which was the ori gi n of the D elta m etals n ow coveri ng a
, ,

ran ge o f all oys for d i fferen t purposes .

N os 1 2 4 an d 7 are used for bars N o 3 for soli d drawn tubes

.
, , ,
.
,

an d N o 4 for sheet wi re etc O f these the las t is m os t wi d ely us ed

.
, , .
, ,

a n d is a mal leable m etal wi th high resis tance to corros ion and i s als o ,

s ui table for castin gs a nd forgi ngs I ts prop erties wil l be found i n .

Table 2 .

M on el M etal i s a n i ckel copper all oy c ontai ni ng 6 7 per cent n ick el -

, .
,

29 p er cen t copper 3 p er cen t iron 1 per cen t

.
,
an d i s use d .
,
.

for va lves pum p rods etc I t usually con tai ns also 1 0

, p er cent
,
.
‘

s i licon a nd carbo n up to 3 p er cen t i ncreases i ts s trength i n a s i milar

,
‘

m an n er ( though i n a less d egree ) to i ts effect on m i ld s teel E xcess of .

carbon causes trouble i n forgin g an d i f present i n th e graph i ti c state th e , ,

m etal i s totally u n forgeable .

I ts range of forgin g tem peratures i s 900° to 1 1 00°C r an d i t cann o t .

’

be hardened by hea t treatm en t and i s n ot readily s often ed by an neal ing at

7 00°C . Alth ough d is tin ctly magneti c i t i s not su ffi ci ently so to enabl e ,

its swarf to b e separa ted ou t fro m o ther m aterials i n thi s way I t is .

rather d i ffi cult to m achi n e on accoun t of its tou g hn ess but i s n o harder ,

tha n m i ld s teel when tested by the B ri n el l test I t has a h igh resis tan c e .

to c orrosi on and m elts a t 1 3 5 0°C , .

D uralumi n i s a ligh t alloy con taini n g 9 3 —95 per cen t alum i ni um .

,

5 p er cen t m agn esi um 3 —5 p er cen t copper and 5 p er cen t

‘ ‘

. .
.
, ,

m anganese I ts sp ecific gravi ty i s 2 7 5 to 2 8 4 an d m eltin g p oi n t about

.
,

° I t i s g en erally us ed i n th e form of sh eet an d can b e m ad e i nt o

650 C .

tubes by press i ng I t can be harden ed by heati ng an d quenchi n g bu t

.
,

reaches i ts m axi mu m s trength ab out 5 days after s uch treatm en t withou t ,

°
d ecreas e of ductili ty I f worked h ot i t m ust n ot b e h eated above 5 SO C
. .

a n d m us t be an nealed i n a sal t bath .

Magnalium i s an alloy of alumi ni um c ontai ni ng 3 1 0 p er cent of -

.

m agnes ium an d has a sp ecific gravi ty of 2 5 I t can be cas t welded an d

, .
. .

forged an d can be obtai ned i n th e form s of sheet wi re an d tubi n g

, , , .

These are so m e of th e all oys com m only m et wi th i n bar wire or , , .

sheet form Thos e m ostly en countered as cas ti n g or forgi n gs wil l b e

.

dealt w ith i n Chapter V .

J A rn ott
.
, M et a l I ndustr y X V I ,
”
.
, 17 .

t Abov 1 1 00 e
0
C M on l M t l t nds
e e a e to cru mbl u nd r e e th e h a mme r .
 I N S PE C TI O N OF R A W M A T ER I A L S 5
v
3V

N ON -
M ETALL I C M ATERI AL S .

The I nsp ectio n an d t es ti n g o f n on m etalli c m aterials does not o ften-

fall wi th i n th e provi nce of m echani cal engi neers save i n a few special ,

cases and th erefore thi s si de o f the subj ect w il l only be con sidered
,

bri efly .

S T O N ES A N D E A RT H S .

Ston es are usually tested i n c ompress ion bein g first dres sed i nt o th e ,

f orm of a cube an d then co mpressed on two opp osite faces between

,

fla t platen s i n th e compressi on t ools of a ten si le testin g m achi n e

-
.

Alternatively a sp ecial hydraulic press wi th pres sure gau ge cal ibrated

to read i n tons pressure on th e ra m m aybe used for thi s purp os e but th e
, ,

correctn ess of thi s m ethod i s bound ed by th e accuracy of th e gauge

always an un certai n quan ti ty I n any case care m ust be tak en to se e
.
,

that th e ston e i s pr operly bedded to the compres si on surface by faci n g

wi th s om e packi n g substan ce to di stribute th e load un i form ly over th e
surface Als o th e compressi on platen s mus t b e parallel t o preven t th e
.

load bei ng appli ed to on e c orn er or on e sid e of the cub e For th i s reaso n .

th e platen s sh ould res t i n S ph eri cal s ockets so tha t th ey may auto mati cally
a dj ust th em selves wh en th e l oad i s appl i ed .

The testin g of C em en t is completely described i n Bri tish S tandards

S peci ficati on N o 1 2 ( R evis ed March
. a nd to thi s i nteres ted readers
, ,

F IG . 23
‘
.
—C eme n t Te st in g M a ch in e C a p a c ity. lb
( By pe r mis s io n of II a nd T Av e ry L i d ).
, .

r t h S t nd rds
B i is a a tt
C omm i ee , 28 , I c to ria S tr t
ee , 1 .
54 E N G I N E ER I N G I N S PE C TI O N

are referred Briefl y sum maris in g th is the cem en t i s tested for fin en es s

.
,

on s ieves of 7 6 x 7 6 m esh es an d 1 80 x 1 8 0 m eshes to th e i nch th e resi due

, ,

not to exceed 3 p er cen t an d 1 8 p er cen t respectively

. Th e sp eci fi c
. .

gravity i s tes ted i n a sp eci fi c g ravi ty bo ttle ( not b elow 3 1 5 i f fresh or 3 1 0

i f over four weeks old ) and th e ch em i cal compositi on ch ecked by analysi s .

Briquettes of special shap e each havi n g a n eck area of one square i nch
, ,

are m ade i n s tandard m oulds an d are tested after 4 a nd 28 days s oakin g

,
’

i n w ater Th e briquette i s p laced i n th e grippi n g j aws o f a sp ecial tes ti ng

.

m ach i n e ( Fig 23 ) where th e l oad i s appl ied to th e S p eci m en by m eans of

.

Mm W
”

eed /e

C e m enf fi n /fe
gue

C’rrm m m s s

A15 24 . C emenf 7a m}? Ap

l
p a ra fw
/

lead shot runn in g i nto a can Th i s can I S supported at the end of a l eve r
.

system whi ch trans m its th e load to th e briquette As th e l ever rati o is .

4 0 to 1 th e ful l load of
,
lbs is produced by 3 0 lb s of S h ot When
. . .

the speci m en breaks the supply of shot i s automati cally cut off by a tri p
,

lever an d th e ca n i s hun g a t th e other end of th e m ai n lever ( or steel

yard Th e shot m ay th en be wei ghed b y a sli d in g wei ght on the
steelyard whi ch i s g raduated to rea d the actual load on th e briquette at
, ,

th e ti m e of fra cture I n testi n g care shoul d be taken to se t th e sh ot

.
'

valve so that th e load i s un i forml y appli ed a t th e rate of 5 00 lbs pe r .

m in ute to se e that th e j aws are w ell g reas ed where th ey touch th e

,
 I N S PE CTI O N O F RA W M A TER I A LS 55

speci m en an d that the load i s evenly appli ed at all four p o ints of con tact
, ,

as otherwise premature fracture wi ll take place T im e of s etti n g i s test ed .

by th e Vi cat n eedl e ( Fig 24) whi ch i s 1 m m square and i s

“ ”
. .
,

loaded wi th a weight of 3 00 gram m es Wh en this fails to mak e an .

impressi on on th e surface of th e cem ent s ettin g i s presum ed to b e c om ,

ple te .

Quick settin g 10 to 30 m i nutes

M edi um 30 to 1 20
Sl ow 1 20 to 3 00

Soun dn es s i s tested i n th e Le C hatel i er m ould whi ch has p oi nter s

1 6 5 m m l on g . Th e cyli ndri cal ( split ) m ould i s filled wi th cem ent an d
.

boi led i n water for six h o urs Th e expansi on ( after cooli ng) i s m easured .

’
a t the p oin ters an d should not exceed 1 0 m m a fter 24 h ours aerati on . .

T I M B ER .

Ti mber has recently becom e i mportan t on accoun t of its applicati o n

to aircraft con stru ction As all t i mbers are far fro m un i form ten si le tests
.
,

are valueless T h ey are al s o di ffi cult to carry out owi ng to the tendency
.
,

of the ti mber to crush i n th e gr i pp i n g tools C rushi n g tests may b e m ad e .

on cubes or short cyli nders care bei n g taken to s ee that the ends are ,

prop erly bedded i n som e soft packi n g m aterial s o that th e l oad may b e
uniform ly appli ed Axial load in g should be ass isted by spheri cally s eate d
.

compressi o n platens or ball s eats as show n i n Fi g 25 O n accoun t of its . .

lack of h om ogen ei ty consi gn m en ts should always be vi sually i nspected

, ,

and sampl es exam in ed wi th a low power m i croscope " The d efects usually .
6

found are shakes dote kn ots d ead wood and resi n po ckets an d i n th e
, , , ,

cas e of birch p i th fl ecks caus ed by i ns ects

,
“ ”
.

The i n cl in ati on of grai n to len gth a s ascertain ed by a spli tti ng tes t , ,

m us t not exceed 1 i n 1 2 for walnut 1 i n 1 0 for ash and 1 i n 20 for spruce , ,

.

M oisture has a consi derable effect on the s trength o f timb er bu t ,

sh ould not be reduced to les s than 1 0 p er cen t as further dryi n g cause s .

bri ttleness The s tan dard am oun t of m oi sture allowed for i s 1 5 p er cen t
. .

on the wei gh t of dri ed samples but thi s vari es about 2 p er cen t wi t h , .

the s easons .

Th e rate of g rowth has a cons i derable e ffect on d ensi ty an d for si lve r ,

S pruce an d si mi lar ti mbers th e n umber of an nual ri n g s should n o t b e les s

.
,

For furth r p rt icu l rs

e a a se e “7 . H . Ba rl in g on A e r opl a n e T imb rs ( R oy a l A r o n u t ic l
e e a a

S oc i tye ,
56 E N G I N E E R I N G I N S PE C T I O N

than 8 to 1 0 p er i n ch but i n ash slow growing produces a prep onderan ce

, ,

of weak S prin g wood an d i n th is case th e number of ri ngs S hould n ot

,

exceed 1 6 p er i n ch .

D en si ti es of ti mbers are expres sed i n lb s pe r cubi c f oot a t 1 5 per cen t . .

m oisture .

Walnu t 3 5 lbs cu ft . .

Ash 1 !

S ilver Spruce
I n th e cas e of fir p i n e elm a sh map le sycam ore asp en an d alder
, , , , , , , ,

wood sh owi n g an nual r ings with only a s li gh t curva ture is strongest o th er ,

thi ngs bei n g equal .

S TEEL .

RA D au s o r N O TC H E S _

1 /

S PE c I M C H a S Q .

es f P
/m/aa c / T
’
/z aa / e c ef
'

'
l
fin
.. q 5 <rA c
u r as 2 x 2

6 7 u e 7507 “ I

” m m m m m m W M
3 / /y Wood
D
’
’
fea t
ra r

B end i ng tes ts on sp eci m ens 4 0 x 1 ( wid e ) x 2 deep are now ” ” ”

generally substituted for ten si le tests Th e bea m is loaded as shown i n .

F ig 25 an d the d efl ecti on m easured acr os s a m easured length of 1 8 i nch es

.
,

a s the loads are appli ed by m ea ns of rollers an d steel saddles The load .

i s appl i ed a t two poin ts to pr oduce a length l of un iform bendi ng

m o m en t and no sh eari n g s tress a lon g whi ch m easurem en ts can b e taken ,

.
 I NS PE CTI ON OF R A W MATE RI A L S 0 0

Th e loads a nd corresp on di ng defl ecti o ns for a ny bea m are plotted i n

a curve an d th e m odulus of elas tici ty of th e ti mber calculated as follows
,

W and d are the l oad and correspondi ng defl ecti on for any p oi n t i n th e
strai ght part of th e curve .

b = b re a d th of b ea m ; h = d e pth of bea m .

E = mod ulus of elas ti ci ty of ti mber .

I Mome nt of I nertia of C ross Se c tion f b h

= = 3
s .

l 2
Then E= ‘

I Gd I

1 ”
For th in a sh a suitabl e tes t i s to b end a lath 7 thi ck round a se m i
circl e 1 8 di am eter Th e lath Sh ou ld sh ow n o s igns of fra cture
”
.

‘
.

An i mpact test has als o been adop ted for aeroplan e ti mb ers Th e .

m eth od of testi ng i s si milar to that in th e I z od tes t ( Page but th e

d i m en si on s of m ach i n e an d test pi ece are di fferent .

Wei gh t of pendulum 20 lbs ,

.

Rad ius of swi ng ,

S triki n g di stance above centre of n otch

S i ze o f sp ecim en E? square
7 ”
, .

D i m ensi on s of n otch are shown i n Fig 25 . .

The i mpact strengths of vari ous ti mb ers are

Walnut 9 ft lbs , . .

Ash l0ft lbs , . .

S pruce 4— 8 ft lbs , . .

Glued j oi nts m ay b e tested by glui n g a block with s i des 2 square ”

between two others and applyin g a load t o sh ear th e glue un ti l the j o i nt

,

fails A good j oi n t sh ould stan d

. to lbs w h en tes ted i n thi s .

way .

Three ply wood may be tested by cuttin g a s ecti on a s i n Fig 25 ,

.
,

and pulli ng the s ecti on i n a tensi le testi ng machi n e wh en th e j oin ts sh ould ,

s tand a l oad of 1 5 0 lb s p er square i nch of area Th e pli es m ay also b e

. .

°
tested for s eparati on by i m m ersi ng a pi ece about 6 x 6
”
i n w ater at 4 5 C ”
.

for 3 to 6 hours after wh i ch treatm en t th e pl ies S h ould n ot S h ow s ign s of

,

s eparation a t th e edges .

For p lywood of thi ckn es s or l ess a sp eci m en 1 2 x 2 m ay be

” ”
,

tested by b endi ng roun d a ci rcl e of 1 8 d iam eter wh en the w ood should

”
,

n ot S how S i gns of fracture crack or parti n g ,

.

Th e tes ts m en ti on ed above are m ostly for a eroplan e ti mber but may ,

be found useful i n m od ified form s for oth er classes of work .

5S EN G I N EE RI N G I N S PE C TI O N

FA B RI C S .

A ircraft fabri cs are gen erally tes ted i n tensi on and as th e load mus t ,

b e un i formly applied at a given rate the m ethod adop ted i s S i mi lar to

,

that used i n cem en t testin g Th e speci m e n i s h el d i n c orrugated grip s

.
,

care bei n g taken to en sure accuracy an d straightn ess an d the load is ,

appli ed through a c om p ound l ever system by runni ng l ead S h ot i nto a ca n ,

h un g fro m th e en d of th e steelyard I n thi s case however s tretchin g

.
, ,

of th e speci m en mus t b e allowed for an d a defl ecting m echani sm i s pro

,

v id e d to st op or divert th e fl ow of sh ot whi le stretch i s b ei n g take n

,

—F br ica st in g M chi n C p c it y
Te a e . a a a nd 240 lbs .
,

to t st f br ics up to 6 w id
”
e a e.

( B y p r mi i n of IV nd T A ry
e ss o . a . ve , L td .
)

u p by th e strain in g screw Th e m achi n e als o wei gh s th e sh ot after th e

.

speci m en i s brok en givi ng th e actual breaki n g l oad i n lb s or kilogram m es

,
. .

Th e l evera ge i s 5 0 to 1 s o that 24 lbs of shot are required to give th e ful l

,
.

l oad of lb s ( Fi g
. .

Few aircra ft fabri cs require th i s l oad and for th ese th e m ach in e m ay

be converted i nto a S in gle l ever mach i n e with a maxi m
,

u m capaci ty of 240
lbs Special machi n es for aer o fabri cs are als o m ad e wi th a capaci ty of
. ,

5 00 lbs .an d electri cally op era ted cut off gear

,
-
.
 IN S PE CT I O N OF RAW M A T ER I A L S 59

As s om eti m es there is a ten d en cy for th e l oad to b e appli ed al on g

one edge of th e specim en i t i s advi sable to put a sm all load on th e
,

m achi ne and to allow the speci men to sli p slightly b ef ore tigh ten i ng up
th e grips Thi s ens ures an even ten si on acr oss th e w idth
. .

FIG .
—G r ips for F a br ic T st in g M ch in
e a e .

The speci m ens are usually 7 l ong between th e grips and 2” wi d e

”
,

after tri m mi ng or 1 8 cm and 5 cm resp ectively

, . . They are trim m e d
.

t o obtai n the sam e number of threads i n each pi ece ( Fig .

60 E N G IN E ER I N G I N S PE C TI O N

The stan dard rate o f loadi ng for li nen fabri c i s 1 5 0 lb s p er i nch wi dth .

per m i nute Th e S peci m en i s usually s oaked i n water for 1 5 m i nutes or

.
.

m ore before tes ti n g to avoi d c ompl i cati on s d ue to the p ercen tage of

,

m oi sture i n th e atm osphere wh ich vari es fro m day to day This i n creases .

the stren gth fro m 20 to 4 0 p er cen t above that of dry fabri c Speci m en s
. .

2 and 3 wi de give resul ts ab out 4 p er cen t an d 1 3 p er cent less re spe c

” ”
. .

tiv e ly tha n would be exp ected from tests m ade on a speci m en 1 ”

wi d e .

S hort speci m en s gen erally give sli gh tly great er strength than long on es ,

owin g to th e di m i ni sh ed C han ces of fi n di n g weak places i n sh ort lengths .

I f th e ra te of loadi ng i s trebled the i ncreas e of strength i ndi cated

,

i s about 6 p e r cent .

Good fabri c gi ves ten si le results varying about 7 p er cen t to 1 0 p er .

cen t an d po or qualiti es vary up to 20 p er cen t

.
, .

Fabri cs are als o j udged by w ei gh t after exam i nati on for faul ts i n

m anufacture Li n en fabri c for aeropl an e work S h ould not e xceed 4 ozs
.
-
.

p e r square yard an d sh ould give ,m in i mu m ten s il e tests of 9 2 lb s p er i nch .

w id th o f warp an d 95 lbs p er i nch wi dth of w eft

, . .

C otton fabri cs vary fro m 3 8 to oz s p er square yard and give .

,

s trength of 7 0 to 28 lbs p er in ch wid th respectively

. .

B all oo n fabri cs m ay als o b e tested by clampi n g speci m en s betwe en

i ron ri ngs an d applyi n g pressure fro m an air pum p u n ti l th e fabri c gives
way . Gas ti gh tn ess m ay be tested i n a s im i lar way by observin g th e
quantity o f gas whi ch passes through a fabri c di sc un der a given di fferen ce
of pressure .

For tyre an d oth er i ndustrial fabri cs tensi le tests si m i lar to th os e ,

applied to ai rcraft fabri cs m ay be used but larger speci m en s sh ould b e ,

e mployed .

Fabri cs used a s fri cti o n surfaces clutch an d brak e fabri cs ) S h ould

b e tested for ten si le strength but are better t ested on runn in g surfaces
, ,

th e a m oun t of p ower absorbed a t di fferen t sp eeds an d pressures and th e ,

c o effi cien t of friction bein g m os t i mportan t

-
.

Ferod o fabri c h as a ten sil e s trength of ab out lbs p er square

i
.

in ch a nd a c o e ffi ci en t of fricti on of ab ou t 3 0 und er average runn in g

‘
-
,

c ondi ti on s but n aturally thi s varies wi th th e form of th e surface an d i ts

,

c ondi tion wh eth er dry or lubri cated

, .

Rubber i s tes ted t ens i onally i n th e S chopp er testi ng m ach in e .

T h e sheet i s cut i nto r ings whi ch are m oun ted on r ollers a s S h own i n
Fi g 28 Th es e are rotated as th e speci m en stretch es by m eans o f th e
. .
, ,

rack and pi ni on shown The load i s appli ed by water pressure from th e

.
 IN S PE CTI O N OF RAW MAT ERIALS 61

town main s an d i s m easured by rais in g a weigh ted p en dulum wh i ch

, ,

rema in s i n p osi ti on when th e sp eci m en breaks i ndi catin g th e breaki n g ,

Ju t/ end ed flee /
s

5 0 m pend u /u m na’k a for

fiy fa/ ’
of a U rc
a /er M
War/red éy fiV am fi r
efl y / e

F IG . 28 .
—D i g r a a m of Sch opp r e t ns il t st
e e e for
R ubb r e .

load . O ther tes ts for rubber are outs id e th e s co pe of th e ordi nary

engi neer an d are best d ealt with by exp erts .

O I L S A N D F UE L S .

For d ealin g adequately wi th th is p orti o n of th e subj ect a separat e ,

'

treatise would be required but as i t has already been des cribed at len gth
,

i n other works a gen eral sum mary only wi ll b e given h ere

, .

O ils are requi red either for their lubri cati n g prop erti es or for thei r
value as fuels an d the e ngi neer i s only concern ed t o kn ow wh ether h e i s
,

getti ng good value for hi s m on ey T o a certain exten t this wi ll b e .

d emonstrated i n practi ce but to avoi d trouble d elay an d exp ens e tests

, , , ,

are advisabl e wh en placi n g contracts an d to se e that th e condi ti ons of the

c on tracts are adhered to by th e suppliers .

Th e obj ect of lubri cation i s to keep two m etalli c surfaces separated

by a th i n fi lm of oil Th e vi scosi ty of th e lubri cant i s tested by a R edwood
.

Vi scosi m eter by m ean s of whi ch a volum e of th e oil ( rais ed to th e

n ecessa ry temperature ) i s allowed to run through a hol e at th e b otto m of
62 E N GIN E ERI N G I N S PE CT I O N

th e vess el , m m d iam eter an d 1 2 m m l ong Thi s allows 5 0 cubi c

. . .

c ent i m etres o f rap e oi l at 60 F to pass thr ough i n 5 3 5 se e s

°
. and th is ,

ti m e i s taken a s a stan dard Th e thi nn in g of oil at hi gh temperatures i s

.

tested by th i s i nstrum en t an d is an i mp ortan t fact or i n m os t lubri cating

,

O i ls . M ineral o ils are better than vegetabl e oi ls i n th is resp ect .

Flashpo in t i s th e tem p erature at whi ch th e oil gives off vapour wh i ch

w i ll burn i n air . obvi ously undesirabl e for thi s to b e low Los s o n .

Sec tu nml V ie w of
“
l
Ra i way a wl r
Rec o d i ng Pa tt erns .

fig Tfi u rjfan j
s Ma c / h e ”

fj/r I V H B a rV
’
. 5
ey <
”
Ma n cfief fe /j
h eatin g sh ould als o b e low for the sake of ec onomy S om e o i ls have a .

t endency to beco m e gum my wh en exposed to the air and th is together , ,

w i th aci dity ( whi ch pr om otes corros i on ) shoul d be avoi ded .

C hem i cal analys is i s th erefore advi sable an d i f p ossible a distillati on

,

s h ould be m ad e to d eterm in e the quan ti ty an d nature of res i due left a fter

b oilin g For run ni n g tests sp eci al m ach ines such as th e Thurston

.
, ,
“ “

o il tester ( m ad e by W H Bailey
. . C o ) m ay be used ( Fi g
. .
 I N S PE CT I O N O F RA W M A TE R I A L S 6 33

Fuels are gen erally ass ess ed on thei r heati ng value as th e obj ect ,

i s to ob tai n th e greates t p ossibl e number of h eat uni ts for a given

expendi ture S oli d fu els sh ould be carefully sampl ed fro m all p arts of
.

t h e cons ign m ent an d after careful m ixi n g breaki n g up an d successive

, , ,

quarteri ngs of th e samp le th e final p ile sh ould be tested by h eat ( after

,

p ulveri s ing to a fi n e powder ) to obtai n th e a m oun t of m oi sture and ash

p resen t .

I t should th en b e tested i n a bomb or oth er calori m eter to ascertai n

its heati ng value but i f burnt i n a Mahler b omb th e pres sure of oxygen
, ,

s hould exceed 20 atm osph eres as o th erwi se results are lik ely to b e l ow fi
f

G aseous fuels are tes ted for qual i ty by a nalys is an d for h eati ng value by ,

th e Junker or other s i m ilar calori m et er For further parti culars and .

d escrip tion of th e vari ous calori m eter s em pl oyed the reader i s referred ,

to
“
Th e C alorifi c Power of Gas
‘

by J H Coste ( Griffi n
,
”
C o ) where
.
‘

. .

th e whole m atter i s exhaustively dealt with .

For liqui d fuels chem i cal analys is wi th sp ecific gravi ty an d flash

,

p oi nt tests for l igh t fuels an d disti llati

,
on to exam in e the quan ti ty a nd

q uali ty o f resi due will give all n ecessary i n form ati on C alori m etri c tes ts .

sh oul d b e m ad e for all fuels as i t m ay b e m ore eco nom i cal to pay m ore for
,

a fuel becaus e i t h as a h igher h eati n g value per poun d than the cheap er ,

vari ety I n th e cas e of c oal too th e comp osi ti on of the ash m ay be a

.
, ,

d eciding factor owmg to i ts free d o m or oth erwi s e from cli nkeri n g troubles
, .

E p r im n ts
x e e on a B om b Ca l or im t r e e . E n g in r in g D c
ee , e e mb e r 2a d , 1 91 0
.
 CHAP TE R V

I N S PE CT I O N O F PA R TLY FI N I S H E D MAT E RIAL

As previ ously explai ned this chap ter d eals wi th m ateri al upo n which
,

a certa i n am oun t of engi neeri ng work has be en don e but which requi res ,

furth er m achi n i n g or other adap tati on before i t can form part of th e fi nis hed
arti cle.

C A STI N GS .

Th e i nsp ecti o n of castings m ay be cons idered under two h eads viz , .

,

m aterial an d di m en si onal i n specti on I n th e cas e o f i mportan t casti ngs

.
,

tensi le tests should b e taken fro m each cons i gn m en t as i t arrives a t th e

works an d th e batch of cas ti ngs S hould n ot b e m oved un ti l the results of
.

thi s test are known .

I n th e cas e of m i ld steel or m alleable iron cas tings an impact tes t ,

i s also advisab le th e form er generally givi n g 1 5 to 20ft lb s and th e

, . .

latter about 5 ft lbs when tes ted by th e I zod test

. . When an i mpact .

m ach in e i s not obta i nable a b en d tes t may be subs tituted bu t thi s i s n ot

, ,

s o s earchi n g as th e i mpact test I n d oubtful cas es a che mi cal analysi s

.

i s advisable an d thi s m ay b e supp lem en ted by m icroscopi c exam i nati on

, ,

which i s especially us eful i n the case o f alloys I t sh ould be noted that .

chem i cal analysi s i s not a n i n fal libl e gu id e i n co nsi dering th e sui tabi li ty
of m any materials a s th e s tructure or d isposi ti o n of th e vari ous con
,

s titue nts has an i mp ortan t e ffec t up on th e physi cal prop erti es of such
m aterials and up on their general suitabi lity for en gi n eerin g p urp os es I n .

thi s con n ecti on th e m icroscop e is a very useful accessory .

I n m ak i n g tens il e an d i mpact tes ts it i s advi sable wherever pos sible , ,

to cut th e test pi eces ou t of th e castings thems elves Thi s i nvolves th e “

s crappi ng of us eful casti n gs but th e cost m ay b e m i ni m ised i n m any

, .
,

i n stan ces by cuttin g up casti ngs that are rej ected for s om e physi cal
,

faul t such as i n correct d i mens ions fl aws etc Many founders obj ect to
, , .

this practi ce as th ey can usually get better resul ts fro m tes t p ieces sp eci ally
,

cast for the purp os e an d suppli ed wi th th e cas ti ngs

,
They prefer .
,

therefore to supply test p ieces and thi s propos iti o n i s attractive to buyers
, ,

a s i t saves scrappi ng actual casti ngs .

64
 I NS PE CT I O N OF PARTLY F I N I SH E D MAT E RI A L 65

There are s everal obj ecti ons to th is practi ce however I n th e firs t .

place there is usu ally n o proof that the tes t pi eces have been cas t fro m
’

th e sam e m etal an d at the sam e ti m e as th e casti n gs C ases have b ee n .

kn own where a quan ti ty of test pi eces were mad e fro m a sup eri or grad e
of m etal i n th e early stages of th e con tract and on e or two of these wer e ,

s ent i n with each c onsi gn m en t of castin gs The practi ce of casti ng tes t .

pieces on actual castin gs does n ot entirely rem ove th i s p ossibil ity as ,

obvi ously th e casti ngs to whi ch th e test pi eces are attached need n ot b e

of the sam e grad e a s th e casti ngs whi ch for m the bul k of th e supply .

I t may be obj ected that no reputable foundry woul d d o this s ort of

thi ng but th e fact rem ai ns that i t h a s bee n d on e in th e past an d i f th e
, ,

reputation and character o f supplyi n g firms i s to b e taken as an i n fallibl e

safeguard i nspecti on of any ki n d i s su pe rflu ou s f Further th e thi cknes s
, ,

and mas s of the tes t pi ece are generally very di fferent from th ose of th e
actual casti ngs so that conditions of c oolin g i n th e two cas es are by no
,

m eans si m i lar Th is factor has a great influen ce on th e physi cal properti es

.

of m any castings s o that even i f th e tes t pi ece i s cast at th e sam e ti m e

, ,

a s the actual casti n gs th e phys i cal properti es of tes t pi ece an d castings

,

may be very di fferent i n deed I t i s s om eti m es argued on b ehalf of th e .

'

found ers that th e practi ce of casting te st pie c e s allows th e vari ous grades
,

of material to be com pared under s im i lar cond iti on s Th is i s true and is .

useful from th eir p oi nt of vi ew but i t mus t be rem emb ered that th e use r ,

i s n ot parti cularly i nterested i n th e s trength of m aterial und er th e con

d itions ob tai n in g i n th e tes t pi ece but i n th e actual stre ng h of th e cas ti n g ,

itsel f . C asti ngs are not hom ogen eous and owi n g to vari ati ons in ,

thi ckn ess of s ecti on i nternal radi i condi ti on s of cooli ng m ixin g of m etal
, , , ,

and oth er condi ti ons s om e parts are weaker than others Tes t p iece s
, .

should therefore be cut as far as pos sibl e n ear to th e p lace wh ere th e

, ,

maxi mum s tress i s exp ected so that th e factor of safety m ay b e ascertai ned
,

with reas onabl e accuracy .

A S casti ngs con tract i n co ol in g lack of un i formi ty i n th ickn ess is liabl e ,

to cause contracti on cracks an d fl aws parti cularly i n th e case of steel ,

castin gs Th es e are often covered by scal e and are i nvisible on arrival a t

.
,

th e works I t i s advi sabl e therefore t o pi ckl e hi ghly s tress ed casting s

.
, ,

( such as axles ) i n dilute Sulphuri c Acid to rem ove th e scale After thi s
*
.

treatm ent any cracks or fl aws are sh own up d istinctly and th e faulty
, ,

castings m ay b e weed ed out After p i cklin g th e aci d must b e thoroughly .

,

M i tur x e : 1 p rt c id
a a to a bou t 30 of wa t r e . K p Sp c ific G r v ity
ee e a b v h \ d rome te r at

a b ou t
66 E N GI N E ER IN G I N S PE C T I O N

wash ed ou t of the cas tin gs wi th h ot water I r on casti ngs are o ften cracked
“

i n transit and wh en received th e br oken castin gs m ay be s orted out by

, ,

a ri ngin g test mad e by tappin g the cas ti ngs wi th a ha m mer whi l e

”

, ,

s uspend ed freely i n air S oun d casti ngs give a clear n ote whi le cracked
.
,

o n es s ound addl ed ”
.

Sp on gy places an d bl ow hol es are not usually apparen t on th e outsi de

of Cas tin gs ,
but are reveal ed by m achi ni n g th e surface I n th e case of .

casti ngs for sm al l gears i t i s advi sable to i nspect these after rough turn i ng
,

a s oth erwi s e a go od d eal of ti me may be thr ow n away in cuttin g teeth on

faulty cas ti ngs as teeth br ok en up by blowhol es and sp ongy places are
,

g en erally useless S uch teeth not o nly s crap th e gear i tself by break in g
.

off i n us e bu t ten d to crumble Up and th e s mal l p ieces carried away by th e

, ,

lubri cati n g oil an d greas e are liable to wear away o th er gears and b eari ngs .

f ‘
or H07 a n d Co/a ’
W fe r fi
a
r
efl y / e
“

fi s h }?

W A T EZ R MA IN

( CO L -D )

O v c mfr e o w

5 TE A M C o ' s -5

M any casti ngs such as cylin ders pumps etc are required to b e
, , ,
.
,

s oun d under water p ressure Thes e are usually tested by pumping water
.

or oil i n to them und er a pres sure th a t i s usually fro m two to four ti m es th e

worki n g pressure ( Fi g For i mp ortan t aeroplan e w ork where v ery

.

thi n cas tings are used a b etter plan is to i m m erse the castin g i n water
,
.

and p um p air i nt o i t testin g for leak s i n th e sam e way as a b icycl e

,

tyre i s tested for p unctures Spongy places are reveal ed by bubbl es of

.

air escapi ng fro m th e faulty sp ots .

M on obloc an d oth er cyli nder casti ngs for i nternal co mbusti on wor k
 I N S PE C TI O N O F P A RTLY FI NI S H E D M A TE RIAL 67

a re better tes ted with wa rm water a s thi s often reveals faul ty p laces that
c old water testi ng does not d etect .

I f th e casti ng i s n ot very p or ous ( in th e cas e o f iro n and steel ) i t

may b e fil led w ith a solution of s a l am m oniac or other rusti n g agen cy and ,

left for s everal w eeks by whi ch ti m e th e porous place i s o ften

t

,
m ad e u p -
,

a nd th e casti ng i s th en sound enough for m os t purposes Th e sam e resul t .

may frequen tly be ob tai n ed by l eavi ng th e C as ti n gs i n th e open air to

“
weather for p eri ods varyi ng fr om on e to six m on ths S om e casti ngs
”
.

a re mad e w ater ti gh t by galvani si ng but th is is s om ewhat exp ens ive as

-
,

they m us t b e thorough ly clean ed before bei ng coated .

Alumi ni um casti ngs m ay be m ad e tigh t by dopi ng wi th water glas s

( sodium si li cate s oluti on
) After d opi ng . all trace o f th is substan ce m ust
,
’

b e rem oved by thoroughly washi n g w i th h ot w a te r to p revent furth er

c orrosi on Th e exact p r ocedure i s lai d d own i n Air B oard Speci ficati on
.

N O M8 .
*
C asting s of co mpl icated form that have n o grea t pressure to
.
,

wi ths tand m ay b e tested by pluggi ng up any hol es and fillin g wi th para ffin
, ,
.

T h is wi ll fi nd ou t any bad places that are likely to be troubl esom e i n

p ractice . Gun m etal an d other copper alloys m ay be i mproved by enam el

o r other n on m etal lic coati ng
-
but care sh ould b e tak en to see that th e
,

c oating i s n ot li ab le to chip off as otherwi se the s mal l p ieces of e na m el

,

m ay caus e troubl e I t i s better to apply th e coati ng to the outsi d e of th e

.

c asti n g i f th i s can be m ade satis factory a s then there is no p os sibi li ty of

,

c ontam inati n g the worki n g fl ui d .

A great trouble with s teel cas tin gs i s san d whi ch is fused i n to th e

s urface owi n g to th e h igh casti n g tem perature Thi s can som eti m es be .

r em oved by pi ckli n g bu t usually san d blas tin g i s n ecessary

,
I n very .

o bdurate cas es i t m ay b e n ecessary to d op e or pai n t th e surface o f th e

,

c asti ng to stick th e san d i n pos i ti on and preven t i t dropp in g i nto lubri cati ng

o il or oth er worki n g fl ui d Thi s i s a poli cy of desperati on h owever and

”

.
,

s hould n ot b e adopted save as a las t res ort I t is th e insp ect or s duty ’

, .

t o se e that the c a s tings sen t for m achi ni ng are s oun d and free from sa n d
’

o r s c a le as th e latter m ay caus e m any exp ensive tools to be scrapp ed

, ,

a nd earn for th e castings a n und eserved reputati on for hardn ess Hard .

sp ots are a frequen t troubl e i n i ron m alleable an d s teel ca sti ngs and , , ,

g en erally resul t fr om bad m ixi ng or local chi ll i ng but these can usually ,

b e detected only by mach i n in g A Bri nell test wi ll often separate ou t

.

c astings that are uni form l y hard and require ann eali ng but i t is n ot a ,

s afe guid e to the ten si le strength of th e casti ngs th em s elves .

N ow i ssu d by
e th e r t sh S t nd rds
B i i a a C ommi tt ee .
68 EN G I N E E RI N G IN S PE C T I O N

Th e exten t to whi ch di m en si onal i n sp ecti on of cas ti ngs is taken ,

d ep en ds up o n th e s cal e of op erati on s I f thousan ds o f s i m ilar casti ng s .

are required un der a m ass producti on sch em e m ach i n i ng allowan ces an d ,

wei ghts are reduced to a m i n i mum an d th e casti ngs m us t fi t accuratel y

,

i n the j igs provi ded for m achi ni n g Wi th s mal ler quan titi es m ach i ni n g
.
,

oper ati on s wi ll not b e s o clo se and i nspecti on n eed n ot b e so rigid

, .

For quan ti ty producti on of cas ti n gs th e allowabl e variation in ,

di m ensi on s i s very s mall i nde ed as th e cos t of m ach i ni ng i s reduce d to a

,

m i n i mu m an d cas ti ngs usually have locati n g spots or faces fro m whi ch

,
.

th e firs t op erati ons co m m en ce I f th es e are d isplaced th e wh ol e of

.
,

th e subsequent operati on s are a ffected An i ns tan ce i n p oi n t i s a cylind er .

casti n g where such d i splacem en t throws a ll th e bori n g ou t of p ositi on so ,

that one si d e of each cyli n der i s unduly thi n D i storti on an d wear of .

pattern s often causes th e m ach i ni n g of c astin gs to b e thrown out to such

an exten t that s om e surfaces wi ll not clean up and irregular th ickn esses ,

of m etal are com m on i n such cas es Thi s emphasis es th e n eces si ty for

.

peri odi c exam i nati o n o f pattern s so that castings m ay b e kep t as c lose

,

as p ossibl e to stan dard si z es an d shap es S om eti m es an arran gem en t is

.
.

m ade whereby th e founders them selves keep pattern s i n order but wh er e ,

'

large quan titi es of cas ti ngs h ave to be m ad e thi s work is bes t p erform e d ,

by th e firm wh o have to m achin e th e casti ngs as they know bes t th e ,

'

d iffi culti es m et w i th i n producti on A m an should th erefore be kep t for

.
'

th e sole purpos e of fol lowi ng up d iffi culti es m et wi th i n m achi ni n g casti ngs ,

a n d to se e that all patterns are k ep t true and i n good worki n g order H e .

th us becom es a S ort of li as on offi cer between th e I n specti o n D epartm en t ,

M achi n e Shop Buyin g O ffi ce an d Foundry but hi s duti es are funda

, , ,

m en tally i nsp ecti o n ( Fi g 3 1 Report of Rough Vi ewi n g an d M arkin g

.
,
-

O ut )
.

The repairing of faulty cas ti ngs i s a matter that n eed s careful s cruti ny .

Many casti ngs showin g fl aws are repaired by p atch in g or w eld ing a nd ,

when thes e arrive a pro of test of s om e k i n d i s advisabl e to se e i f th e

,

repai r has been p rop erly d on e Many so cal led weld s fai l to kn i t togethe r
.
-

th e s ides of the fl aw a nd s i mply cover up all external i ndi cati ons of th e

,

d efect wi thou t curi n g th e trouble

,
Th is i s l ik e attemp tin g to cure a
.

can cer by coveri n g i t wi th a plaster I n s uch cas es th e fl aw sh ould b e .

chipp ed out i n th e form of a Ve e groove an d th en weld ed up Th e ,

.

operati on of h eatin g up th e cas ti n g for weld in g i s very liabl e to form

cracks elsewh ere an d th e castin g should be vi ewed m os t careful ly afte r
,

th e weld in g h as b een don e Wh en lugs are burn t on to casting s

.
 I NS PE CT I O N O F PARTLY F IN I SH E D MAT E RI A L 69

particularly i n the case of alum i ni um casti n gs th ey sh uld be exam ined

( ) o

wi th a stron g magni fyi ng glass an d tapped gently wi th a ham m er to se e

i f th e weld is s ound G enerally alum i ni um welds are not very s atisfactory
. .

Welds i n stee l an d iron casti ngs ( i n cases where a proof load cann ot b e -

R E P O RT OF ROUGH MARK I N G O UT .

D scr ipt ion

e

P rt N o
a . S uppl i d e b\

( o Dr w in g N o )
r a .

Sp c ific t ion N o
e a . Ca st in g s or F o r g in g s
Q u n t ity
a

G n r l
e e a Co nd it ion a nd F in ish

R port
e on M r k in g
a O ut

G n r l R
e e a e ma r k s

Vie w e r .

P rc n t
e e a ge R j ct i ns
of e e o

( A ppr ox ) .

employed ) S h ould be r ough mach i ned before pass i ng i nto stores to ascertai n
wheth er th e weld i s s ound and whether th e m aterial used for weldi n g is
,

t oo hard to machi n e Th e latter i s a frequen t fault W elded castings

. .

S hould be an n ealed before u se W eldi n g is als o l i abl e to d istort mach i ned

'

surfaces an d ther ef ore faulty cast ings sh ould be thrown out as early as
,

p os sible so that such d istortion may be all owed for T his p oint sh ould
, .

b e born e i n m i nd by the i nspect or w h o sa ncti on s repairs by weldin g .

70 EN GI N E E RI N G I N S PE C T I O N

A LL O Y S .

The pri nci pal non ferrous allo ys us ed i n casti ngs are the copper a nd1
-

al um i n ium alloys .

Brass va r i es i n c om p osi ti on wi th th e si z e an d us es of th e casti ngs , ,

but gen erally i t con t ai ns ab out 6 7 — 7 0 p er cent copper th e remai n de r .

,

bein g m os tly zi n c As com m on m ateri als are used h owever i mpuri ti es

.
, ,

are boun d to b e i n tr od uced Fro m 1 per cen t to 3 p er cent of l ea d

'

. . .

faci litates m ach i ni n g but als o reduces tens il e s tren gth Up to 2 pe r

, .

cen t th e prese nce of ti n i ncreases hardn es s but th i s c onsti tuen t sh oul d

'

.
,

not excee d 3 p er cen t as bri ttl en es s i s als o i ncreased

. .

M untz m etal i s usually c omp osed of 6 0 per cent c opper an d 4 0 pe r .

cen t zi n c but th e percentage of copp er vari es fro m 5 7 to 6 3 p er cen t

.
, .

I t i s forgeable at 7 5 0 an d i f quen ched fro m thes e temp eratures

becom es h arder an d s tronger but i s les s ducti le I ts te nsile s trength is , .

ab out 22 t on s per square i nch an d el ongati on 4 0 p er cent ,

.

M an gan es e bras s or bron ze contai n s 5 8 6 0 p er cen t c opp er 4 1 — 3 9 .

,
“

p er cent z i nc an d m an gan es e up to 2 per cen t

.
, S om e m anganese .

bron zes however c on tai n very li ttl e m angan es e and as th ey con tai n li ttle
, , ,

or no ti n th ey are n ot br on zes Alum i n ium and ti n are generally presen t

.

up to 1 p er cent an d s om eti m es a li ttle ir on i s al s o presen t I ts tensi l e

.
,
.

strength is 4 1 t on s per square i n ch el ongati on 24 p er cen t an d m eltin g ,

.

p oi n t S7 O C
O
.

Th e m os t i m p ortan t of th e br onz es i s Gun M etal whi ch covers a ,

ran ge of al loys a v eragin g about 8 9—9 0 per cen t copper Thi s has a . .

ten sil e s tren gth of 1 5 t on s p er square i nch and an elongati on of 1 5 pe r

'

cen t Adm iralty gun m etal contai ns 8 8 per cent c opper 1 0 per cen t
. .
,
.

tin and 2 p er cent zi n c and h a s a ten si le stren gth of 1 5 t on s per squar e

.
,

°C
i n ch wi th an el on gati on of p er cent I ts m el tin g p oi nt i s 9 8 5 . .

Ph osph or Bron z e i s gen erally us ed as a hard bearin g m e tal and for

‘

thi s purpos e sh ould contai n 5 to 1 0 p er ce nt ph osph orus M any m aker s ‘

supply l ess than thi s am oun t bu t i n th is cas e th e bearin g i s too s o ft for h eav y
,

l oad i ng I ts ten sil e s tren gth i s 1 0— 1 8 ton s p er square i n ch and elon ga

. ,

tio n 6—1 0 p er cen t For exces sive wear th e p ercen tage of ti n sh ould b e
.

kept hi gh A typi cal an alys i s i s z— C opper 8 6 p er cen t ; z i nc 1 5 pe r

.
,
.
,

cen t t i n 1 1 6 p er cen t ph osphorus 9 per cen t

.
, .
,
‘

Alumi n ium Bron z e usually con tai n s about 1 0 p er cent alumi ni u m .

for cas ti n g purposes I n dry san d an d C h i ll casti n gs respectively i t h as

.
,

an el asti c l i m i t of 1 0 an d 1 4 ton s p er square i nch U lti mate strength 25 .

,

an d 3 0 tons a n d el ongation 2 an d 8 p er cen t ,

.
 I N S PE CT I O N O F PARTLY F I N I S H E D MATERIAL 71

D elta M e tal i s made i n s everal grad es for d i fferen t purp os es

N o 1 H igh tensi l e forgin gs an d casti ngs Tensi le stren gth .
,

—
. .

40 ton s p er square i nch an d elon gati on 1 8 20 p er cent ,

.

N o 2 S ilv er bron ze for rods forgi n gs and casti ngs

. .
,
.

N o 3 Special for s oli d drawn tubes

. . .

N o 4 ( Various grades ) m alleabl e bronz e ten si le s trength 24

. .
, ,

ton s p er square i nch ; elon gat ion 21 per cent For ,

.

casti ngs forgi ngs stampi ngs wire etc , , , , .

N o 5 An ti —. fri cti on bronze for b eari ngs

. .

N o 6 I mproved gun m etal for cas ti ngs

. . .

N o 4 Hi gh temp erature br onz e for castings stamp ings etc

. .
, ,
.

N o 8 9 an d 9 a VVh ite a nti fr i cti on metals

.
, .
'

-
.

N o 4 al loy can b e cas t i n san d an d chi ll m oulds an d ham m eri ng col d

.
,

co nsi derably i ncreases i ts strength rai si n g th e ten si le s tren gth 60—7 0 ,

p er cen t O n accoun t of galvani c action i t S h oul d n ot b e p laced i n con tact

.

with copper or gun m etal i n se a water or oth er corrosive fl ui ds I ts ,

.

forgi n g temp erature i s 5 5 GO C an d forgi ngs m ade at this temperature .

,

have a tensi le strength of 3 4 ton s p er square i nch an d an elongation of 25

p er cen t .

Alum i ni um C opper Zi n c Alloys are greatly us ed for aeroplan e an d

m otor engin e cas tin gs Sand cas ti ngs wi th 1 2—1 4 per cen t z in c an d 2%
. .
,

to 3 p er cent copper have been us ed extens ively for crank cases an d oth er
.

i mportan t cas tin gs but thi s alloy i s l iabl e to p orosi ty O f i mpuri ti es l ead
,
.
,

sh ould n ot exceed 1 p er cent si li con 1 p er cent an d iro n 1 p er cen t .

,
.
,
.

This alloy has a tensi le s tren gth of 1 1 tons p er square i nch an d an elonga ,

ti on of 4 per cent I ts sp ecifi c gravity i s 3 0

. .

For ligh t di e casti ngs a n alloy of 1 1 to 1 3 per cen t copper wit h ,

.
,

i mpuriti es zi n c an d lead not m ore than 1 per cent si lico n an d i ron n o t

,
'

.
,

m ore than 1 0 per cen t an d the res t alum i ni um has b een extens ively
.
, ,

us ed I t h as a t ensil e s tren gth of 9 ton s p er square i nch an d i s us ed for

.
,

p iston s and other s mall parts I ts speci fic gravi ty i s .

W H ITE M ETAL S .

Thes e c onsi st of hard crystals embedded i n a comp aratively s oft

ground m ass or m atrix an d are chiefly used for l ini ng b eari ngs Th e
,
”
.

forces on beari ngs consi st of a compres si on stres s due to th e l oadi n g

For furth r infor m t i n

e a o se e A l u min iu m A l l oys for A r opl n
e a e E n g in s e , by Pr of .

F . C . Le a , A r on a u t ic l J ourn l N ov
e a a , e mb e r , 1 91 9 .
 7

72 EN GI N EE RI N G I N S PEC T I O N

a nd a tens i le s tress pr oduced by fri cti on I f th e compressi on stres s

e xceeds th e compress i on yi eld po in t of th e m atrix th e latter will give ,

way th e hard crystals will be f orced downward s an d th e bearin g will fai l

, ,

b y wear an d spread i ng I f th e ten si l e stress exceeds th e yi eld p oi n t of

.

th e m atri x i n tensi on the hard crys tals wil l be torn ou t and the b earin g
,

fai ls by s corin g .

I n b oth compres si on and ten si on a ti n base all oy i s superi or to a lea d

b ase alloy an d ti n bas e alloys are gen erally used for beari ngs Ti n bas e
, .

a lloys however ,
rap idly deteriorate by burn ing i f overheated for any length
,

o f ti m e whi le l ead bas e all oys are n ot greatly a ffected

,
M echani cal tes ts .

a re n ot of any great value for bearin g m etals Th e s cleroscop e i s som e .

w hat m ore d elicat e than th e Bri n ell te s t b u t n either of them is o f m uch us e ,

in determ i ni n g th e sui tabil i ty or o therwi se o f whi te m etals for beari n g

work C hem i cal analysis and m i cro structure are th e bes t i nd icati on s
.
-

a va ilabl e for th is purp os e .

Th e e ffect of vari ous co nsti tuen ts on ti n base al loys i s as follows

Anti m o ny—I n creas es hardn ess wearin g quali ti es an d bri ttlen ess ,
.

B i smuth —Should only b e pres ent as a trace to act as fl ux .

C opper —Preven ts segregation and i ncreas es hardn es s I f m ore .

than 5 per cen t pres ent prom otes bri ttleness an d .

,

tend ency to crack .

—U ndesi rable i n creases hardn ess an d brittlen ess

,
.

—I n creas es fl uidity and ductili ty N ot m ore than . 1 p er

cen t .

Ni ckel —I n creases ducti li ty and less en s li abi li ty to crack i f not

m ore than 5 p er cent ‘

Pro m ot es rigidi ty an d i ncreases weari ng qual i ties . Is

pri m e factor i n cost .

C reates tend ency to s ei ze an d i n creases hardness and ,

brittlen ess Un desirabl e . .

Alloys havi n g a Bri nel l hardn es s of 3 4 h ave been found to h ave an

a pproxi mate com press ive s trength of lb s p er square i nch an d a t .
,

20 a stren gth of
,
lb s p er square i nch before cracki n g but thi s
. ,

i s con siderably a ffected by rate of cooli n g Th e cast i ngs should be c ooled .

rap idly to preven t th e separation of anti m ony ti n cub es whi ch have a ,

tenden cy to ris e to th e top of th e m etal

“

"
A n t i F r ict ion rn
B ea i g M e t a ls ,
b y P W Pr i stl y
.
'

. e e . Me ta l I ndustry . 1 920 .
 I NS PE CT I O N O F PARTLY F I N I S H E D MATE RI A L

F O RGI N G S .

Forgi ngs an d dr op stampi ngs are so m etimes ordered fro m outs i d e

c ontractors an d i n other i ns tan ces are m ad e at ho m e but i n th e latter
, ,
”

cas e th e gen eral p rocedure for i nspecti on i s s i m ilar to th e form er th e ,

s mi thy bei ng treated as an outsid e firm supplyi n g forgi ngs to th e s tores .

H ere agai n a s i n the case of castings th e i nsp ecti on procedure i s subj ect
, ,

t o consi derati on s of quanti ty When large quan tities of comparatively s m al l

.

forgi ng s are required th e machi ni n g m us t be cut d own to the s mallest

,

p ossible a m ount an d m ust be d on e i n j igs Forgi ngs are n ot usual ly m ad e

, .

w ith su fficient a ccuracy to give th e best results an d also h ighly s ki lled ,

m en are n eeded to produce th em esp ecially i f they are at al l co mpl icate d

,

i n form . D rop s tampin gs ca n be m a de to approxi mate very cl os ely to

th e fi ni shed form of the arti cles requi red but as th e cos t of si nki ng th e
,

d i es n ecessary for m akin g th em is comparatively great an d th e ris k of

, ,

d i es breakin g i n use i s con si derabl e i t does n ot pay to produce drop

,

forgings i n s m all quanti ties ( usually n ot l es s than 1 Th e fundam ental

d i fferen ce b etween the two m eth ods of forgi n g 1 5 as foll ows z —Han d or
p ower ham m er forgi ngs are m oulded by a large numb er of comparatively
l igh t blows but drop s tam pi n gs are m oulded by a few h eavy b l ows T h e
,
.

weight of drop s tamps ranges from 1 0 cwt to 6 t on s an d th e hei gh t of

.
,

fall is usually about 5 to 6 feet Th e force of th e blow i s regulate d b y,

.

varyin g th e height of l i ft As drop stampi ngs are com i ng largely i nto

.

favour for ligh t engi neeri n g and rep eti ti on work they wi ll be consi dered
first .

B efore insp ecti on al l i mportan t drop s tampi ngs should b e p i ckled

,

i n d ilute sulphuric acid a rid th oroughly brus hed wi th han d or revolvi n g

,

wire brush es to remove the s cal e whi ch adheres to th e surface and h ides
d efects . Th e aci d sol utio n should have a s pecific gravity of about
a nd th e brush es
( ab out 9 d iam eter ) should revolve a t a sp eed f ab out
”
o

8 00 revoluti on s p er mi nute .

S eam s an d laps are form ed in the stamp i ng by incorrect formati o n

p ri or to placi ng the red hot m etal i n th e d i es Th e steel b i llet fro m whi ch
.

th e stamp in g or forgi n g i s to b e m ad e i s heated i n a c oal gas or oil fired

, , ,

°
furnace un ti l i t reaches a un i form temp erature of about 1 1 00 C It is , .

then withdrawn an d ( where necessary ) rough ly forged un der the rough in g

s tamps to a S hape approxim ati n g to the fi nished form of th e stampi ng .

Thi s i s to ensure the d ies bei n g fill ed with m etal and to econo m i se material
,

a t th e n ext op eration . I f thi s preli m i nary formati on is not prop erly don e
th e di es m ay spl i t or th e m etal m ay fai l to fill th e d ies and faulty s tamp ings
74 EN G I N E E RI N G IN S PE C T I O N

resul t . I f a s li gh t fold i s produced duri n g th e formi n g op erati on or ,

i n th e d ies ) thi s wi ll be h am m ered i nto th e body of th e forgi ng as shown

i n F ig 3 2 an d will produce a hair li n e
.
, Th ese h ave a very si mila r .

appearance to th e seam s i n s teel m en ti on ed in C hap ter 4 but th e two ,

faults ca n be d i sti ngui sh ed from on e a noth er i n two ways I f a secti on .

‘

i s cut through on e of th e s eam s or laps i t wi ll generally be foun d tha t ,

m aterial faults are rad ial an d p oi n t toward th e cen tre wh ile stampi n g
, ,

laps are obliqu e as sh own i n Fi g 20 Als o as s tamp in gs are form ed b y

, . .

th e fl ow o f m etal ( i n a p lasti c state ) m ateri al faul ts wh i ch ori gi nate with ,

a flaw runn in g a long the steel bill et always follow the l in es o f fl ow of th e ,

m etal whi le stamp i n g faults usually occur near chan ges of s ecti on or dee p
,

gap s i n th e stampi n g an d often d o n o t follow th e l i ne of flow a t all I t

, .

is i mp ortant to m ak e thi s d istin cti on as wh en s tamp ers are pai d by th e ,

pi ece i t is n ecessary to cred i t them n o t wi th the number of s tampi ngs

, ,

produced but wi th th e number p assed as good by th e i n sp ector I n thi s

, .

5 ; 32 f ma f/O fl of Zap: m E ly/77g don/n

Rou nd Jed /a n:
cas e th e s ta mper will b e credi ted wi th th e work perform ed on faulty
m ateri al but i f th e faults are due to th e m ethod of f orgi ng or stampi n g
, ,

h e i s not paid for th e n u mber rej ected I t i s n ecessary therefore for th e .

, ,

i nsp ector of stam pi n gs to b e an experi enced m an wh o can say defi ni tely

wh ether rej ected work is due to th e m ateri al or operator D efects of thi s .

ki nd are not so prevalen t i n forgi ngs as th e form ati on of laps can bette r ,

b e s een an d p reven ted an d o ften th e operat o ,

r has m ore sk il l an d
exp eri ence tha n th e drop forger Further th e am ount of machi nin g .
,

allowan ce on rough forgi ngs i s generally greater than on drop forgings ,

an d thi s gives a better chan ce o f mach ini n g out th e d efect at a later stage .

O verheated or burn t m etal has been sp oi led by heati n g th e m etal i n

th e furnace to 1 3 00 C or m ore I t m ay be due to one en d or corner o f th e
°
,
. .

bi llet bei ng exposed to fl a me i n the furn ace or to th e latter being k ep t a t ,

too h igh a tem perature The b es t check on thi s is to obs erve th e tem pera
.

ture of th e furn aces period ically wi th a pyrom eter ( or S eger Con es ) and to
s elect well d esign ed furn aces where the fl am e cann ot i m pi nge on th e
-
,

arti cl es tha t are b ein g heated I n i mportan t cas es h owever a furth er

.
, ,

precauti on i s advi sable nam ely to have a walking i nsp ector i n th e stam p
, ,
 I N S PE CT I O N OF P A RTLY FIN I S H E D MATE RIAL 75

shop or forge to watch for cases of overheatin g on th e sp ot F orging s

, , .

deem ed to be m ad e at too h igh tem peratures sh ould be s tam ped by h i m

i mm ed iately Thi s n o t only serves as a dan ger si gnal to th e i n sp ecto r
.

wh o exami nes th e s tamp in gs when cold b u t acts as a deterren t to th e

,

operator ,
w h o has b een kn own to s crap th e s tampi n g f orthwi th wi thou t
subm itti n g i t for i nspecti on and paym en t .

FIG . F la sh o f ox e rh e a te d st a pn
m i g .

A rel iable m eth od of detecti ng cas es of overheati ng i s to exami n e

the flash wh ich i s sh eared off th e stampi ngs after forgi ng Thi s bei n g .

th e thi nn es t part o f th e stam pi n g i t wil l show by i ts crumbled an d ragged

,

outl in e w h en forgin g has b een d one at too high tem perature ( Fi g . .

Burn t stam p ings m ay b e detected i n the vi ew roo m a fter pi ckl in g by thei r ,

coars e surface Usually covered wi th a n etw ork of fi n e cracks where th e

,

material has crumbled under th e ham m er an d by their coarsely crystalli n e

,

fracture wh en broken .
76 E N GI N EE RI N G I N S PE CT I O N

Th e di recti on of fl ow of m etal i s an i mportant p oi n t i n all forgings .

Gen erally s teel bi ll ets h ave a grai n “

wh ich run s i n th e d irectio n of
‘

rolli n g an d th e forgi n g should be so m ad e that the mai n stresses co m ing

,

u pon i t i n practi ce li e a lon an d n ot a c ross th e grai n Thi s i s a poi nt

g .

'

w orthy of n oti ce by i nsp ectors as for their own conveni ence s m ith s an d , ,

fig 3 4
.
O w ed /0 0 o f fi ére
[ fl

s tampers m ay reduce cons id erably the strength of forgi ngs by i n correct

form ati on i n thi s respect ( Fi g . .

Wear i n d i es i s resp on sibl e for much trouble causi ng heavy forgi n gs ,

a nd d i sp laci ng l ocati on sp ots for m ach in i n g M any stampi ngs are .

s crapped through d ies becom i n g o ffset so tha t th e top d i e i s ou t of

”

li n e wi th the botto m I f th e am oun t of o ffs e t i s greater than th e m ach i n in g

.

a llowan ce s tam pi n gs fai l to cl ean up i n m achi n in g or wh en m achi ned

, , ,

ins id e th e walls becom e too th i n locally

, .

fly jf Off er a nd f ac e n/r/ c d u e fa d /ej

”

fy g/fi
”

_ _
‘
a s

S om ewh a t ak i n to this i s th e fault o f eccen tri city When th e top d i e .

c o nsi sts of a p eg wh i ch m ak es a reces s i n th e s tamp i n g ( as shown i n

Fi g 3 5 ) th e i nsi d e becom es eccentri c w ith th e outs ide an d fai ls to mach i n e

.

u
p . Th e bes t way to exam in e for th is faul t i s to m oun t th e stampi n gs on
a p eg whi ch can b e rotated A li ttl e exp erience will m ak e vi ewers qui te
.
 I N S PE CTI O N O F PARTLY F I N I S H E D MAT E RIAL

expert i n j udgi n g fro m th e spinn i ng tes t whether th e stampi ngs

, a re

usable or not ( Fi g
. .

For m easurin g th e thi ckn es s of s tampi ngs an d cas ti ngs th e ,

indicatin g calip ers an d s li di n g vern ier shown on page 1 1 7 are very

useful but as far as p ossibl e fixed
, go and
,
n o t go
“
gauges an d
”

p late temp lets sh ould b e used The first casti ng or s tamp i n g of a s eri es
.

should always be marked ou t an d a report o f th e defects found should b e

-
,

sen t to the founder ors tamp er at the earli est p os s ib le m om en t Thi s sh ould .

be rep eated when a defin i te number of cas ti ngs or s tampi ngs have been
received so that a C h eck m ay b e k ep t up on th e con diti on of th e p attern s
,

or di es .

As th e identificati on m ark s tam ped on th e s teel b i llets or bars is

e ffaced duri ng th e op erati on of stampi ng thi s should be written or stamp ed
,

on th e Progres s or other card whi ch acco mpan i es th e b atch of arti cles to

fig 2
7 5 ; 5pmm rzp 7bé/e fi r f ore /2797 6
.
’

foxy/ fig s 6’ C
’

th e vi ew room After the articl es have bee n i nsp ected thi s m ark shoul d
. ,

b e stamp ed on every one of th e forgin gs preferably i n a p lace wher e ,

there I S n o m achi n in g or i f thi s i s i mp oss ible i n a p lace fro m whi ch it

, ,

wi ll n ot b e m ach i ned off duri n g the first few op erations Th is tran sference .

of the i den tificatio n m ark i s m ost i mp ortan t as i t i s obviously useless to

,

i naugurate an iden ti ficati on system i f th e m arks are not p erm anen tly
retai n ed C as ti ngs S hould al so be m arked after i nsp ecti on wi th symbols
. ,

ind icati n g the foundry from whi ch they were obtai ned I mp ortant casti n gs .

and forgings are als o occasi on ally giv en seri al numb ers so that they ca n
be traced indivi dually i n case of troubl e .

A useful procedure i n c omplicated casti ngs i s to cu t the earli er sample s

i nto s ections so that th e thi ckn ess of th e vari ous walls m ay be check ed
,
.
78 EN GI N EE RI N G I N S PE CT I O N

D i e casti ngs are now mad e for s mall pi eces where m aterial of lower
“

s trength than iron i s ad m is sib le or wh ere i t i s d esi red to get a g ood fin ish
,

t o avoid m achi n i n g They can be m ade correct to fi m, i n small s izes ”

l
. .

Alum i ni um alloy p i st on s are o ften m ad e of d ie casti ngs but must b e care ,

fully watched to s e e that the speci fied tensi le strength i s adhered to and
t hat th e castings are C lean an d sound .

Any dirt or s cum getti ng in to th e di e app ears i n the surface o f the

c astin g duri n g m ach i ni ng and is l iabl e to damage the cutti ng t ools
, .

S oundness i n these and other casti n gs m ay be checked b y a water or a ir

p ress ure test S m all levers are o fte n m ad e i n thi s way but i f cast with
.
,

b osses of c omparatively large s i ze are liabl e to have large con tracti on

cavi ti es at th e p oi nt where the arms j oi n the boss es Thi s may be asc e r .

t a ine d by breaki n g a p ercentage o f the l evers Brittl e m aterial m ay be

.

d etected by clampi n g the bos s to a ri gi d supp ort an d tapp i ng th e

u nsupp orted arm l igh tly wi th a ham m er Thi s test m ay be standardi sed
.

for d i fferent si zes of lever by us in g a s m all fallin g wei gh t The h eight .

o f fall m ay b e s tan dardi sed for d i fferen t levers an d m arked on th e g u id e

rod Th e casti n g o f wh ite meta l i n bearings ( parti cularly aero engi n e

.

c onnec tin rod beari ngs

) n eed s to b e carefully watched a s n ot only i s
'

g , ,

th ere a tend en cy to get unsoun d m etal but th e whi te m etal i s liable to

,

strip away from th e b ody of the beari n g A go od practice is to tap th e .

b eari n g li ghtly on th e back an d als o to stri p an o ccasi onal bearing to se e

wh ether the wh ite m etal is adheri ng properly Fail ure i n thi s resp ect i s .

gen erally due to faul ty cl eani n g or tinn i ng b efore th e whi te m etal i s

p oured .

Tubes and pip es mus t be exam ined for si ze an d s oundn ess C old .

dr aw n tubes m ay be obtai n ed w ithi n l i m i ts of 0 04 i n s izes up to 1

” ”

d i am eter b u t thi s accuracy i s only required when the tubes have to fi t

,

in side o ther tub es or bushes The outsi d e an d i nsi de d iam eters may be
.

c h eck ed w i th gap an d p lug gauges respectively but i n th e cas e o f s m al l ,

copp er tubes i t i s advi sabl e to have an air or steam n ozzle close by to test
if th e bore i s cl ear . I n s om e i nstan ces straigh tn ess i s n ecessary an d to ,

t es t thi s i t i s us eful to h ave a flat table alon g wh i ch th e tubes can b e roll ed .

Any bendi n g or surface d e fects are observed whi le rolli n g the tubes one
b y one alon g th e tabl e . I n cas es wh ere great strength i s n ecessary a n ,

intern al burstin g test i s appli ed by hydrauli c pressure .

*
C opp er an d brass tub es for locom otive work are usually tested at th e
rate of 1 per cen t . by bul gi ng dri fti n g flan gin g an d fl atten i ng tests
, , ,
.

r t sh Std S p c ific t io n
B i i . e a No . 24 .
 I N S PE C TI O N O F P A RTLY F I N I S H E D M A T E RI A L 79

I f the origi nal d iam eter of th e tub e is D ,

th e f ollowi n g tests are
a pplied

C opper . B rass .

B ulging or dri fti ng dia i -

m eter of enlarged end ) 1 29 D 1 29 D

Flangin g—di a of flange . D 125 D

Flatteni ng Tub e m us t Tube m ust

fl atten a nd flatten a nd
d oubl e over double over
F
( g
i . b oth wh en when col d .

cold an d
red h ot
m
.

I n addi tion to thes e m echani cal tests copper an d bras s boi ler tubes
, us t
w ithstan d a hydraul ic pressure of 7 5 0 lb s p er square i n ch . .

f }?3 7 _ 7é 5 f5 far Coo/oer a? fi rms: Tu be:

.

I n the case of c old draw n steel tubes for aeroplanes the process of ,

m anufacture m ust be wa tch ed wi th the utm os t care to ensure p erfecti on i n

e very way . The tubes must be sm ooth true to secti on free fro m s cale , , ,

d irt specks l on gi tud i nal seam s lam i n ati on groovi ng an d bli sterin g b oth
r
, , , , , ,

i nside and outsid e The li m its for round tub es are i 004 for tubes of
.
” '

" d ia
‘

2 diam eter or under an d,

.

for tubes over 2 ”

d iam eter . The m ean
5 00
i nsid e diam eter must not be less than the correct outsi de d iam eter mi nus
t wice th e m axi mum perm i ssible thi ckness n or greater than sam e m inus ,
80 EN GI N E ERI N G IN SPE C TI O N
7
‘

twi ce the m i n i mu m perm i ss ible thi ckn es s Oval and speci al secti on tube s .

a re s cheduled i n Air B oard Sp eci fi cati on s T 1 1 and

Th e m ean thi ck n ess m us t n o t be less than th e sp ecifi ed gauge an d ,

m ust ot exceed i t by m ore tha n 004 except tub es thi cker tha n 0 6 ” for
n ” ‘

whi ch th e tolerance i s to b e 7 — 2
p er cen t of their thi ckn ess The li m i t of. .

un i formi ty i n thi ck n ess al on g the tube i s —1 0 per cen t an d 1 5 p er cent . .

,

an d th e d eparture fro m strai gh tn ess mus t not b e m ore than of th e

len gth of th e part that is ben t .

Ten si on and com press i on tests are mad e as received and i f hard ,

drawn an d blued furth er ten s ile tests are m ad e after s oft eni n g to prov e
'

, ,

that the m eta l i s not un duly s oft a fter an neali n g at the en ds for weldin g
or brazi n g Full parti culars of th e standard to be attai n ed for aircraft
.

tubes are to be foun d i n Ai r Board Speci fication s TI to but flatten i n g

FIG . 38 .
-
C om pr ss ion t st
e e on a e o r pl n tub s
a e e .

crushi n g an d b en di n g tests are als o sch ed uled for tub es of d i fferen t k ind s
and m ateri als Hard drawn an d blued tubes must s tand fl at ten in g unti l
.

th e s id es are apart n ot m ore than three ti mes th e thi ckn ess of the m etal
( no t m ore than six b lows to be us ed ) an d crushi ng unti l th e outsid e
d iam eter i s i n creas ed in on e pl ace by at least 25 per cen t or unti l one com .
,

ple te fol d i s form ed ( Fi g . N o crack m us t be obs ervabl e after ei ther

.

of th ese tes ts Ann ealed tub es m ust stand fl atteni ng un ti l the s i des are clos e
.

togeth er and mus t s tan d crushin g unti l one fold i s form ed or th e d iam eter
,

i s i ncreased by 25 p er cen t i n one place S o ft tubes of l es s tha n g

.
" .

0 ° roun d a radius not greater

diam eter m ust stan d bein g ben t through 9
than 1 0 d iam eters without s eri ous d eformati on i n sectio n or showi n g sign s
of fai lure .

N ow issu d b y B r it ish S t nd rds C ommitt

e 28 V ict or i S tr t S W J
a a ee , , a ee , . . .
 CHAP TE R VI

I NS PE CTI O N O F F I N I S H E D MAT ERIAL

Th e testi ng of material arrivi ng at the works i n th e fin ished state is

necessarily a di ffi cult prop osi tion as i n m any i ns t an ces the vari ous parts ,

are fitted together an d i n m os t cas es a go od deal of m achi n in g work has

,

been done up on them before di spatch I f proo f tes ts can be mad e to chec k .

the quali ty of m aterial wi thout scrappi ng th e parts th em selves the proble m ,

i s solved but i n m ost Cases i t i s n eces sary to s crap som e of the p arts for
,

testin g purp oses thereby l osi n g n ot only th e value of the m aterial b u t

, , ,

the work done upon i t An external i nspector may be employed to check

the m ateri als us ed at th e suppli ers w
.

orks and to bri ng back unm achi ne d ’

samples for i n sp ecti on an d testi n g but unles s this system i s suppl em ente d ,

by a bon di ng arran gem ent at th e suppliers works the m eth od i s open to ’

many obj ecti ons I n m o st cases h owever i n sp ection has to be done upo n
.
, ,

receipt of the goods .

After d i ssemblin g casti n gs an d f orgi n gs m ay be cut up for ten si l e

,

and i mpact tests for mi cro exam inati on or analysis accordi n g to th e

,
-
, ,

condi ti on s i n each cas e an d th e i mp ortance of i nd ivi dual parts S om e .

pieces are suffici ently un i mp ortan t to escap e wi th d im en si onal i nspecti o n .

only or even wi th n on e at al l
, .

I n the case of springs a proof test consi sti n g of a tens ion or com
,

pressi on load is put upon each spri n g to ascertai n whether th e rate of

exten si on or compressi on c orresponds with that lai d down on the drawin g .

At the sam e tim e the di m en si on s un loaded an d at full load shoul d b e

,

checked to en sure i nterchan geabi li ty ( Fig A l l spri n gs sh ould be tes ted . .

ei th er at th e makers w orks or upon receip t by s craggin g

’
Th e spri n g ,
.

is l oaded i n th e cas e of a l am inated sprin g un ti l i t i s fl at ( or i n th e cas e of

, ,

a coil spri n g un ti l i t i s solid ) by press in g upon i t wi th a plun ger an d

,

rapi dly rel easin g th e load th is O perati on b ei ng repeated a number of

,

times depend i ng upon th e d esi gn o f th e spri ng

,
*
.

Thi s test reveals hi dden de fects i n th e m aterial and i s also i ntende d ,

to indi cate th e resi lience of the spri n g th e d i men si ons of whi ch sh ould b e ,

unchanged after th e s craggin g test .

For R il w y R oll in g S t oc k spr in g s

a a se e r t sh St nd rds Sp c ific t ion
B i i a a e a No . 24 .

( B r it ish S t nd rds C ommitt

a a ee , 28 V ict or i S tr t
, a ee ,

81
82 ENG I N EE R I N G I N S PE C T I O N

I n the cas e o f la m inated or leaf spri ngs leaves m ay be taken succes ,

s iv e l for tensil e tests as follows

y
‘

lst C ons i gnm ent T op leaf o f 1 sprin g .

2nd 2nd n

3 rd 3 rd

A nd so on I n thi s way i f a 5 lea f sp ri ng i s used new spri n gs can be

.
,
-
,

m ade out of the rem ai n ing leaves so that i n e ffect only 1 compl ete sprin g , , ,

i n 5 consi gnm en ts i s d estr oyed though all the con si gn m ents are tested
, .

FIG . 39 . T st in g C oil nd L min t d Spr in g s

for e a a a e

(e l ctr ic lly dr iv n ) c p c it y 4 t on s
e a e ,
a a .

( By p r m i i n f li d T A r y L td )
'

e ss o o . an . ve , .

C hai n sals o m ay be tested by pro of l oads the usual procedure bei n g ,

t o t ak e length s of ab out 9 0 feet at a ti m e ( Fi g and tes t these to a load .

s p eci fied by the exa mi n i ng b ody ( Ll oyds B oard o f Trad e Three , ,

li nks are cut out and tes ted i n ten si on un ti l th ey break and th e m i n i mum ,

break in g s tren gth i n these case s is als o laid d own by th e vari ous exam ini ng
bod ies .
*
Th e tw o h a lves of th e chai n are c onn ected by a speci al l ink put
i n after th e break i n g test has been m ade an d th e pro of l oad th en appli ed ,

a s des cribed above Wi re h em p and cotton ropes may be tested i n a

.
, ,

For L l oyd s ’
a nd o th r R u l s
e e se e E n g in r s Y r ee
'
ea B oo k , by H R K . . e mp e ,

M . I nst C E S ct ion V
. . . , e .
 I N S PE C TI O N OF FIN I S H E D MAT E R I A L 83

s imi lar m an ner b u t usually only sh ort l engths are tested to destructi o n
,
.

I n this case care must be taken not to cut th e wire or rope i n th e grip s of
,

th e testi n g m ach in e as thi s wi l l cause th e tes t p iece to break at a low load

,

and wi ll not give a true in di cati on of th e strength of th e m ateri al Special .

f orms of grips are suppli ed by testing m achi n e m akers for th e purp os e .

( Fig .

P f n
i

fig . Gf / ar Conf/m/ oc/j U
J a /fl

The exam ination of hard en ed or heat treated work is on e o f the m os t

-

important and m ost di ffi cult tasks se t before an i n spector as the outs ide ,

appearan ce of the material gives very iittle i ndi cati on of its suitabi l ity or
o therwi s e for th e requirem en ts of th e j
ob .

for [ CI/ Q? £0 95

I n case harden ed w ork i t i s not only necessary to se e that th e surface i s

h ard but that the i nteri or or
, , c ore i s sati s factory and als o that the
, ,

i n te rnal c onditi on of the case i s g ood .

A case hardened part consists of two di sti n ct p orti on s °

( I ) A n outs id e shell of hard bri ttl e m aterial,

case wh ich
i s a high carb on steel an d i s des ign ed to res ist wear a nd to reduce
,
84 E N GI N E E RI N G IN S PE CT I O N

frictio n i n run ni ng ; an d ( 2) a soft core of tough m aterial for the purpos e

of withstan din g shocks
( Fi g .I f there is a sudden tran si ti on between
.

cas e a n d core th ere i s a great tend en cy for th e hard cas e to break awa y
,

“ ”
fro m th e core as a S hell so that whe n the fractured surface is
,
”

exam i ned there shoul d b e a gradual trans i ti o n from the hard whi te cas e
,

to the s o ft grey core I f th i s is too gradual h owever th e toughn es s of

.
, ,

the core i n s mall secti on s m ay be i mp air e d so that th e ca se S h ould n ot b e ,

d i ffused or spread too far i n to th e core For a si m ilar reason the cas e .

m us t not b e t oo th ick especially i n hard en ed gears as then th ere i s insu ffi

, ,

FIG . 42 —F. r ctur

a e of c s h rd n d p rt
a e- a e e a ,

sh ewi ng Ca s end aC or e .
”

ci en t backi ng of soft m aterial to give s trength to th e t e e th whi ch are l iabl e ,

to break off un der sho ck A th ick case als o h as a ten den cy to chip
.

especially on corn ers or at th e top of gear teeth I t is therefore advisabl e

, .

to avoi d corners wherever p oss ibl e ( Fig Th e opposi te extrem

. e o f .

thi n case S hould also b e avoi ded as th e thi n layer o f hard material has a
,

ten den cy to crush un d er h eavy loads an d th e hard particles n o t only caus e ,

the fai lure of th e gear i n ques tion but get i nto the lubri catin g oil an d ,
'

wreck other gears an d beari ngs Th e cas e shoul d b e fin e grai ned but not
.
,

crystall in e as i n th e latter cond i ti on i t i s l iable to break or chi p off

,
.

Th e core also sh oul d be tough an d comparatively fibrous as i f crystall i n e ,

or hard i t i s li able to break un der S h ock or vibration E xtrem ely fibrous .

c ores h owever are not always good as th ey m erely i ndicate th e presen c e

, , ,

of excessive sla g i n th e s teel an d are n ot an evidence of qual ity

, .
 I NS PE CTI O N OF F I N I S H E D MATE RIAL 85

The
surface of cas e hardened work i s bes t tested wi th a s econd cut
fi le wh ich sh oul d n o t b i te i n to hard work
, I t i s a m istake to rub thi s .

backwards an d forward s along the w ork m any ti mes as once or twi ce i s ,

suf fi ci en t an d further rubbi ng only wears away the file an d con siderably
,

reduces its l i fe S om e work i s locally tem pered to give extra toughnes s

.

to the case at the expense of hardness an d i n such i nstances th e fil e

, ,

S h oul d j ust bi te Th e am oun t of bi te to be allowed i s purely a m atter of

.

e xperien ce an d vari es i n d i fferent classes of w ork I n s om e i n stan ces th e

, .

scleroscop e is a useful i nd icati on of hardn es s but th e ball tes t shoul d n ot ,

be appli ed a s i t has a ten dency to start crack s i n the case an d i s al so a n

, ,

incorrect i ndicati on of hard nes s as the ball i s p artly fl atten ed owi ng to th e ,

fact that i t i s very li ttl e i f any h arder than th e surface tested Th e bal l
, , .

fi e / efl f 7/7 /c / m6 5 5 6 5
'

f{7 f 1420 “
af fli
on jff e /n/l of Ge a r 7é e fb

C O R E

tes t h owever is a good i ndi cati o n of th e cond i ti on of th e core and may

, , ,

be used with advantage as an auxil iary to opti cal exami nati o n on fractured
surfaces .

The conditi on of th e core may further b e i nvesti gated by taki ng tensi le '

a nd i mpact tests after heat tre a tme nt a s described on p 4 9 I f though t . .

advisable a travel lin g i nspector m ay put numb ered an d s tamped test p ieces
,

in the carburi si ng p ots th e oth er arti cles i n the p ots bei n g si m ilarly
*
,

stamped After hardeni ng the fracture of the tes t pi ece m ay b e taken a s

.
,

an i ndi cati o n of the condi ti on o f the other work carburised at the sam e tim e .

I n doin g thi s care m ust b e taken to se e that the tes t pi ece i s m ad e

,

of th e sam e s teel as th e other arti cles covered by th e tes t ,

and als o that the s ection of the tes t pi ece i s approxi mately equal
a nd si mi lar i n form to th e oth er arti cl es i n the batch Th i s can b e .

Th e pr oc ss
c s h rd n in g i s om t im s t r m d c rb on is in g bu t t h is t r m s h ould b
e of a e a e s e e e e a ,
e e

r str ict d to th pr oc of r duc in g subst nc by th ppl ic t ion of h t to p rt icul r

e e e ess e a a e e a a ea a a a

f or m of c rb on a in th c s of r t ort in g c o l
, as Fo th s k of cl r n ss it i
e a e e d i b l to a . r e a e ea e s a vs a e

a d opt d ist inct iv t r m for th e p n tr t ion of c rb on int o st l o oth r m t r i ls nd th

a e e e e a a ee r e a e a , a e

word c rbur is in g b in g c onv n i n t on fo th purp os i us d in th is b ook

a ,
”
e a e e e r e e, s e .
86 ENG I N EERI N G I N S PE CT I O N

d on e i n th e case of gears for ins tan ce by sendin g to th e hardeni ng sho p

, ,

all gears scrapped i n m achi ni n g Th ey can then be cut i nto a number of .

section s radially and one secti on used as a test p i ece for every 20 si mila r
,

gears carburised O n e s crap gear wi ll thus produce suffi ci en t test piece s

.

to cover 8 0 or 1 00 S i m i lar gears .

I f th e tes t p iece d oes n ot sh ow satis fact ory results one of th e actua l ,

arti cl es m ust be broken I f sti ll u nsati s factory thi s broken article m ay be

.
,

us ed as the test pi ece when the arti cles are again hea t treated ( if thi s is
p ossib le ) I n all cases i t i s essen tial that the test pi ece shall b e given
.

exactly the sam e treatm ent as th e articles covered by th e test an d al s o ,

that the physi cal condi ti on of the test pi ece be fore heat treatm ent shoul d
b e S i mi lar to tha t of the other arti cles i n question I f the latter are .

n ormali sed then th e test pi ece must als o be n orm al ised before proceedi n g
,

wi th the heat treatm en t as s i mi l a r results cann o t b e expected from

,

di fferen t starti n g p oi nts .

Any di scon tinuity of the case caused by a crack or seam i s a source of

tr oubl e an d where th ere is heavy pressure as i n cams rockers etc suc h
, , , ,
.
,

d efects are s uffici ent i n m any cases to j usti fy rej ecti on C racks are always .

bad a nd sh ould be stri ctly avoid ed but seam s i f not O p en a t the edges
, , , ,

are not ne cessarily fatal .

There i s often a d i fficul ty i n l ocati n g th e source of surface crack s an d ,

th ey are usually attributed to faulty m aterial or harden in g so that workm e n ,

m ay b e pai d for work d one upon th e rej ected arti cles O n i nvestigati on .
,

h owever i t often appears that surface crack s are caused by gri ndin g
,

troubles a m ong wh ich are th e foll owi ng — Excessive p ressure on wh eel

,

too deep cut ) i n su ffici en t supply of c ooli n g fl ui d wron g grade o f

, ,

wheel or wr on g gri n din g speed W hen on e or m ore of these factors is

, .

pr op erly adj usted th e troub le frequen tly di sappears

, .

I n s om e i n stan ces i t i s necessary to leave s oft certai n parts o f case ,

hardened arti cles s o that furth er work m ay be don e upo n them after th e
,

hard en in g proces s This i s gen erally don e by machin i n g off th e case after
.

carburi si n g ( an d before hardeni n g) by c opper plati n g the part to b e kep t ,

soft or by enclosi ng the latter part i n san d cla y or o ther protective m edia
, , ,
.

Th ere are also special pai nts on the market for preven ti ng carbon p en etra
ti on . I f for som e reas on th e preven tive i s n o t sati s factory and th e
, , ,

protected part b ecom es fairly hard tap s or dri ll s m ay be broken in the ,

w ork A com m on procedure i s th en to heat up th e work l ocal ly to ass is t

.

i n rem ovi ng th e brok en tool s After thi s i s don e the arti cles S h ould b e .
,

return ed to the vi ew roo m for hard eni n g i n specti on as frequently th e ,

 IN S PE CT I O N OF FIN I S H E D M A T ERI A L 87

harden ed part is m ade s oft by thi s process wi th disastrous con sequen ces to ,

th e fini shed arti cl e Th e writers have i n mi n d a number of cam —

. shaft s
which gave con ti nual troubl e by se I z mg up i n en gi nes Great care wa s .

taken on these shafts to se e that th e runn in g surfaces were hard but wi th ,

ou t avail. O n i nvesti gati on it was f oun d that a s mall hole had to b e

,

drilled n ear th e end bearin g i n the erecting sh op an d i f th e drill brok e in ,

thi s hole the shaft was heated up locally to rem ove the br ok en p iece
,
.

C onsequen tly al l th e care tak en i n hardeni n g was wasted as th e en d ,

bearin g was softened i n the final assembly A ll re c tifi c a tions of thi s.

nature should therefore be n oti fied to th e i n spect or on th e j ob an d th e ,

arti cles them selves sh oul d be sen t back to th e vi ew roo m for exam i natio n
a fter th e recti ficati on process has b e e n pe rforme d .

Local s oftn es s on the case m ay be due to two causes I f the quench in g .

m ed ium ( water or oil) is d irty or unsui table c ooli ng of th e surface wi ll

, ,

proceed m ore S l owly i n s om e parts than i n oth ers and con s equently soft ,

sp ots or patches will be obtai n ed So ft patches m ay also resul t fro m

.

gri ndin g op erati on s , as i f th e surface bec om es heated ( owi n g to i nsuffi ci en t

coolan t or excess ive pressure ) the case m ay crack or s oft sp ots m ay b e
,

obtai ned A fi le test sh oul d therefore be i mp os ed on all hard en ed surfaces

.
,

af te r rind in D istorti on i s a very prevalen t troubl e wi th hardened gears

g g .

and gauges and i t i s often very d i ffi cul t to tell i n whi ch di rection d istorti on
,

will take place G eneral ly articles distort m ore wh en harden ed i n water

.

than i n oi l but m uch tr ouble may frequen tly be avoi ded by careful
,

quench in g .Long thi n arti cles such as ca m shafts should always b e

, ,
-
,

”
d ipped en d on an d not sideways and i n other cases exp eri m en t wi ll ,

show th e best way of quen ch ing an obj ect to avoi d distortion .

Hardeni n g troubles m ay also be traced to th e qual ity of

“

carburisi n g com poun d us ed an d i t i s advi sabl e to check thi s by an alysi s

,

at frequen t i nterval s Th e f ollowi n g are typi cal analyses o f carburi sin g

.

compoun ds i n com m on use

Water 8 76-
5 89 -
3 05 1 -42
O il 03 0 1 9 86
-
1 4 00
-

C arbonace ous Matter 8 3 -1 9 7 9 -5 0 5 39 3 25 -1 9

Ph osph oric Aci d 6 57 19 17
Li m e 2 47 -
1 0 80
-
319 3
S i li ca 4 42 0 66
Sulphuri c Anhydride ,

Ferri c O xid e
Alum in a
88 E N G I N EE RI N G I N S PE CT I O N

The comp oun d sh oul d be free fro m S ulphur as thi s has a very ,

d ele terious e ffect on th e case .

Al so s om e comp ounds shri nk cons iderably duri n g th e h eatin g p eri od

, ,

a nd i t wi ll be foun d that wi th such comp ounds the arti cles at th e top o f

each box becom e un covered during the carburi s in g p eriod unles s d ue ,

a llowan ce i s m ad e for thi s shri nkage .

Th e testi n g of h eat —
treated w ork wh i ch i s not cas e hardened i s usually ,

p erform ed by cutti n g up on e arti cle i n 5 0 or 1 00 in to ten si le an d i mpact

test p i eces an d taki n g the results obtain ed as repres entative of the whole
,

c ons ignm en t I t is n ecessary h owever to make sure that the h eat treat
.
, ,

m ent has been uni formly app li ed an d that the vari ous arti cles are all m ade ,

of s im ilar steel For th is purp os e th e B ri n el l test i s a very useful gui d e

.
,

a n d i t is customary to speci fy Bri nel l li m its o n m aterial specificati ons s o ,

that i f any of th e arti cl es are outsi de these li mi ts when tes ted they are sent ,

back for re heat treatm ent or rej ected altogether I f he at treated work
-
,
.
-

fails to m eet th e sp eci ficati on after th e th ird heat treatm ent i t is advisabl e ,

t o s crap i t Gen eral ly large forgi n

. gs such as crank shafts or axles sh oul d , ,

n ot d i ffer in B rine ll diam eter by m ore than 2m m a t any two p oi n ts an d

_
'

.
,

m edi um carbon s teel forgi ngs shoul d have B ri n ell i mpress ion s between 4 0
a n d 4 6 m m d iam eter after h eat treatm en t I f th e i mpress ion s are sm aller
’

. .

th an 4 0m m the work is l ikely to b e bri ttle an d i f greater than

‘

.
,

4 6 m m it is s o ft an d p oor i n tensi le strength I t S h ould be emphasi sed

‘

. .

that the Bri n el l tes t is on ly a n approxi m ate guide to th e tens il e stren gth of
th e m aterial but i s of great value i n deci di ng un i form i ty of heat treatm ent
,

a n d i n detecti n g m ixi ng i n th e s teel or other m aterial suppl ied .

Forged tes t pi eces are occasi onal ly sen t wi th th e work but it i s ,

p referable ( though m ore costly) to cut up a n actual forgin g after h eat treat
'

m en t on accoun t o f th e di fferences i n secti onal area form an d si ze I n

, , , .

th is con n ecti on scrap forgi ngs are very use ful , These S h ould be heat .

treated wi th th e consi gnm en t an d then cut up for test I f test pi eces are, .

s ent, th ey sh ould always be attached to th e forgi ngs them selves or i n th e , ,

cas e of drop forgings to th e fl ash fro m wh i ch the f orgings have b een

,

s h eared
( S ee Fi g
. .

For arti cles havi n g surfaces of dep osi ted m etal si lver or n i ckel
p lated work ) th e first p oi n t to b e n oted i s th e th ickness an d uni form i ty o f
,

th e depos it Thi s m ay b e ascertai n ed i n s om e cases by wei gh in g th e

.

arti cl es be fore an d a fter th e d eposi ti on but to enabl e thi s to b e d one each , ,

a rticle m ust bear an i nd ivi dual n umber as ab solute un i form ity i n weight i s ,

very un lik ely Thi s i s rather costly i nvolvi n g as i t does a dupl i cate
.
, , ,
 I N S PE C TI O N O F FI N I SH E D M A TE R I AL 89

s ystem o f records ( by the supplyi ng an d receivin g firm s ) and the probabi li ty

o f disputes i f any m i stake is m ade by ei ther firm Thi s wa s mi ni m ised i n .

the case of aeroplane cyli n ders wh i ch h ad to be copper pl ated by stamp i n g -

,

th e weight of each m achi n ed cyli nder on i ts fl an ge before sendi ng ou t for

p lating. Th e cyli nders were re wei ghed on thei r return th e di fferen

-
ce ,

g ivin g th e am ount o f copper d ep osi ted on each one There was a .

tendency h owever for th e c opper to be depos ited th ick ly on th e outs i de

, ,

e dges of the fin s an d on th e to fl an ge and for the recess es to have very

p ,

thi n dep osi ts Thi s can be ascertai n ed by m easurem en t where p oss ible
.
, ,

o r alternatively by cutti n g secti on s through s o m e of th e arti cles an d

observi ng th e thi ckn ess at di fferen t poin ts with a len s or m icroscop e Th is .

,

h owever i s m ore costly as i t i nvolves scrappi n g s om e of the arti cles Th e

, ,
.

c haracter of the dep osit whether sp ongy or c ompact may be observed

, ,

with a len s an d its adhes iveness sh ould be tes ted wi th a sm all ch is el or :

,

other tool as i f the surface has not been properly clean ed before plati ng
, ,

the deposi t will peel off A further poi n t to be noted when fi n ish ed articles
—
.

h ave been s en t ou t for plati n g is th e danger of corr osi on I n many

,
.

instances som e of th e fini sh ed surfaces are n ot requi red to b e p lated an d ,

must theref ore be protected while i n the platin g b ath I f the pr otecti n g .

m edium does n o t cover th e surface or the j oi nts are bad perm i ttin g , ,

leakage the fin ished surface wi ll be badly eaten away an d th is m ust b e

, ,

noted i m m edi ately th e arti cl es arrive from th e platers s o that a comp lai n t ,

m ay be l odged at once Th is i s a seri ous matter as n ot only i s th e value

.
, ,

o f the p lati n g l ost but als o the whole of th e m ateri al expen s ive
, ,

mach in in g and oth er work d one up on th e articles C opp er plati n g is o ften

, .

u sed to protect surfaces that are n ot required to b e carburi sed durin g case

h ardeni n g For thi s purp ose th e thi ckn ess of th e depos i t i s n ot s o

.

*
i m portan t as i ts densi ty an d adhesiven ess I t has been foun d that a .

thickn es s o f 0004 i s su ffi ci en t to preven t carbo n p enetrati on but i f th e

” '

d eposi t i s spongy or not adhes ive th e carbon wil l p en etrate whatever th e , ,

thickness an d therefore parti cular attenti o n sh ould be pai d to thi s p oi nt

, .

Galvanis ing i s als o d epend en t for i ts e ffectiven ess upon the cleanlin es s
o f the sh eet or casti n g be fore dipp in g as o therwise a uni form deposit will ,

not be obtai ned an d i n bad cases bare places wi ll b e left

, .

The strength of f asteni ng appli an ces such as nuts bolts rivets etc i s , , , ,
.
,

obviously i mportan t as th e stabil ity or sa fety of m ost engi neerin g m achi n es

,

a nd structures i s en tirely depen dent upon the m edia by whi ch th ey a re

Th e efe f ct of c opp r pl t in g
e a onc rbu r is t ion
a a , F . Zimme i rl ,
M eta l I ndustr y ,

M y 1 3 t h 1 921
a , .
90 EN GI N EE RI N G I N S PE C T I O N

conn ected The large quanti ti es used i n m os t w ork s rend ers any i ndividual
.

exami nati on i mp ossible an d theref ore th e only sys tem ati c way of deali n g
,

with such parts i s to tak e p eri od ic tests of the raw m ateri al at the makers ’

work s an d to check thes e by tests m ad e on a sm al l percen tage o f th e

,

fi n ished product arrivi ng at th e c onsum ers works Rivets are usual ly too
’
.

sm al l to allow ten si le tes ts to b e tak en and m ust there fore be sub mi tted to
,

such workshop tests as m ay be advi sabl e ( Fig Such tests are

.

t
Co/a 5
'
600
’
725 f f/af B e nd E si

fig 4 4 or/rjfia é s fi r fi /Ve/f

f ( jfee/
fV p 7 j
sp ecifi ed by th e Ad m iralty Lloyds an d Bureau Veri tas An occasi onal
, ,
.

ch eck test for fracture an d chem i ca l analysi s should b e m ade an d a fe w ,

ba gs exa m ine d for crack s i n th e rivet heads and oth er physical faults Nut s .

an d bolts must al so b e watched for cra ck s an d physi cal fl aws an d a s mal l,

p ercentage ( say 1 i n 5 00) fractured i n each co ns ign m en t to ensure a

,

reason able standard of toughnes s i n th e materi al I n th e case of all oy steel

.

or h eat treated bolts

- te nsi le tests sh oul d be taken when ever p oss ible and
, ,

Sti le me nte d by Brin el l test s on th e bolts used for th e fracture tests

pp .
 CHAP TE R VI I

GAU GES AN D M EAS U RI N G I N STRU M ENTS

Th e m achi n in g of material to s i zes i nd icated by drawin gs n ecessari ly ,

i nvolves som e m ethod or m eth ods of m easurem en t whi ch mus t indi cate ,

that th e di m ensi on s given n th e drawin gs h ave been worked to wi t h

( )
1 o

reasonab le accuracy ; ( 2) that th e am ounts by wh i ch th e m achi ned par t

exceeds or fails to reach the n om inal d i m ensi ons fall wi thi n th e li m i ts ,

laid down on th e drawi n g .

Th e old m eth od s of m easurem en t by rul e an d caliper althoug h , ,

su ffi ciently accurate for m any purp os es have largely fallen i nt o disus e
,

for three reason s becaus e th e ti m e taken to set th e calipers or

S im ilar m easuri n g in strum en ts i s too l on g ; ( 2) becaus e th e readin gs
ob tained are n ot accurate en ough to enabl e fi li n g scrap in g an d othe r , ,

expensive fitt in g operati on s to b e d ispen sed wi th ( 3 ) becaus e the calipers

are n ot su ffi ci en tly ri gi d an d often m ove wh i le i n u se The supply o f .

spare parts for repai rs or replacem en t i s al s o faci li tated by accuracy of

m easurem ent as i t i s b oth i nconveni ent an d costly to m od i fy such part s
,

on arrival at a di s tan t place wh ere few i f any en gi n eerin g appl ian ces are
, ,

available an d where ski lled lab our cann o t always be obtai ned
, .

For th es e an d oth er reason s s tandardi sati on of d i m en si ons is now

,

generally resorted to an d as thi s entai ls cl os e and accurate m easurem ent

, ,

the m easurin g appli ances or gau ges m us t be so designed an d m ad e that , ,

once se t or fixed they are n o t li able by d i storti on or o ther agencies

i t

to al ter th eir si ze or S hape un ti l by reason of wear th ey are either di s card ed,

or converted i nt o s m al ler or larger s i zes .

Th e term s toleran ce allowance

,
”
and li m i t,are so o ften ,
”

us ed i n m easurem en t that i t i s advi sabl e at thi s stage to explai n th ei r

meani ngs .

Tole ranc e i s th e variatio n from n om i nal or s tandard s ize allowed i n a

gauge or pi ece of work to cover sm all di screpan ci es or errors i n workm an
S hip.

A llowa nc e i s th e d i fference b etween th e di m en si ons of two parts that

are required to fi t t ogether and thi s d i fference vari es wi th th e si z e of th e
,

parts or th e fi t demanded Thus the all owance for a p ush fi t is

.

91
92 EN GI N EE RI N G I N S PE CT I O N

l ess than for a runni n g fit an d such allowances wi ll be greater for a

,

2 b ar than for a 1 bar

” ”
.

Limit is th e term used to i nd i cate th e m axi mum an d m i ni mu m d ime n

s i ons that m ay b e allowed i n mach ini ng any part N o engi n eeri ng work .

i s absolutely accurate an d th e li m i ts p laced on a j ob i ndi cate th e d egree of

,

a ccuracy called for .

Th e exi sten ce of li m i ts i mpli es s om e s tan dard whi ch may be us ed as a

bas is fro m whi ch th e li m i ts can s tart .

A S cyli ndrical work i s th e s i mpl est and m ost co m m on i nstance the ,

'

case o f a S haft workin g in a hole i s taken as an example I f the n om i nal .

A W

—
LL O A H C S
7
_

-E R A r-
O G 1 c To n-c c mw c g

H o n E

S H A F T Ho u r
:

M n mu m
o o A u g o w n H C E:

M
arj/f a nny i
‘
/ e m of ! Gang ig
/f :

d iam eter of S haft an d hol e i s 2 i nch es there are four p oss ible d im ensi ons
,

t o con si der ( Fi g 4 5 )
.

A
( ) Th e m i ni mu m d iam eter of th e h ol e .

B Th e m axi mu m d iam eter of th e h ole

( ) .

of
( C) Th e m axi m um d iam eter the shaft .

D
( ) Th e m i n i mum d iam eter of t eh S haft .

I f all th e shafts m ad e are to enter any of th e h ol es it follows that ( A ) ,

m us t b e greater than ( C) but under thes e circum stances a sha ft m ade

,

to di ameter ( D ) m i ght be ass embled with a h ole made to d iam eter ( B ) so ,

that th e cl earan ce between ( B ) an d ( D ) m us t be suitabl e for th e ki nd of fit

required
 GAU GES A N D M EAS U RI N G I N STR UM ENTS 93

Such fi ts may be d ivided broadly i n to three categori es

(1 ) C learance fits when there i s a p ositive allowance between
( )
A and ( C ) i a wh en ( )
A i
,s greater than
. .
,
( )
C .

( 2) I nterferen ce fits when ( A) i s l ess than ( C ) .

(3) Transi ti on fits whi ch co m e m i dway between ( 1 ) an d ( 2) an d

whi ch cover cas es wh ere ( A ) i s equal to ( C) .

The vari ous term s used i n practice s tartin g with th e slackest fi t , ,

(3 )
Runn in g fit
C learan ce fi ts
( )
b
Push fi t
,

( )
K ey fi t
C
lTra nSI tI on fi ts ‘

Ligh t drive fit J
.

( )
e D rive fi t
l
()
f Force fit I n terference fi ts

f
,

( )
g Shrink fi t
The tolerance allowed on shaft or h ol e m ay b e arran ged on the uni
lateral or b i lateral system s I n the uni lateral sys tem th e m i n i mum h ol e
-
.
-
,

(A ) is th e no m i nal s ize an d all toleran ces of holes are above th is

, .

The m axi mum s iz e of shaft ( C) in th is case is ( A ) m i nus allowance ,

and ( D ) i s ( C) m i nus tolerance on shaft .

A s an exampl e for a 2 diam eter hole with runni n g fi t

,
”

( )
A i s ( )
B i s ( )
C i s ( )
D i 1 9 9 5 ”
s

Thus th e maxi mum clearance b etween shaft and hole i s and th e

mi ni mu m clearan ce i s
The b i l ateral system has the n om i nal si ze m i dway between th e
-

maxi mum and m i ni mum holes i a between ( A ) and ( C ) I n other word s

, . .
, .

The form er has b een m os t wi dely adopted i n th is country an d also i n

Germany Switzerlan d an d Am eri ca but wh ere th e b i lateral sys te m
, , ,
-

already exis ts there is consi derable d ifli c u lty i n chan ging over an d there ,

fore th e Bri tis h Engi neeri ng S tan dard s C o m m i ttee con sid ered th is m atter ,

and cam e to th e conclusi on that i t would be possible to stan dard is e a series

of S hafts that could b e employed satis factori ly ei th er i n a un i lateral hol e
-

or in a b i lateral hole
- .

I n the above i t is as sum ed throughout that the s i z e of th e h ole i s

,

taken as the standard or no mi nal di mensi on bu t in stead of thi s th e si z e ,

Th e Pr inc ipl s e of L imit G u g in g by A A R min g t on

a , . . e ,

E n g in r in g A pr il 1 5 th 1 921
ee ,
”
,
.
94 E N G I N EE RI N G I N S PE C T I O N

of the sha ft m ay be adopted Th e form er is th e m ore conven ien t m ethod .

,

as oth erwi s e d ri lls ta p s reamers etc w ould have to b e m ade speci ally
, , , ,
.
,

t o sui t di fferen t system s an d allowances but i n som e cases the latter has ,

a dva ntages Wi th l on g shafti ng for i nstan ce i t i s conven i en t to tak e

.
, ,
0
th e shaft a s a bas s and b ore out bear i n g s to su 1 t .

The standard hol e is h owever th e better system an d i s i n general , ,

9K

Gauges an d m easurin g i nstrum en ts m ay b e d ivid ed roughly into thre e

c lass es

( )
1 Fixed gauges wh ose si ze is n ot con trollabl e by op erator .

( )
2 S el f record i ng i ns trum ents th e readi ngs of whi ch are taken
-
,

by th e op era tor Thi s class i n clud es di al gauges . .

( )
3 I nstrum ents of variable si z e w h ere th e adj ustm en t is m ade
and readin gs taken by th e us er Th is clas s i ncludes calip ers .
,

m i crom eters verni ers an d m easuri ng machi n es , ,

.

I ns trum en ts of th e th ird typ e n eed m ore care an d skill than tho se of

th e firs t an d s ec ond becaus e th ey h ave to b e adj us ted to th e requi red
,

”
s i z e and then app li ed to th e work Th e sens e of touch or feel i nv olved .

i n m aki n g such m easurem en ts i s a n i mportan t factor an d a certai n am ount ,

o f p ractice an d exp eri ence i s n ecessary to acqui re th e d eli cacy required

I n m aki ng fi n e m easurem en ts by these m ean s S elf—

rec ordi n g i ns trum ents .

o f th e di al i ndi cator typ es are us ed for detectin g i rregulari ti es of form

rath er than i n m aki n g d efini te m easurem en ts The only care required i s .

(

that of s ettin g up th e i n strum en t and i n preven ti ng dam age to the gauge .

F ixed gauges are m ost c om m only used an d provid ed care is tak en n ot t o , ,

d amage or d ist ort the gauges they are by far th e m ost sati s factory Th e ,
.

S i ze o f each gauge i s stam ped up on i t and th e vi ewer has on ly to se e that ,

th e si ze i ssued to hi m correspond s with th e drawi n g to wh i ch th e operat or

is w orki ng an d th at it i s k ep t free fro m dam age or d ist orti o n .

S om e s nap gauges are purp osely m ade of brittle m ateri al such as cas t ,

iron so that i n th e event o f their receivi ng a bl ow th ey will break rather

,

t han ben d or di stort .

Gauges for m easurin g diam eters pr oj ecti on s or gaps i n w ork are , ,

u sually m ad e of th e Go and N ot G o types .

Th e worki n g or g o s i de m ust enter th e h ole or gap or pass over

, ,
”

furth r infor m t ion l imits nd l imit g u g in g th r d r i r f rr d to Th Th om s

For e a re a a e ea e s e e e e a

H wk l y L ctu r o n
a es e eL imit G u g in g by Si R ich rd G l z br oo k Pr oc I nst M ch
e a , r a a e , . .
,
e .

E. N ov mb r 1 920 nd A pr il 1 9 21 nd T h Pr inc ipl s of L imit G u g in g b y A A

, e e , , a , , a e e a ,
”
. .

R min g t on M I M ch E E n g in r in g A pr il 1 5 th 1 921
e , . .
, e . . ee , , .
 G A U GE S A N D M E A S U R IN G I N STR U ME NT S 95

the diameter or proj ection and th e not go si de m ust not I n som e

,
.

instan ces th e two gauges are made separate as there i s m ore wear on th e ,

"
go S ide but the conveni ence a nd greater speed of operati on wh ich
, ,

results fr om havi ng th e two gauges i n one p iece makes the latter form ,

very p opular where l arge quanti ti es of work hav e to be pr oduced I n either .

c ase it is advisable for th e n ot g o s id e to be pai nted red or som e oth er

c onven ien t colour so that it can read i ly b e d isti ngui sh ed thus di m i n i sh i ng
, ,

t h e liabi lity of m istak es bei ng m ade Th e n ot go S ide i s usually m ade

.

much shorter than the go s ide because th e wear on th e f ormer i s m uch

,

less than that on the latter .

Th e m ost c om m on types of gauges are

( 1 ) Plug gauges for h ol es .

( ) Ri ng or snap gauges for di a meters

2 .

( )
3 Taper gauges for con ical m easurements ( plug rin g an d plate , ,

types ) .

( ) H eigh t gauges
4 .

( )
5 Thi ck nes s gauges or feelers .

( 6) Profile gauges for surfaces .

( 7 ) S crewed plug gauges for i n tern al threads .

( 8 ) S crewed ri ng gauges for external threads

.
.

( )
9 Referen ce an d S pecial gauges .

P L U G G A UGES .
( Fi g .

There are many types of plug gauges but the f oll owi n g examp les ,

i llustrate th e pri nci ples of thos e i n com m on us e ordi nary gauge .

co nsists of a pi ece of harden ed s teel groun d truly cyli ndri cal wi th a

, ,

r oughened or knurled handl e to preven t slippin g i n th e fingers ( See .

96 EN G I N EE RI N G I N S PE C T I O N

Fi g . Th ere i s a clear space groun d on th e s i de of the handle ,

up on whi ch i s stamped th e number of the gauge an d i ts siz e ,

togeth er wi th any o ther particulars that m ay b e n ecess ary or

us eful such as th e number or nam e of th e operation after which
,

i t has to b e us ed I t i s advi sable to m ak e th e han dle sm aller i n

.

di am eter than th e gauge surface so that long h oles may b e gauged wi thou t
,

having a gauge surface of exces sive length S om eti m es a hole i s drilled .

up the centre of th e han dl e to facili tate th e escap e of ai r fro m blin d h ol es ,

but m ore o ften the si des of the gauge a re cut away as sh own i n Fi g 4 6 ( b ) , . .

Th e latter m ethod i s als o conven i ent for testi n g wh eth er a h ole i s trul y
circular or n ot .

A cyli ndrical gauge only tests the m i ni mum d istan ce acros s th e h ol e

( Fi g . but th e cut away gauge can be turn ed roun d to test any
d iam eter A s th e weari n g surface i s m uch sm aller i n the latter type it
.
,

has a shorter li fe than the cyli n dri cal gauge .

v a c.
“
S L A C K

Li m i t gauges m ay be of the double or si n gle ended typ e

( F i g . 4 6 c
,
a nd d ) The latter
. has the advan tage that only a s ingle m ove
m ent i s n ecessary i n gaugin g but unless the go en d i s m ade very l on g
, ,

i t i s i mp ossibl e to gauge th e cen tres of lon g h oles Further th e h ole mus t.

.

be of greater dep th than the g o en d to enable the not go part of

the gauge to be us ed at all .

I t has however the advantage that no m i stake can b e made betwee n

, ,

”
th e go an d n o t go end s S om eti m es a gauge has i ts mi ddl e p orti on
”
.

ground to th e m ean d iam eter of th e hol e as thi s is the s ize gen erally ,

a i m ed at I n th i s cas e i t i s advi sabl e to mak e th e m ea n diameter neare r

.

that of th e go en d than that of th e not go end .

I n gri ndi ng i t is di ffi cult for th e operator to se e h ow n ear he is

,

approachin g to the drawin g s ize an d for thi s reason operators gauges are
,
’

s ometi m es tap ered 005 to 01 0 below th e go diameter for a short

” ” ' “ ”

d istan ce to enabl e work to be fini shed m ore rapi d ly but th is i s not a c ces ,

’
sary or advisabl e i n th e cas e of i nspectors gaug es .
 GAU GES AN D M EAS U RI N G I N STRUME NTS 97

Large gauges som eti m es have the ends made separate from th e
handle for th e sak e of economy an d weight but i n th is cas e care is
,

n ecessary to ensure that the ends are n ot l iable to di storti on after hardeni n g
and grindi n g or i n use Th e form S hown i n Fi g 4 8 ( a ) is liable to giv e
,
. .

trouble as un equal stresses are se t up i n harden ing an d such gauges m ay

, ,

be seri ously a ffected by temp erature chan ges The m odificati on shown in
.

Fig 4 8 ( b ) i s better as th e stresses are equal ised Ligh teni ng l arge gauge s
.
,
.

by drilli ng hol es i n the web n ecessitates careful h ardeni ng to avoi d crackin g

or internal stresses an d when th e en ds are forced on to a m ild steel handl e
,

care must b e taken to avoi d dis torti on .

Plug gauges are generally m ad e of hi gh carb on s teel hardene d ,

through out an d tempered to rem ove harden i ng stresses season ed for a ,

period of about three m onth s to en sure p erman en ce an d groun d to size ,

fig . Pra/ecfea fenfre
’
.

A ll S harp edges should b e taken off plug gauges to avoi d burring a nd ,

protected centres ( Fi g 49) are advisabl e to all ow of work being spun

.

when a m andrel or test bar i s not ava ilable .

98 EN G I NE E RI N G I N S PEC T I O N

R I N G G A UGES .

Th es e are s i mpl e i n form as sh own i n F i g 5 0 an d are groun d on thei r

, .
,

i nsi d e d iam eters to th e requi red si ze after hard eni n g They are roughened , .

or k nurled on th e outsi de di am eter to enable them to be s ecurely gripp ed

wi th th e fingers an d th e S i z e numb er an d other parti culars are m arked

, , ,

on on e of the fl at faces R i n g g auges are subj ect to a si m i lar obj ecti on t o

.

that ob tai n ing i n th e case of plug gauges They only m easure th e m axi mu m .

fig RM G
; a ug e

d iam eter of th e work an d d o n ot reveal any irregulari ty or eccentri city i n

,

th e s ection They are conven ien t however for gaugi n g lon g work such
.
, , ,

as steel b ars etc when any taper or local i ncreases i n di ameter are
,
.
,

im m edi ately detected b y th em The faces sh ould be groun d at ri ght an gles

.

to th e i nsid e diam eter so that sh oulders turned on shafts m ay b e checked

,

for truth an d fl atness an d al s o the S harp c orn ers should be rad iu se d off to
,

avoid damage to work or gauge .

S N A P G A UGES .

S nap gauges are o f three types—soli d adj ustable and bui lt up , ,

.

S im ple snap gauges ( Fig 5 1 a ) are gen erally hi gh carbon s teel forgings
.
,
-
,

whi ch are hardened s eason ed groun d an d lap ped to si ze on the m easuri ng

, , ,

s urfaces .They are som eti m es cut ou t of si mple pl ates i i n ch to é i n ch - -

thi ck but wherever po ssible should h ave wid e gaugi n g surfaces t o

, , ,

decreas e wear As i n th e case of plug gauges s nap gauges can be m ade

.
,

e i th er of the s ingl e or d ouble ended types an d th e gauging surfaces m ay ,

ei th er be forged wi th the b ody or els e a cast iron body m ay b e u sed wi th

,
-

gauge p oin ts of hardened s teel i nserted ( Fig : 5 1 b ) , .

Adj ustabl e gauges have th e pl ugs screwed i n p osi ti on and th es e are ,

s ecured from m ovem en t by lo cki n g screws through the body S uch .

a dj ustable gauges have th e advan tage that they m ay be se t to suit d i fferen t

j obs but such modifications mus t b e carefully watched to avoid m i stak es
,
.

The gaugi ng p oi nts are u sually bevelled off at the edge to avoid s cratchi n g
 GAU GES AN D M E A S URI N G I N STRUM E NTS 99

-
or marki ng the work I n som e i nstances ( as in th e Joh a nnsson Li mi t S nap
.

G auge ) all four p oi nts are m ade adj ustable and for rap id w ork th e l ower ,

j aw i s made of a fl at plate ( Fi g 5 1 c ) th e two upper gauge p oi n ts bei n g

, ,

adj ustable
. .

With d oub l e ended gauges th e con stant tapp i ng on th e body of work

-
,

that passes th e go gauge s om eti m es causes th e body to op en s lightly

“

and makes th e gauge i naccurate For th is reaso n rubber or spri n g buffers

. .

are often placed at th e b oftom of th e j aw t o absorb the S hock

. .

C are sh oul d always b e taken to ensure the gauge plugs bei ng true wi th
t h e axi s otherwi se i ncorrect results wil l b e obtain ed
, I f th e surfaces
.
,

although paral lel are n ot square th e readi ngs obtai ned will be larger
, ,
”

t han the correct si ze of the work .

B ui lt u p s nap gauges con sist of two p lates S eparated by a distance

-

p iece as sh own i n Fi g 5 1 d The di fferen ce between the go an d “

, , .

not go ends i s provid ed by gri nd ing a step i n one of th e si d e plates .

B y diss embli ng th e gauge and using di fferent si z es of d i stance p iece th i s

'

type of gauge can be used for a vari ety of j ob s B ei ng cheap to manu fac
'

ture i t is sui tab le for work of a temporary nature as i t saves th e cos t of

, ,

m aking speci al gauges for sm all orders .

1 00 EN GI N EE R I N G I N S PE CT I O N

T A PER G A UG E S .

The gaugi n g of taper holes or surfaces depends upon the translation of

d iam eter tolerances i nto len gths I f a tap er pi ece A B C D ( Fi g 5 2) i s to
. .

be m easured th e tap er i s expressed on th e drawin g i n i n ch es per fo ot A s

, .

Hwy/ a m
o
f r/n C / o/e o f
'
“

an example supp ose th e tap er given i s é i nch p er foot Th is mean s tha t

,
-
.

for every 1 2 i n ches of F B ( or l ength of cen tre li n e G H ) the di fferen c e ,

between A D an d B C i s é i n ch or 5 in ch ) I f F B or G H are less tha n

-
‘

1 2 i nches lon g th e s am e rati o stil l h olds good

,
.

FB 12
24 . N ow ,
i n consideri ng
toleran ces th e sam e relationship i s true I f we assum e that th e accuracy
,
.

requi red on th e large diam eter A D i s th en thi s corresp on ds to a

d i fferen ce i n length of 001 x 24
” '

024 ” ‘

For other tapers s im ilar calculati on s may b e m ade an d the di fferenc e ,

of di am eter or l i mi ts
,
express ed i n term s of the l ength Thus a taper
,
.
,
“

p lug gauge has i ts li mi ts i ndi cated by a p iece groun d off th e large en d of

the tap er so that i t must enter th e h ole for such a di stan ce that th e go
,

edge of th e gauge i s in si de an d the not go edge outsi de th e hole Th e

,
.

sam e purpos e m ay b e s erved by i ns cribin g two li n es on the plug or rin g

gauge ( Fi g .

The t ruth of the taper i tsel f m ay b e tes ted by thi nly sm earin g th e plu g
or ri n g with Prussian blue or o ther m arki n g m edium Anoth er m etho d i s .

to mi l l off th e s ides of th e gauge a s i n the cas e of s imp le plug gauges

,

( Fi .g 4
, 6 b ) o r to cut away the m i ddl e p orti on of th e gauge
, ( Fi g 5 3 b ) in .
, ,
GAUGE S AN D M EA SU RI N G IN STR UME NTS 1 01
1 02 ENG I N EERI N G I N S PE CT I O N

whi ch case wan t of accuracy is detected by th e play of the gauge i n th e

h ole .

Adj ustabl e or pl ate gauges may be m ade by s etti n g two plates at th e

requi red angle on a stan d an d i n thi s case accuracy m ay be achieved by
,

s etti n g the p lates to two plug gauges as sh own i n Fi g 5 3 , . .

So m e gauges are m ade with grooves alon g th e di am eter to catch dust:

or dirt an d to enable the air to escape m ore freely from bl i nd holes
, .

H EI G H T G A UGES .

'

Thes e are o f vari ous ki nds a nd are used for m easuri n g th e h eigh t oi
,

proj ections above a plan e surface or the locati on o f bush es on j i gs a nd

,

m achi n e parts A si mpl e height gauge may b e used for testi ng sm all work
.

on a surface plate M ore elaborate gauges for tes tin g larger p ieces are
.

m ade adj ustabl e on th e Vern i er pri n cipl e ( to be described later) ( Fig .

FI G . 54 .
-
V rn i r H
e e ei
g ht G
au g e .

( B y pe rmission of Mess rs L . . S Sta r e tt C o

. r .
, L td .
)

These take readin g accurate to an d are graduated on one side for

i nternal m easurem en ts an d on th e o ther for external m easurem ents
,
.

S pecial arran gem ents are m ade for getti n g over a bar or proj ection an d for
usi n g close to a proj ecti on I t i s ad vantageous for the un der si de of th e
.

p roj ectin g arm to be round ed to a small radius so that the p os iti on of h ole s ,

m ay be correctly gauged .

T H I CK N ES S G A UGES O R F EE L ERS .

Feel ers are made up i n sets varyin g i n thi ckn es s fro m 001 5 to '
”

“ ”
an d are used for ch eck in g clearan ces an d play i n assemb led work .

Th e tap ered en d types h ave th e advantage over the plai n rounded end s
that i t i s easier to ge t the m i n between a sha ft an d h e aring or between a ,
 GAU GE S AN D M EAS U RI N G I N STRU ME NTS 1 03

I
p gIIgauge an d h ole Feelers are also us ed on m i lli n g an d plani ng m ach in e
.

tables to ensure that the work i s fl at or down when secured to th e table s

for m achini n g .

PR OF I L E G A UGES .

The m easurin g surface i s formed to th e profil e required ( as i n a

templet ) an d where l i mi ts are required two such gauges are provi ded one
, , ,

bei ng made to the maxi mum si zes an d one to the m in imum si zes allowed .

I n so m e i nstan ces such gauges are m ad e to sui t a seri es of operati ons or ,

to tes t th e collective result of a number of op erati ons at one tim e but thi s ,

is only don e wh ere great accuracy i s n ot requi red An example i s that of .

a number of S tep s or col lars i n a turne d shaft The accuracy of p ositi on in g

.
.

an d the form o f a ny i rregular p art m ay be tes ted by a p late gauge cut t o

s ui t
.

GA o a t:

5 0 0 5 3

fig o
f ra /6 76 or fi rm

Profil e gauges m ay be cut from a soli d sheet or bui lt up of a number o f

,

strips screwed an d d owel led on to a base plate of m i ld steel Thes e strip s .

may be hardened an d thus wi ll s tand a con si derabl e am oun t of use wh en

,

large quantiti es of work are being produced an d inspected .

Examples of the u se of profil e ( or form gauges wi ll be found i n

Fi g 5 5
s
.

S CREW G A UGES .

A screw thread consists of a number of ridge s of tri angular square , ,

or rounded for m i mposed on a cyli ndri cal

p “ ”
core Th e p itch is
”
.

the d istance i n i nches or m i llim etres between the centres or s ides of two
consecutive thread s as m easured on a di am eter m i dway between the top
1 04 EN G I N EERI N G I NS PE CTI O N

a nd botto m of th e threads Th is i s call ed th e

. e ffective or p itch
di am eter The top an d botto m of triangular threads are usually rounded
.

or cut off square for stren gth an d c onven ience an d the angle of th e threads ,

i s chosen to give greates t s tren gth ( F ig . .

CR E To
“

$ T on p

-
R o e r . o R D o

Ff? jc rew flame/5

S om e o f the vari ous form s an d angles i n com m on us e a re a s follows
B ou n d d or Radius of ePr op or tion of
A ngl flt e . top nd b ott om
a .t h r d cut of a . ea .

W h itworth threads 55 °
Rounded 137 3 p 16 p ’

.
'

S ellers 6 0 °
Flat 1 08 p
'

Bri tish Ass ociati on °

4 7 5 Round ed p 2 p f “

I } . .

f D ep th of
d 01 II
l fi offlft
t p
VVid t
lc - ’

Acm e °
29 Flat
on top 3 7 07 p
'

T he errors which m ay be expected i n screw threads are as foll ows

( )
1 O utsi de an d core diam eters too large or too s mall .

( )
2 E ffective diam eter too large or too s mall .

( )
3 Pitch wron g
,
ei ther progressive or p eriodi c .

( )
4 R adi us o r fl at at top or botto m wron g .

( 5 ) An gl e wron g .

( )
6 C ore an d outsi de di am eters n ot con centri c .

S crew gauges of s i mi lar form s to th os e shown i n Fi gs 5 TA and 5 7 C .

may be used for gen eral check ing but th e i n formati on given by screwed
,
 GAU GE S AN D M EAS URI N G I N STRU ME NTS 1 05

lugs or ri ngs is far from compl ete a s th e thread s m ay on ly b e tou cb ing

p ,

at certai n p oi nts .

I n report N o 3 8 of the S tandard s C o mm ittee M r Taylor recom m en ds

.
, .

t h e followin g screwed gauges for general use ( Fi g 5 7 ) .

CO R E D

PL-U Cr G A L/ ( 5 5: 5

E FF E C T IV E: O m O u r s oo c O m .

- a
” O T Go N o r Go A u u

RI N G: G a u a s s

Go G f lo -r G o Ch
‘

a v e -t:
eq u e r
s
'

FO R TH R E A D f o r
! D I A .

. 5 c f e w ” H e a d Ga g es

PL UG G A UGES .

( )
1 G o screwed gauge to enter the h ol e .

( ) N ot go plai n gauge to test core d iameter

”
2 .

(3) N ot g o s crewed gauge to test e ffective diam eter .

( )
4 N ot g o gauge for outs ide diam eter .

R I NG A N D G A P G A UGES
( )
1 C omplete g o rin g s crewed gauge to test entire length of
thread
( )
2 N ot g o plain gauge for testi ng outsid e di am eter .

( )
3 N o t go 3 poi nt gauge -
for testi ng e ffective di am eter an d
pi t ch .

( )
4 I n cases where th e ten si le strength o f th e core i s i mp ortant a ,

n ot go gauge for core diam eter .

1 06 EN G I N E E RI N G I N S PEC T I O N

Errors in pitch form o f thread angl e or radiu s m ay be tested by

'

, , ,

m ountin g th e gauge or work under a m icroscop e wi th a screw attachmen t

for m ovi ng the s crewed obj ect across th e fi eld of vi ew A cross hair i n th e .

eyepi ece i s Se t across th e centre of one thread an d th e screw m oved unti l

th e hai r li n e is d irectly over th e n ext thread The d i fferen ce between the two .
.

readi ngs of the m icrosc op e screw gives th e pi tch of the thread Th e depth .

of th e thread m ay be m easured i n a si m ilar man n er an d any i rregulari ti es ,

.

i n form n oted B y thi s m eans irregulari ti es i n p itch can be m easured

.
,

wi thi n and the an gle m ay be a scertai n ed w i thi n 5 ’ by rotati n g th e

eyepi ece A better m eth od however i s to use a pr oj ecti on apparatus
.
, ,
*
.

Th e gauge or s crew i s m oun ted i n a suitabl e m an n er i n th e light .

thrown by a lamp an d cond en ser M agni fyin g l en ses are the n arran ged to
.

throw an i mage o f th e thread about 5 0 ti m es full si z e on a S creen wher e

, , ,

i t can b e compared wi th a corr ect outli n e drawi ng of th e thread to th e

sam e scale The lenses sh ould be ch os en to give a un i form magni ficati on
.

an d to avoi d di st orti on Th es e m eth ods h owever are appl icab le to m al e

.
, ,

or pl ug threads only The threads of ri n g gauges m ay be exam i ned by

.

taki n g plaster casts of th e i n side of the gauges an d m easurin g th ese as in

the c as e of plug gauges .

a rc an e .

L c H er r H
.

F5?5 8 C u r es of f / fc/z f rror

t/
O
,

Pi tch errors may be progressive or periodi c—that i s to the error sa

y,
“

m ay i n crease i n magn itud e a s longer lengths of thread are tak en for

m easurement or i t m ay ri se to a m axim um an d then di m i ni sh agai n
,

peri odi cally (Fi g .

For v a r iou s me t h ods of a ppl y ing t h s

e e see N a t iona l Ph y s ic a l L a b or ator y R p or t
e ,
 G A U GE S AN D M EAS U RI N G I N STR U ME NTS 1 07

S nap gauges with con ical p oi n ts groun d to th e exact angle of the thread ,

are used for testi n g p i tch or effective diam eters Thes e m ay have tw o or
, .

three poi nts I n the form er cas e th e two poi n ts are o ffs et a dis tance equal to
.

half th e pi tch an d m ay b e m ad e to suit th e upp er an d l ower li m i ts of the j

, ob .

S nap gauges wi th two lower an d one upper p oi n t m ay be used for

-

testi ng th e e ffective d iam eter an d accuracy of pi tch at the sam e ti me I n .

thi s case th e two lower poi nts are se t a defini te n umb er of pi tch es ap art
, ,

so that i f th e actual p itch of th e w ork i s too wide or too n arrow th e p oi nt s ,

wi ll n ot enter .

As p oints are easily worn away an al ternative m etho d i s to fi ll up th e

,

hollows of the thread wi th wires o f such a si ze that they wi ll touch th e

Tu n e s: Fo m v
’
Gnom e s fr o m E F F E C T W E D 'A .

5 W OR E: l W OR E:

Mii T l-c o o s
— o r M
: S
E A U R ON C :

E F F t-ZC c D
‘ ‘

z I A .

fZ Me m of jc rew ”trea d s
'

’ ‘
a su re/7 7 e
g .

threads on the e ffective d iam eter an d to m easure th e d istance between th e

,

outside faces of the wires ( Fi g Sui table si zes of wire are as follows
.

Whi tworth threads d ia meter o f wi re 5 63 7 p

‘

Sellers threads 57 74 P
'

Briti sh Associati on threads 5 4 63 p

‘

.
1 08 EN GI NE E R I N G I N S PE CT I O N

The outsi d e d iam eters of threads shoul d be check ed at di fferent p oi nts

a lon g th e s crew to d etect any taperi ng and on di fferen t diam eters to se e ,

that th e thread is truly roun d .

Rin g an d p lug gauges frequently have the bottom of th e thread made

s h arper than th e s tan dard s ize so that any di rt or chi ps may collect th ere
,
.

As s crew gauges have s mall weari ng s urfaces and co nsi derable fri ction ,

i t i s advi sabl e that th ey sh oul d be hardened and this O p eration by , ,

d i storti n g the threads o ften causes cons iderable trouble

, C ase hardened .
-

gauges o f m i ld or n i ckel steel are now i n general use a nd for further

*
,

i n form ation on m eth ods of hard eni ng wi th m i ni mum d istorti on th e reader i s ,

r eferred to a pap er read by M r W J Li n eham B Sc . b efore th e I ns ti tuti on

,
.
, . .
,

o f M echani cal E ngi n eers en titled Th e Harden in g of S crew Gauges wi th

,

t h e Least D i stortion i n Pi tch ( Apri l ,

R eference gauges wh ich have very little work to do are often left
u nhardened to avoi d th ese di fficulti es an d to s ecure greater accuracy .

As accurate work Cann ot be produced with defective tools the taps ,

a nd d ies used i n screwed work m ust be carefully i nsp ected before bei ng put

i nto us e to ensure that n one of the errors described above are pres ent to a
,

su ffi ci en t exten t to a ffect m aterially th e accuracy of th e work to be done

b y them .

No t go screw gauges wil l only tes t one elem en t of a thread and ,

a s i t i s i mp ossible to p rovi de no t go gauges for each element the

“ ”
,

s ystemati c checki ng o f threadin g tools form s the bes t sa feguard i n practice .

I f the tools are righ t the work of i nspectin g th e product i s consi derably
,

s i mp lified an d m anufacture may proceed with greater confidence and

,

s ecurity .

C O M B I N AT I O N A N G L E G A U GES .

Th e combi nati on angle gauge gives a very conven ien t and quick
m ethod of checkin g an gles accurately Previ ous to th e i ntroducti on of the .

fi xed angle gauge th e b est k n own m etho d o f checki n g angles was by means
-

of the s in e b ar or bevel protractor vern ier The verni er p rotractor is a .

g ood i nstrum ent for m easurin g di fferen t an gles but i t only registers ,

a ngl es i n one twelfth d egree and therefore i s only sui table for lowe n
.
-

standards of accuracy Thi s i s because a good deal i s dep end ent on se n

.

s itiv e ne ss of tou ch an d s etti n g als o visi o n ( o ften ass is ted by l enses )

,
.

T h erefore i t i s not su ffi ci ently rel iable for gauge or j ig work .

3 pe r c n t n ic k l st
e . e e el is v r y su it b l
e a e for th is purp os e .
 GAU GE S AN D M EAS U RI N G IN STRU ME NTS

Johan ss on comb i nation an gle gauges ( F ig 6 0) can be obtai n ed i n

.

a series of 1 5 blocks with an angl e at th e four corners of each th e angles

,

increasin g i n m i nutes from 1 0° to A secon d s eri es consi sts of 40

°
gauges embracing angl es 0 to 9 0 ° i n i ncrements of The firs t block has
rectangular si des and the succeedi n g six have an angl e at each of th ei r
,

four corners wh ereas th e rem aini ng gauges of th e s et have two angles only
,
.

Com é/fl a f/ofl A/y/e Ga ug e} .

The third series o f 3 0 gauges i ncludes the an gle range of 8 9° to 9 0° in

mi nutes. All th e angles are marked on each gauge an d each gauge is
'

numbered .

A holder i s su ppl ied for clamp ing two angle pi eces together and both
,

male and female angles can be fixed up .

 . 1 10 EN GI N E E RI N G IN S PE CT I O N

Fig .
( )
a60 sh ows th e h older with two angle gauges cl amped i n
p osi ti on G.auge N o 1 represents m ale
. an d Nos 2 an d 3 female .

°
g auges set to 5 5
Fi g 00 (b c and d ) illustrates angle gauges m arked 4 5 and 6
.
, , , ,

r espectively N o 4 i s 1 0°
. . 4 °
N o 5 i s 5 an d an d N o 6 is 9 0°
. .

J O HAN S S O N G A UGES .

Th ese referen ce gauges are the m os t accurate m ad e bei ng a s eri es of ,

r ectangular b locks o f I nvar steel carefully mach ined seaso ned ground , , ,

a nd lapp ed on both si des Th e parallel s ides of each bl ock are correct to

.

t h e n om i nal d i m ensi o n wi thi n an d they are suppli ed i n vari ous

s ets for di fferent p urp oses S et N o 1 compri si n g 8 1 blocks i s divi ded
. .
, ,

i nto four series The first seri es con tai ns n in e blocks from 1 001 to 1 009
.
” ’ ‘

b y i ncrem ents o f Th e s econ d has 49 bl ock s fro m 1 01 to

”
'

t h e third has 1 9 b locks fro m 05 0 to ”

and th e f ourth 4 blocks o f
'

Ro s-g a it RO L L E R

fig 5 / 7é Jf/Qg //7fem a / D/a of f /f

ig
m mJo/ mnss afl
.

an d 4 th i ckn ess resp ectively With thi s se t m easurements

”
.
,

” to When suppl i ed wi th standard plugs and

c a n be m ade fro m 05 00
‘

h olders over ,
d i fferen t gauges can be bui l t up O ther seri es give .

readi n gs up to an d readings i n quarter th ousan dth s m ay b e obtai ned -

by add in g b lock s of 1 0025 and 1 007 5 thi ckness I n use the gauges
” ' ” '

.
,

are sli d together wi th sl i gh t pressure an d th e air i s thus squeezed out ,

-
_ ,

.enabli ng the bl ock s to s ti ck together and form a single un i t .

Wi th thes e r ing gauges m ay be checked by ins erti n g r ollers of kn own

,

s i ze at each s i de of the m easuri n g block s as sh own i n Fi g 6 1 F or gauge ,

. .

a nd tool room purposes th ese blocks are i nd ispensabl e but they are too
, ,

costly and deli cate for producti on or sh op use By m ean s of such blocks . ,

dupli cate referen ce gauges are often rendered unn ecessary as the desired ,

s tan dard can b e se t up with grea t accuracy i n a very sh ort tim e .

MA STER A N D R E F ERE N C E G A UGES .

Wh en work i s bein g pr oduced to l i m i ts it i s advi sable that th e gauges

u sed by th e operat or should be with i n the l i m its of th os e used by the

i nspector i n th e sh op to en sure that even i f sli ght wear tak es place i n

, ,
 G A U GE S AN D M EAS U RI N G I NST RU M ENT S 111

t he operator s gauge th e work whi ch pass es the latter w ill also pass th e
’

vi ewer s gauges
~
’
.

A s the vi ewer s gauges are check ed periodi cally thei r tol erance agai n
’

w ill b e slightly less than th e referen ce gauges used for check i ng purp oses
o r by the purc haser s i nspector Where Johans so n gauges are not used
’
.

or are i nadm i ssible dupl i cate reference or m aster gauges

-
,
cons isti ng of a ,

male and female p art m us t be provided for checki ng peri od ically tho se i n
,

u se I n som e i nstances a certified se t of s tandards i s kep t i n the gauge

.

room and wi th thes e the worki ng master gauges are compared from ti m e
, ,

t o tim e I n n o cases sh ould the m as ter gauges be use d i n the S hops

. .

T hey must be k ept s trictly for checki n g purp oses each worki ng master ,

p lug gauge bei n g kep t wi th a corresp ond ing ri n g gauge an d v ic e v e rs a ,

.

I f a workm an or vi ewer acci dentally drops or damages a gauge it S hould

a lways be return ed to th e gauge ro om for check in g before bei ng used .

Gauges must n ever be used while work i s i n m oti on an d m ust not be forced ,

on to the work
-
otherwi se they will very s o on becom e useless
, .

MI CR O M ETERS .

The ordi nary m i crom eter for m easurin g outs ide di am eters ( Fig 62A) .

c onsists of a fram e of drop forged or cas t s teel or alum i n iu m i n large

(
‘

S i zes
) havin g o
,
n e fixed p oi nt of hardened steel an d one m ovable p o int .

The latter i s als o of hard en ed s teel an d is adva nced to or wi thdrawn from , ,

th e fixed p oin t by m ean s of an accurately made s crew havi n g u sually 4 0

,
-

t hreads to th e i nch .

Every turn of th e s crew th erefore m oves th e spi ndl e through — or , ,

1
0
N

and l ines are engraved on the sleeve to i ndi cate each wi th every
fourth li n e lon ger than th e others Each of th e larger d ivisi on s therefore .
, ,

'
corresponds to an d as there are usually 1 0 of thes e the total range ,

of measuremen t is Th e outer sl eeve or thi mbl e has a bevelled ”

e dge
‘

divi ded i n to 25 divi s ions so that each of these divi si ons corresponds
, ,

to Fi n er readings to 0001 ” m ay b e tak en on a vern ier supplie d ’

w ith some i nstrum ents .

Although the total range i s 1 ” ( or i n som e cases or 25 m m .

( r eading to 0 1 m m ) sets are provided readi n g from

” 1 to
”
2 to
”

3 to
”
etc u p to 1 2 or”
C orrespondin g m etri c S i zes are also made
, .

Special mi crom eters w ith deep gaps are made for m easurin g th e thi ckn ess
of plates
.
an d with m easuri ng p oi nts of large si ze for so ft m aterials such
,
,

a s paper or fabri c Mi crom eters of sp eci al form wi th rounded poi nts are
.

made for m easuri ng the thi ckness o f tubes or for pl aces wh ere th e ,

o rdinary m i crom eter i s too large to p enetrate .

112 E NGI NE E RI N G I N S P E C TI O N

S om e m i crom eters are provi ded wi th a m illed nut for l ocki ng th e

m ovable p oi nts i n p ositi on after setti n g to a defini te si ze an d quick ,

adj usti n g mi crom eters where the nut i s disen gaged from the sc r e wed
,

O ne- i nc h M icr om t r e e .

T w o-i nc h M icrom t re e ,
wi t h E xt n s ione Pie c e .

Tub M icr om t r ( R tch t S t op )

e e e a e

F I G 62 —
.

.M icr om t rs
A . e e .

mi ion of M
( B y pe r ss L S St r tt C o
e ss rs . . . a re Ltd )
.

sp indle by pressin g the end of the th i mble save a good deal of ti me and ,

wear on th e thread when adj us tin g th e i nstrum en t .

Mi crom eters are li abl e to open out an d becom e i naccurate whe n

G A U GE S AN D M EAS U RI N G I N STRU ME NTS 113

M icr ome t e r for F a br ic or P p r

a e .

D p Fr
ee a me M icr om t r e e Pl t s
a e Sh ts ee .

S ix -
I nc h A d j u st bla e M ic rome te r .

FIG . 6 213 .

( B y pe rmiss ion o f Me ss r s . L . S . S fa rrc lt C o .

, L td .
)
1 14 E N GI N EE RI N G I N S PE C TI O N

handled ( owi n g to expan si on wi th temperature ) and therefore sp ecial ,

wooden han dles or rubber grip s are provi ded on th e fram es of large S izes .

i f not th e sa m e resul t m ay be achi eved by coveri ng the fra me with a

wrapp i ng of asbesto s stri ng .

As accuracy i n m aki ng mi cro m etri c m easurem ents i s b oun ded to a

c ertai n exten t by th e p ressure between th e mi cro m eter and th e work ,

ratchet stops are provided on som e i nstrum ents so that th e ratchet p awl ,

s lips when m ore than a certai n pressure i s appli ed Thi s devi ce is also .

useful when m easurem ents have to b e taken by d i fferent p erson s as it ,

e li m i nates th e personal factor bein g autom ati c i n i ts acti on The fixed

, .

p oi nts or anvils are s om etim es m ade adj us tabl e or i nterchan geable to ,

i n creas e the range of the i nst rum ent an d a m icrom eter is als o m ad e that
,

w il l m easure roun d work of any s ize up to 4? d iam eter an d fl at work up ,

to by S li di n g th e m icrom eter head along a bar an d locati n g i t i n the

d esi red p osi ti on by p lugs pass ed through harden ed steel bush es i n the
s l id e
( Fi
. g 6 2
. B
) B en ch m i crom eters are m oun ted on h eavy cast —
i ron bases
a nd are both rigid an d accurate .

The u se of m i crom eters for m easurin g thread s necessi tates the ‘

r ep lacem e n t of th e ordi nary fl at m easurin g surfaces by p i eces ground to ,

t he form of the thread . I f two si mple p oi nts are used th ey m us t be ,

Flo . (53—T h r d M icrom t r

. ea e e .

( B y pe r mis sion of M L S S t rr tt
e ss rs . . . a e Co L td .
)

o ffset a d istance equal to half th e pi tch of the thread but a better ,

m eth od i s to mak e th e m ovable poi nt i n the form of a V an d th e fixed ,

p oi n t to fi t over the top o f the opposite th re a d as sh own i n Fi g ,

.

Wh en poi n t and anvil are i n contact the lin e A B corresp onds t o the ,

0 pos i ti on of th e m icrom eter s cale .

The e ffective di a m eter o f th e thread i s the outside d ia m eter less the ,

d epth of on e thread .
 G A UG E S AN D M E A S UR I N G lN ST R UME N T S 1 15

For Wh i tw orth threads

Pi tch dia m eter or e ffective d ia m eter D
Where D outs ide d iam eter i n i nches .

N number of threads per i nch .

For U S and. standard threads

.

6 49 5
E ffective d iam eter D
Poi nts for m easurin g the pitch di ameters m ust b e cut cl ear of the
t hreads at th e top an d b otto m so that beari n g i s only obt ai n ed on th e si des
,

o f the threads .

With m icr om eters for m easuri ng th e c ore diam eters th e o ffset ,

varies wi th the p i tch of th e thread and for th i s reason the anvi l i s som e
'

t i mes m ounted on an adj ustabl e cros s slide where i ts pos i ti o n can be ,

a ltered to sui t the thread i n questi on .

Bal l p oi nts are used for com paratively coarse threads but these are ,

u se ls s for threads as fin e a s 1 6 p i tch and where used sh ould be s oli d and

, ,

not mad e to sli p over ordi nary m i cr om eter po i nts as i n the l atter cas e ,

there i s great li ab ili ty for error s to occur I f thread m easurem en t i s only

'

o ccas ional th e three wire sys tem described on page 1 07 m ay be us ed i n

,
-

c onj unction wi th a m i crom eter i ns tead of a gauge

‘

I nside m icrometers are used for m easuri n g the di am eters of h oles ,

and m ay be made of the two p oi nt or three p oi nt patterns

-
.
-
.

The two p oi nt m icr om eter is i llustrated i n Fig 64 an d is operated

-
.
,

i n an exactly s i m ilar m anner to th e outsi de m i cr om eter Th e len gthen i n g .

FIG 64 —
.T w p oin t ins id
o- M icr om t r w ith xt ns ion b rs
e e e , e e a .

( B y p r mi ion f M r L S S t rr tt C
e ss o e ss s . L td ) . . a e o .

bars are used to i n crease the range of th e in strum ent a nd can b e obtain ed ,

s uitabl e for m easurem en ts up to The three poi nt m i crometer -

( Fig 6 5 ) is extens ively used for a ccurate m easurem ents Th e three legs
.
.

a re at an an gle o f 1 20° to each oth er an d m eas ure th e di st an ce between

,
116 E N GI N E E RI N G I N S P E CT I O N

three equi di stan t p oi nts o n th e circum feren ce Thi s typ e of gauge does
-
. :

n ot n eed such skil led h an dli n g as the two p oi nt form an d so i s very -

,

p opular esp ecially for large d iam eters Fixed gauges of thi s typ e are al so
, . .

—Th r p oin t in t rn l M icr om t r

FI G . 65 . e e- e a e e .

(By p i ion of M r L S S t rr tt C L td )
-
e ri iz ss es s s . . . a e o .
, .

m ade th e only di fference b ein g the absence of the m i cro m eter head Th e
,
.

two poi nt gauge or m i crom eter h owever i s si mpler for ch ecki ng purposes
-
, ,
.

D epth an d h ei gh t gauges ( F ig 5 4) are als o m ade on th e m i cro meter

.

pri n ciple for check in g S l ots shoul ders etc an d thei r u se i s sim ilar to that
, ,
.
,
.

of fixed ga uges m ade for the sam e purp ose save that i n th is cas e d e finite ,

measurem ents can be mad e .

Space does not p ermi t of th e des crip ti on o f oth er appli cati ons of the
m i crom eter principl e but m any special f orm s are m ade for d i fferen t
,

p urp oses th e pri n ci p le of m easuremen t h owever bei n g the sam e i n all

, , ,

cas es .

V ER N I ER CA L I PERS .

Vern i er calipers are graduated i n i n ches tenth s an d fortieths of an , ,

i n ch but the verni er scal e wh i ch sli des along i t has 25 d ivi sion s

f? 5 5 _ Ve rn /er 5 ea /e .

( Fi g . wh ich occupy th e sam e len gth as 24 d ivi sion s on th e calipe r

b ody . Thus the d i fferen ce between a vern ier d ivisio n and a body division .
 G A U GE S AN D M EA S U RIN G I N ST RU ME NT S 117

is one twenty fifth o f one forti eth or T6 6 6

- -
To read the i nstrum en t n ote
- 1 ”
,

how many i n ch es tenths an d forti eth s of an i nch th e 0 m ark on th e

, ,

verni er is fro m the 0 m ark on th e b ody Then n ote th e number of .

d ivis i ons on the vern i er from O to a lin e wh ich exactly coi nci des with a
line on th e b ody I n the i llustrati on ( Fi g 6 6) th e vern ier has m oved
. .

1 ”
four ten ths
-
one forti eth an d the 1 1 th li ne on the vern i er
-

c oincides with a l i n e on the body Therefore th e readin g i s .

1 4 025 01 1 S i m il ar readi n gs m ay b e taken on a

' ' ‘

m etri c scale i n whi ch 1 0 d ivi si on s on th e v e rme r c 0 1 nc 1 d e wi th 9 d ivis i on s

,

o n the body Vern i er calip ers ( Fi g 6 7 ) are m ad e with a sl id e that can b e

. .

c lamped i n p os i tion an d thi s i s attach ed by a screw to a m easuri n g j aw

,

F r on t S id e .

c k S id
Ba e .

FIG . 6 7 —V rn i r C l ip rs
. e e a e .

( B y pe r miss ion o f M r L 5 S t rr tt
e ss s . . . a e Co .
, L td .
)

w hich carri es the verni er The s crew i s us ed for maki n g fin e adj ustmen ts
.
.

O utsid e diam eters are m easured by placin g th e j aws of the calip er over
'

the work an d i ns id e d iam eters by usi n g the ground proj ecti on s on th e

,

measuring j aws A S thes e are only about i lon g h owever th e ends o f

.
”
, ,

the h ol es only can b e g au g e d i n th is way For i nsi d e m easurem ents th e

'

d istance across thes e proj ecti ons m ust be added to the readi n gs t o obtai n
the correct result Thi s can be obta ined from the m akers or m easured by
.
,

m eans of an outs ide m icrom eter or vern i er cali per wh en th e j aws are i n
t h e closed posi ti on .
1 18 EN GI N E E RI N G IN S PE CT I O N

Verni ers are m a de up to 24 l on g an d i f made i n m etri c s izes are

”
,

accurate to 3 5 m m 1
.

A special a nd i mp ortan t use of th e verni er prin cipl e i s i ts appli cati on

to th e m easurem en t of gear teeth A gear tooth caliper i s S hown in
.
-

Fi g 6 8 an d c on sis ts of an ordi nary verni er wi th a t ongue that can b e

.
,

FIG . 68—G r T ooth V rn i r

. ea e e .

( B y pe rm is s ion of M r L S S t rr tt C o
e ss s . . . a e .
, L td .
)
"

m oved at ri gh t an gl es to the j aws and m arked i n a S i m ilar mann er to th e

’
‘

ordin ary vern ier B oth th e sl idi n g j aw an d th e tongue have adj usti n g
'

. ,

s crews an d compensati o n can be mad e for any variati on that m ay occu r

,

i n ei ther a gear blank or rack .

D epth gauges are als o m ade on si m ilar lines to th e m i crom eter dept h
gauge s ave that i n thi s cas e th e readi ngs are taken on th e vern ier principl e
, ,

a n d th e S li din g ton gue i s fl at i n s tead of b ei n g round as i n th e case of ,

m i crom eter depth gauges .

M E A SURI N G M A C H I N ES .

S tan dard m easuri ng m achi nes con s ist of a combin ati on of th e

“

m i crometer an d verni er pri n ciples of m easurem en t together wi th som e ,

device for i n dicati ng th e pressure between th e m easurin g surfaces As th e .

 GAU G E S AN D M E A S U R I N G I N STRU M ENTS 1 19

read ings are taken to an accuracy of ra dar to 1 5 5 5 5 5 of an i n ch i t is “

)
1
,

necessary to m oun t such m achi n es on a ri gi d bed and to en sure a n eve n

temperature i n th e r oo m wh ere they are placed .

Elaborate precauti ons are taken to eli mi nate p ers onal errors and a s ,

the accuracy of such m achi n es i s far greater than i s n ecessary i n th e sh op s ,

they are on ly used for ch ecki n g purp oses D escrip tions of the best — known .

measuri ng m achi nes m ay be found i n Machi nery N ov 2md 1 91 6 under , .

, ,

the headi n g Gaugi ng an d I nspecti on Meth ods

, .
”

I N DI CA TI N G G A U GE S .

Gauges of the sel f i n di catin g type are m ostly used for th e purpos e of
-

compari son for detecti n g eccentri ci ty i rregulariti es of surface di s torti on

, , ,

after harden i n g an d other S i m ilar m easurem ents

,
.

The ran ge of i ndi cation i s usually sm all bei n g i n th e n ei ghb ourho od ,

of 1 5
1 ”
for dial i n di cators an d therefore such i ns truments cann ot be use d
,

for maki ng defin it e m easurem ents of si zes unl es s supplem en ted by so m e ,

other gauge or i ndicator

The sim plest gauge o f thi s type i s the m ultiplyi ng lever form show n
"

i n Fig 69 Th e sh ort arm of the lever rests agai nst th e work whi ch is
. .
,

m ounted on a ce ntring devi ce of s om e ki n d an d turn ed roun d by hand .

The n eedl e bei n g ,

zero for on e p oint i n the ci rcum feren ce wi l l ,

FIG . 69—M u lt iply in g L v r G u g

. e e a e .

( B y pe r m iss ion of M L S S t rr tt C
ess rs . . . a e o .
, L td .
)
i ndicate on th e s cale to a greatly magni fi ed extent any i rregularity i n th e
surface eccentricity or departure from a truly ci rcular form Th e i ndi cato r
, ,
.

sh own gives readings to and by m ounti n g on a sui table support such ,

as a scribing bl oc k body m ay b e m oved over a fl at surface to i ndi cate a ny

,

defects of form or setti n g .

1 20 E N GI N E E RIN G I N S PE CT I O N l
(

A very accurate form l ever gauge whi ch can be adapted to almos t

of ,
-
.

a ny class of work by arr a nging sui tabl e hol di n g devi ces i s th e Hirth ,

minime te r ( Fi g I n thi s i nstrum ent th e sh ort arm of th e lever is m ad e

.

very s mall an d accurat e b ei ng th e d i stance between two kn i fe edges

,

A an d B Thi s di stan ce i s m ad e sli gh tly vari able to all ow adj ustm ent for
.

th e i nstrum en t A p lunger i n con tact with th e work presses on the kn i f e

.

e dge A an d any s m al l m ovem en t of A causes th e l on g arm C to m ove

,

a cross th e scale whi ch may b e graduated to read i n divis ion s of 001 or

,
” '

accordin g to the rati o between th e two arm s of th e l ever A .

S prin g D keeps the seati n g block E i n con tact wi th the kn i fe edge an d ,

’

return s th e plunger F to i ts lowest p osi tion after me a suring thus bri nging,

back the po inter C t o zero Th e en tire m echani s m i s en closed i n a tube

.

w ith a n open i n g at the top to enable th e scal e an d poi nter to b e seen when
m easuri ng .

D i al i ndicators are al so operated by a plunger i n contact wi th the

work an d i n th is case the m ovem en t i s ei th er m ul tipl ied by a lever an d
,

s egm en t or by a rack and trai n of gears I n the form er cas e ( Fi g 7 1 8 ) th e

. .

plun ger i s press ed to its lowest p os ition by m eans o f a s pri ng A When .

i t i s m oved over the work any i rregulari ty causes th e plunger to ris e and
, ,

the m otio n i s tran sm i tted an d magni fied by th e lever B wh i ch carries a

,

toothed segm en t C I n m ovi n g fro m l eft to ri gh t about th e centre D the

.
,

sm all gear wh eel G i s caused to rotate carryi ng with i t a n eedl e whi ch

,
 GAU GE S AN D M EAS URI N G I N ST R UM ENTS 1 21

works on a graduated s cale Thus a very high degree o f magni fica ti on

.

can b e obtai ned an d readin gs to 001 or 0001 m ay b e m ade with

,
” ” “ ‘

d ifferen t i n strum ents of thi s typ e .

The p ri ncipl e of a rack O perated i nd icator i s sh own i n Fig 7 1 A H ere

-
. .

the S p i ndle plunger A works i n lapped and harden ed bushi ngs an d has a ,

rack cut i n i t wh ich turns a pi ni o n B Thi s rotates a p i n io n C m ounted

.

on the sam e sp in dl e an d C i n turn ,

drives p i ni o n D upon the S p i ndl e of
, , ,

W O RK

m of fi a c/r e?F/ m an B rag / a m a lf j y n f

' '

Brag /a 7/ e ver a /7 7 e

0 / a / fi re/ wa fe r
( A) (B)
which the i n di cating need le i s m ounted Thus th e degree of m agnificati on
.

d epen ds upo n th e rati o O f the vari ous gears a n d may be m ade greater o r ,
.

less as required A fourth pi ni on i s gen erally add ed to preven t back

.

lash and thus to give greater accuracy .

O ther m agn i fyi n g d evices are us ed i n di fferen t d ial i ndi cators but ,

these togeth er wi th th e vari ous uses of dial gauges can not be dis cus se d
, ,

h ere . A referen ce to arti cl es an d pap ers d escribi ng vari ous types an d

appl icati on s i n detail i s given at th e end of thi s chapter D ial i ndi cators .

need to be ch ecked peri odi cally by m ean s O f a setti ng block or oth er

standard to ensure correctn ess an d accuracy O f worki ng .

THE G A UGE R O O M
This i s a n ecess ity wi th any i nspectio n system an d i s th e place wh ere ,

g auges m ay be kept for replacem ent m aster gauges an d m easuri n g

,

machi nes stored and appl iances for ch eckin g and standardi si ng gauges
,
.

installed I t is therefore th e h eart O f th e gauge system

. .
1 22 E NG I N EE R I N G I N S PE C TI O N

Th e foll owi ng tools a nd m easuri n g i nstrum ents form the nucleus O f

such an equip m ent but special t ools an d appli an ces must be added for
,

di fferen t classes o f work

( )
1 I n specti on table an d surface plates .

( )
2 H ead s wi th testin g centres .

( 3 ) N ewal l or other m easuri ng m achi n e .

( )
4 Johan ss on gauges .

( )
5 External an d i nternal m i crom eters .

( )
6 Heigh t and depth gauges .

S et O f verni er calip ers as "

( )
7 an d ,

( 8 ) Strai ght edge s and test bars of vari ous si zes

-
.

( )
9 U niversal bevel pro tractors an d combi nati o n an gl e gauges .

( )
1 0 Radius gauges feelers an d thi ckn ess gaug es
, , .

( 1 1 ) D ial i ndi cators to 001 an d 0001

‘
” “
”

( 1 2) Sp eed i ndi cator .

( 1 3 ) Gear tooth verni er .

( ) S crew pi tch gauges an d w ires for ch ecki n g screw gauges

1 4 .

( 1 5 ) R e feren ce or master gauges .

( 1 6) Try q are S piri t level an d therm om eter

, ,
.

( 1 7 ) H o ffm an n stan dard rollers an d balls .

( 1 8 ) S creen an d proj ecti on apparatus for threads .

The gauge room sh oul d be k ep t at a m e an temperature O f abou t

62° F or . C Th i s is n ot vi tally necessary but th e e ffect of tempera
.
,

ture sh ould be b orne i n m i nd when ch ecki ng gauges m ade by outsi d e

contractors Gauges made by th e Nati onal Phys ical Lab oratory are usually
.

tes ted at that temp erature .

Th e ordi nary m easurin g i nstrum ents such a s rules squares , , ,

protractors calipers s cribers wi re gauges etc are n ot described i n th e

, , , ,
.
,

foregoin g pages as i t i s assum ed that th e reader is su ffi ci en tly fam ili ar

,
.

wi th th ese an d i f n ot their pri n ciples can readi ly be grasped by referenc e

, , ,

to a ny to ol maker s catal ogues Also where detail ed descripti on s hav e

’
.
,

’
been given th e use of such tool s i s d escribed from an i nspector s standpoi nt
,

o nly so that m any useful a nd wel l k n own appli cation s have b een o mi tted
,
- .
 GAUG E S AN D M E A SU RI N G I N STRU M ENT S 1 23

Apart fro m the vari ous catal ogues i ssued by to ol suppli ers an d m akers ,

the followin g papers and arti cles on gauges an d gaugin g m ay b e consulte d

with advantage
Thom as H awke sley Lecture on Li m i t Gaugin g by S ir Richar d ,

Glazebr ook K C B ( Proc I n st M ech E n g N ov

,
. . . . . . .
,

The Hardeni n g O f S crew Gauges wi th th e Leas t D i storti o n i n Pitch ,

by W J Li n eham E Sc ( Proc I nst M ech En g Apri l

. .
,
. . . . . .
, ,

The Manu fa cture of B ri tish Ass ociati on S crew Gauges ,

by T F . .

D avey ( Pro c I nst M ech E n g Feb

. . . .
,
.
,

The Pri nciples of Li mi t Gaugi ng ,

by A A Remi ngton . .
,

(
”
En gi neeri ng Apri l 1 5 th , ,

C apstan D i al Gauge En gi neering , M arch 1 8 th ,

The Sykes Gear Tooth C omparator En gi neeri ng ,

July 1 5 th ,

Gaugin g an d I nspecti o n M eth od s M achi n ery ,

O ct . 26 th ,
N ov 2md an d N ov 9th
.
, .
,

Profile an d I ndi catin g Gauges M achi nery ,

D ec . 1 4 th ,

Makin g Li m i t Gauges Machi n ery ,

”
D ec . 2lst ,

N otes on S crew Gauges ,

by CO1 . R . E . B . C omp ton ( I ns t
A ut om obi le En gi n eers ,

Arti cle on Thread s an d S crew Gauges Machi n ery ,

M arch
1 5 th ,

Master Whitw orth Thread Gauges ( Machi nery O ct 25 th ” “

, .
,

Gaugi ng an d I nspectin g Threads M achi nery Jun e , ,

C om m on an d Speci al M i crom eter C alip ers Fe b

”
M achi nery , .

1 4 th ,
 CHAP TE R VI I I

MA C H I N E S H O P I N S PE CT I O N

Th e i nsp ecti on O f m ach ined or partly m ach i ned detai ls i s largely

bound up wi th the question o f jI g s an d gauges but th ere are certai n ,

g ui di n g pri n ci p les that m us t be O b served whatever may be th e n ature of

th e j ob an d th e d egree O f accuracy required .

Th e system of i nsp ecti on used d e pends largely upon the l ay out

,
-

o f m achi n ery an d s equence of O p erations an d i n cas es wh ere a works or

,

m ach i n e sh op i s bein g plan n ed d e n ovo i t i s a s i mp le m atter to m ake

arrangem en ts for i n specti on aft er each op erati on or up on compl etion of
,

e ach detai l a s m ay be required . I n m any i n stances however the , ,

i nsp ecti on sys tem has to b e g rafted on to th e exis ti ng organi sati on and ,

thus i ts arran gem en t i s b oun ded by l i m i tati ons O f space a nd other

c on s iderati ons wh i ch O ften m ak e i t i mpos sible to adopt th e b es t procedure .

Th e weigh t O f parts produced exerci s es a good deal of i nfl uence on

th e arran gem en t O f m achi n e tools . Wh ere h eavy parts are b e ing mad e . ,

i t is s om eti m es m ore conveni en t an d ch eaper to take th e mach i n e to th e

work than to tak e th e work to the m ach in e I n such in stances th e basi s
, .

for th e sys tem is th e Job or O rder Nu mber on e or m ore O f thes e b ei ng

,

p laced i n charge o f a vi ewer or i n spector to se e that all O pera tions are

c orrectly p erform ed , that n othi ng is om i tted an d that the j ob i s s en t out
,

O f th e sh op i n a comp lete sta te to the n ext sh op or seri es of O perati ons

,
.

T h e nu mber of vi ewers requi red an d th eir ar ran gem ent Wi ll th erefore

, ,

d epen d up on th e value and l ocati on O f th e vari ous j obs i n th e sh op fro m

t im e to tim e an d th e i nspecti on system wi ll be i n a m ore or l es s fl uid
,

s tate dependi n g o n th e nature an d am oun t of the work i n han d Th is

,
.

c lass of work als o i nvolves th e adap tati on of m any t ools and m easuring

d evi ces to sui t th e work i n h and . U nl ess th is is of a very costly or

s tandard type i t d oes not pay to m ak e S p ecial t ools and gauges as these
, ,

may be us el es s for a consi derable ti m e after th e j ob i s completed and ,

r epresen t SO much cap ital lyin g id le Also i f th e work i s of a vari ed

.
‘

n ature th e vi ewers m us t be S killed m echan i cs wi th con siderabl e e x pe ri

,

e n ce,
as th ey m ay be called up on to do a n umber of d i fferen t j obs and to
testi fy to th e correctn ess O f m any d i fferen t ki nds O f w ork i n th e course of
,

a few weeks or m on ths .

 MA C H I N E S H O P IN S PE C T I O N 1 25

I t i s upon repetiti on work h owever that i nsp ecti on i s m ost valuable

, ,
.

Small errors made i n th e early operati ons on a m ach in ed part m ay caus e

much s crap an d th e loss O f expen sive m achin in g work at a later stage
,
.

Such work i s divi sible i n to two class es

( )
1 Repeti tion work o f wh ich a large quan tity i s required bu t ,

whi ch lasts for a co mparatively short p eriod after whi ch ,

th e machi n es have to b e S et up for other s i mi lar work bu t ,

of di fferen t d i m ensi on s .

( 2) R epeti ti o n work wh ere large quanti ti es of preci sely S im ilar

arti cles are to b e produced for l ong p eri od s a nd where ,

consequ ently th e m achi nes do n o t have to b e broken do wn

,

or re arran ged
-
.

I n the first case th e m achi n es wi ll probably be arran ged i n secti ons

, ,

each consistin g of on e typ e O f machi n e i e turni n g dri lli n g m ill in g an d

,
. .
, , , ,

shapi ng secti ons an d th e work wi ll b e transported fro m on e s ection t o

,

the other as m ay be required .

I n th e s econ d cas e transport troubles an d other s ources O f loss

, ,

delay an d exp en di ture m ay b e avoi ded by groupi ng th e m ach i n es for th e

,

producti o n O f parti cular part s on ly E ach s ecti on th en cons is ts O f th e

“

machin es requi red for producing one d etai l b ei n g arranged i n order ,

following th e s equence of m achi n i ng O perati on s o n that d etai l In .

extrem e cases m ach i nes m ay be se t Up for d oin g on e or two O p erati on s

,

only th e articles bei n g p as sed on to one or m ore S i m ilar m achi n e s

,

di fferently set up for perfo rm i ng subs equent O peration s I n this even t .

,

the number or n am e of m ach i ne and tools to b e used are speci fi ed i n detai l

on the O p erati on sheets or lay ou t of th e j ob
-
.

Th e vi ewers are th erefore app ointed to i nsp ect th e vari ous parts
machined on a certai n s ecti on or to watch th e producti on O f a parti cular
,

detai l or d eta ils as the case m ay be but i n th e form er cas e a vari ety of
,

gauges will b e requi red fro m ti m e to ti m e an d i n th e latter th e number , ,

si ze and ki nd of gauges required are accurately kn own an d invari abl e

,

( unless there i s an alterati on i n th e desi gn O f th e part bei n g produced ) .

The first sys tem th erefore requires a gauge store or stores conven i entl y
, , ,

situated to supply th e whol e shop or a certai n group O f secti ons an d th e ,

viewer m us t b e able to draw from these stores th e gauges required fro m

tim e to ti m e to sui t di fferen t kin ds of work Th ere i s always th e di ffi culty
.

that gauges O f S peci al si z e required for a p arti cular j

ob m ay not b e availabl e

when required ( unl es s thi s has b een foreseen wh en placi ng th e drawi ngs
i n the sh op ) an d irri tatin g delays m ay res ult whil e th e gauge i s bein g
1 26 EN G IN E ER IN G I N S PE C T I O N

b ough t m ad e I t i s th erefore a great conven ien ce to have all gauges

or .

n umbered an d i ndexed an d to have on th e detai led drawings or lay out

,
-
,

a s ch edul e of th e gauge nu mbers to b e used on each j ob I n th is way .

,

S p eci al gauges or tools are n ot li kely to be overlooked or forgotten I f .

o ne parti cular si z e or type of gauge is us ed on several s ecti ons a su ffi cient ,

number o f thes e m us t be provided i n th e s tores to avoid th e p oss ibi lity

o f vi ewers wai ti ng for gauges wh i ch are already i n us e .

The s econ d system enables each vi ewer to k eep h i s own s tock of

g auges handy for i m m ed iate use as th e number requi red is comparatively
,

s mall , an d th e firs t cost i s O ffset by th e ti m e saved due to th e viewer ,

n ot havi ng to walk backwards an d forwards for gauges to and fro m the

s tores Th e storekeeper s ti m e i s als o econ om i sed by thi s arrangem ent
.
’
.

T h e O pera tor s gauges should n ever b e us ed by th e v i ewer a s i f th e

’

latter has h i s own gauges th es e act as a ch eck up on those used by the

,

O p erator Th e vi ewer s gauges S h ould be checked daily i f po ss ibl e

’
.
, ,

t o ensure accura cy and to av oi d p assi n g work tha t i s outsi d e th e prescribed

li mi ts
.

Each vi ewer sh oul d have hi s own stamp SO th at h e can m ark wi th a

d efini te l etter or n umb er every arti cl e vi ewed an d pas s ed by hi m In .

t hi s way m is takes can be traced to th e d eli nquen t an d the kn owl edge ,

that thi s can b e don e i s O ften an i n cen tive to thorough an d correct work .

T o avoi d clashi n g i t is advi sable tha t a d efin ite p os iti on sh ould b e allotted
,

for th e s tam p corresp ondi n g to each O perati on Fi g 7 2 sh ows such a

. .

system for a m ach in ed con necti ng rod but th e numbers actually i m press ed
,

o n th e rod wi ll b e th os e of th e vi ewers con cern ed an d n ot th e numbers,

o f th e op erati on s as shown .

Where two or three shi fts are run ni n g i t i s conven i en t to have a

,

d i fferen t system O f m a rki n g or numberi n g for each sh i ft S O that th e

'
'

v ari ous s tamps can qui ckly and easi ly be i den tified .

Large an d i mp ortan t parts should b e i nspected after each op erati on ,

b u t sm all an d relatively uni m portan t parts m ay b e i nspected a fter com

p le tion or,
after certain s el ected O p erati on s on ly I n som e i nstan
. ces it ,

i s suffi ci en t to i nsp ect only 1 0 or 20 p er cen t O f th e fini sh ed a rti cl es and

.
,

i f foun d sati s factory to pass th e wh ole ou tput on tha t basi s but i f any ,

s crap i s found th e wh ol e batch m us t b e exami n ed i n d eta il

,

An i mportan t part of i n specti on i s th e sampl e vi ew

“
When a .

m ach in e i s n ewly se t up ( or at th e com m en cem en t of each S h i ft ) a number

'

o f th e m ach i ned arti cl es are specially exam in ed to s ee that th e work i s

s ati sfactory before machi ni n g i s allowed to pro ceed

,
Th i s i s a ch eck ,
 M ACH I N E SH O P I N S PE CT I O N 1 27

u p on the s etti ng an d tools us ed an d O fte n saves troubl e i n i n stances

,

w here i t i s i mpossible to exam in e work i m m ed iately after compl eti o n ,

s o that any m istak e th is respect would resul t s crappi ng O f al l

w ork don e b et w een the t i m es of settin g up a nd i nsp ecti on When work

.

i s found to be wrong th e i nspector m us t n oti fy the p ers on wh o i s

,

responsible for producti on on the particular s ecti on where th e work i s being

d one th e tool s etter charge hand or foreman )
, , .
1 28 E NG I N EE R I N G IN S PE C TI O N

O n e of th e chi ef d i fficulti es m et with i n th e shops i s th e disposal O f

scrap Unless rej ected p arts are properly an d p erm an en tly m ark ed they
.
,

are liable to be retri eved from th e scrap h eap and us ed wi thout th e kn ow -

,
'

ledge O f forem en or i n sp ectors I t i s th e re fore ne c e ssary to h ave sp eci al .

s tamps for marki n g m aterial an d O perat ors scrap These should b e ’

.

i mpressed i n s om e promi n en t place after th e fin al deci si o n i s m ade but ,

i n addi ti on i t i s advisabl e to pain t th e rej ected work with som e disti n

u ish in r O perator
g g co lour red for m ateri al yellow fo ) s o th at they ,

m ay b e sort ed ou t by a lab ourer an d tak en to th e prop er s crap bi ns .

"
M ateri al scrap is a coveri ng ti tl e given to all scrap n ot due to
work don e on th e m anufacturer s prem is es i e al l scrap whi ch can le g iti ’

,
. .
,

m ately b e return ed to th e suppl iers for free replacem en t .

A ll oth er scrap i s Op erators scrap

’
an d must b e charged up to th e
d epart m en t where th e faulty work wa s d on e .

I n s om e i nstan ces i t i s advi sable to deface s crapp ed work by a ham m er

blow or other m ean s to m ak e sure that i t wi ll n ever agai n get in to circula
, ,

tio n When work i s rej ected i t should be sen t to th e vi ew room or reclai m

.
,

departm ent accompani ed by a rej ecti on s li p O f the foll owi ng or si m i lar

, ,

form Th is rej ecti o n slip i s m ad e ou t i n dupli cate one copy rem ai nin g
.
,

i n th e i nsp ector s boo k whi le th e oth er i s torn ou t and sent w i th th e work

’
.

R EJ E C T I O N S L I P .

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oo o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oo o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oo o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

View e r ’
s S ta mp
or b ig ’z a tl‘re O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

A ll
arti cles finally pass ed on th e secti on view should b e sen t t o th e
vi ew room where all ( or a p ercentage ) O f th e arti cl es pass ed on th e secti on
are ch eck ed before sen din g on th e various consi gn m ents to the progress
stores or to th e n ext seri es of O p erati ons
, .
 M A C H I N E S H O P I N S PE CT I O N 1 29

Th e followi n g i s a sp eci m en organisati on for vi ewi n g s tamp in g , ,

passing and rej ecti ng arti cles mad e i n the m achi n e sh O p I t i s of cours e .
, ,

merely an outli n e of whi ch th e detai ls m us t b e fille d i n to sui t th e

,

particular class of work i nvolved .

( )
1 R O UG H S T O RES .

All materi al i ssued mus t b e accompani ed by a card s tamped with a

rubber stamp givin g the symbol class an d s erial numb er O f th e m aterial
, , , ,

and th e p erso n i ssuing thi s m ust s ee that i t i s correct to specification an d ,

has been released by I nspecti on D epartm en t where necessary ,

.

( 2) R O UG H V I EW .

All cas ti ngs forgi ngs etc m us t b e tes ted to en sure that they can
, ,
.
,

be machi n ed to di m en s ion s and stamp ed by th e viewer pass in g s am e Thi s

,
.

stamp mus t be put i n a certai n prom in en t positi on on each p art Th e .

position to b e decided by th e foreman i n charge or authori s ed assi stant ,

and n ot altered wi thout h is consen t I n s m all parts it m ay be found fro m

.

experi ence that o nly a s elective V i ew i s neces sary th e proportion i nspected ,

to be i n accordance wi th th e si z e or i mportance of th e part .

I n cas es wh ere i t i s though t advisable to s en d through parts that wi ll

not machi n e up to d im ensi ons without special attenti on th e faul ty part ,

must be pai nted a d isti nctive colour an d th e C hi ef I n spector no ti fied in ,

writin g that th es e have b een s ent through .

O n parts that are tested for p orosi ty or strength an add itional vi ewer s ,
’

stamp must be added Thi s stamp to b e i n a positio n as n ear as p ossibl e

.

to th e final vi ewi ng stamp Parts tha t are n ot m achi ned al l over m us t

.

be stamped wi th catalogue number Thi s s tamp als o mus t be placed .

a s n ear as p os sibl e to the final vi ewi ng s tamp Parts m us t be releas ed by .

the I nsp ection D epartm en t ( where necessary) b efore i ssue to shops All .

parts finally rej ected i n R ough Vi ew S h ould b e seen p ers onally by th e ,

foreman i n charge and a repres en tative O f th e I nspection D epartm ent .

( )
3 S E CTI O N V I EW .

The vi ewer on th e s ection m ust work t o gauges an d drawi ngs pro

v id e d
, unless a p erm anent concessi on i s given to forem an vi ewer i n
writing . Where p ossibl e he must vi ew each pi ece as i t leaves th e
,

mach ines .

I n cases wh er e O perati on s are carri ed ou t too rapidly for thi s they ,

can be vi ewed i n batches O f 5 1 0 or 20 accord in g to th eir s i ze an d

, , ,

K
130 E NG I N EER I N G I N S PE CT I O N

i mp ortan ce A s el ecti onal view can b e tak en O f s om e parts fro m automati c

.

m achi nes or m i nor and un i m portant op era tions The proe c d u re on aut omatics.

to be as follows — Th e m achi ne m ust b e cleared at the compl etio n O f ,

sa
y
, 5 0 parts Two
. or three of th es e m us t be tri ed to gauges an d i f correct , ,

th e wh ole pass ed I f th e samples are found to be i ncorrect th e whol e

.
,

batch m us t be vi ewed and th e m achin e stopp ed pendi ng i nvestigati on ,

.

All parts to be h eat treated m ust be so m arked on the p iece card for
fi rst O perati on wh ich m ust als o bear the cod e m arks i ndicati ng the brand
,

o f steel Th es e code m arks mus t b e stamp ed on the parts by th e vi ewer

.
, ,

b ef ore they are s ent to th e n ext O p eration and tran sferred to an other p osi
,

tion wh en ever i t i s n ecessary to mach i n e ou t th e code marks Th e only .

exception to thi s rule i s th e cas e of parts too s m all or fragi le to bear th e

s tamp Th es e should be put i n speci ally mark ed boxes to avoi d con fusi on
.
-
.

Any part that is to b e h ard en ed i n such a way that there wi ll be no

,

a cces sible so ft p orti on left m ust b e stamped with th e catalogue ( or part )

,

n umber at the last O perati on before hardeni n g O f course th is cann ot .

,

apply to parts groun d al l over after hardeni n g Th e vi ewer must stamp .

'

e ach part passed excep t th ose m en ti oned ab ove The stamp used m ust
, .

be th e recogn is ed s tam p for th e departm en t .

Th e p a rts rej ected by th e vi ewer wi ll be i n spected by a charge hand -

or assi stan t forem an vi ewer wh o can use s om e di screti on where he kn ows

,

fro m previous experience that th e di m ensi on or fini sh i s uni mportant He .

m ust on n o accoun t i nstruct th e vi ewer to p ass work that i s n ot correct ,

but m ust stam p each part pass ed by h i m wi th a S peci al s tamp whi ch wi ll ,

’
b e di fferent fro m th e viewer s s tam p m en ti on ed above .

I f th e s ecti on forem an i s n ot s ati sfied wi th thi s decisi on h e can subm i t ,

th e rem ai nd er O f th e rej ects to th e foreman or h ead foreman vi ewer wh ose ,

'

d ecisio n will be final up to th is p oi nt a nd h e w ill s tam p all parts passed

'

, ,

w ith a pun ch beari n g h is i ni tials ( not m ore than two letters ) .

The vi ewer m ust then S i gn th e p i ece card after addi n g th e quan tity ,

p assed s en t for recti ficati on a nd rej ected The batch es of parts passed
, ,
.

for recti ficati on are th en s en t i n to Progress S tores and th e rej ected parts ,

i nt o th e Abeyan ce S tores ( or R eclai m D epartm ent ) .

Parts sent for rectification m us t n ot be stamped unti l th e addi ti onal

w ork has been don e an d the arti cl es finally pas sed Such parts mus t be .

l abell ed with a specia l ti cket up on whi ch th e fault to be rectified is clearly

,

d efined .

F or all parts that cann ot be stamped a fter h eat treatm ent the -
,

Progress D epartmen t m us t i ssue a special viewer s ti ck et i n addi ti on to ’

,
 MA C H I N E SH O P I N S PE C T I O N 1 31

the pi ece card on whi ch th e v iewer can enter th e quantiti es p assed or

,

rej ected on each successive O perati on Thi s ti cket m ust be issued before .

parts are S en t i n to th e H ardeni ng Sh op re main with th e batch through ,

all operati ons an d be d elivered wi th them i nto the Vi ew R oo m

, .

H A RDE N I N G S H O P .

The viewer i n the Harden i ng Sh op m us t see that all parts that can n ot
be stamped after hardeni n g bear th e catalogue number except where a ll
'

a ccessible surfaces are afterwards groun d or the parts too s mall or fragi le .

H e must also se e that they bear th e code m arks d en oti n g th e brand of steel
'

All parts m ust be stamped a fter heat treatm ent or i f this canno t be ,

done the vi ewin g ticket m us t be s ign ed The vi ewer must al so see that
, .

the heat treat ment i s i n accordan ce wi th sp ecificati on an d that th e required ,

t est p i eces are i ncluded wi th th e batch treated .

( ) I N AL
5 F V I EW .

A s i n th e case of S ecti on Vi ew th e viewer m ust work to gauges an d

,

drawin gs A special set O f pri nts wi ll be issued and imp ortant di m en s ion s
.
.

s igni fied i n red C ertai n uni mpo r

tan t d im en si on s can be vi ewed by
. .

selection such parts to be decided by th e forema n vi ewer

,
.

A ll p arts rej ected by th e viewer w il l be exami n ed by th e charge hand ,

and should h e d ecid e that any of these are acceptable h e m ust s tamp sam e
, ,

w ith the final stam p an d also a small star ,

These p arts m ust be sent to .

the View Roo m separated fro m the others but i n the same batch
, ,
.

Thi s also appl i es to the unstamped hard en ed parts but i n thi s case the ,

viewer s t ickets must state the quan titi es good and doub tful
’
.

Th e rej ected parts m us t then b e s ent to a speci al tabl e wh ere th ey ,

can be exa mined by secti on forem an each day I f the Vi ew R oom foreman .

agrees to pass any of these rej ects after consultation wi th th e secti on

foreman they m ust al so b e stam ped with a star and sent through
,

separately a s above , .

The rej ected parts must th en be s ent to Ab eyan ce Stores where they ,

w i ll be kept separate from Secti on Vi ew rej ects .

V I EW R O O M F O R P A RTS B O U G H T O UT .

A selecti onal vi ew m ust be tak en of al l parts rel eas ed from sub

c ontract ors and a report sen t to th e C hi ef I nsp ect or O f any parts that are
,

not consi dered acceptabl e for u se N O such parts must be s ent back to
.

t h e makers unless released by the I nsp ectio n D epartm ent .

 7

1 32 E NG I N E E RI N G I N S PE C TI O N

Parts fro m outsi d e that h ave not been rel eased by our outs ide i nspecto r
mus t be m ore carefully vi ewed Th e procedure to be si m i lar to that laid
.

d own for fi nal vi ew an d th e S peci al final view s tam ps m ust b e used Work
, .

released by the I nspection D epartm ent at a sub contractor s O I suppl ier s -

’
'
’

works wil l n ot require an addi ti ona l vi ew sta mp .

( )
7 A B EY A N C E O R R E C LA I M S T O RES .

The sh op sup eri ntenden t or Producti on D epartm en t must delegate a

, ,

m an su ffi ci ently conversan t wi th e re c tional requi rem en ts to overl ook thes e

rej ects an d i n th e presen ce O f a n authorised representative o f th e
, ,

I nspecti o n D epartm en t dam age beyon d recovery all parts h e agrees are
,

useles s . H e can then co nsul t th e s ecti on view f orem an or auth orised

assi stan t i f any of th e work rej ected on th e s ecti on i s i n h is O pi ni on g ood , ,

en ough to b e used and s i mi larly the View Roo m foreman for V R rej ects
, , , . . .

As far as p ossible an am i cabl e agreem en t m ust be arrived at but i n cas e

, ,

of d isa g re e me nt th e work mus t b e held over for further con siderati on

. .

Th e C hi ef I nspector wi ll m ee t the sh O p sup eri ntend en t each we ek or ,

m ore O ften ii necessary to d eal wi th any work l eft over after bei ng deal t
'

, ,

wi th as above Should there still b e any parts that the sup eri ntenden t
.

con si ders unj ustly rej ect ed th e C hi ef I nspector mus t b e con sulted and hi s
, ,

d ecisi on wil l be final .

All work final ly rej ected must be destroyed before i t leaves th e

abeyan ce s tores .

O n n o accoun t m ust work be allowed to pass ou t for further O perati on s

wi th out the san cti on O f the I nspecti on D epartmen t and th ei r repres enta ,

tiv e s mus t stamp each part and S i gn the releas e ti cket .

I f th ere i s any p ossibi lity of th e fault a ffectin g future O p erations i t ,

m ust b e accompani ed by a S pecial ticket stati ng d efect .

( )
8 G E N ERAL .

D rawi ngs an d lay outs of al l parts are provi ded on e set for shop u se
-
,

and one for I nsp ecti on D epartm ent All drawi n gs an d lay outs are loan ed
.
-

ou t on check fro m the D rawi n g S tores .

Gauges are provi ded for the u se of both op erators an d i nspectors and ,

are only loaned ou t on pri nted gauge requisi ti on s si gn ed by the forem an

or vi ewer .

I nspectio n D epartm en t O ffi cials on ly are al lowed to en ter the Gauge

S tores a nd th e View Room is on ly accessibl e to m emb ers o f other depart
,

m ents at the di screti on of th e forem an i n spector .

 MA C H I N E S H O P I N S PE CT I O N 1 33

Alterati ons to drawi n gs and lay outs must be referred to th e D rawi ng

-

O ffi ce for san cti on .

Th e supp ly of worki ng drawi n gs to the shops m ay occas i on a good

d eal of trouble an d con fus ion i f n o t system ati cal ly arranged When .

d rawi ngs are required for a com paratively short p eriod they frequently ,

lie about th e shop for m on ths or years after th e completi on o f th e j ob an d ,

becom e dilapi dated an d alm ost i llegible .

Wh en an other s i milar j ob com es al on g such O ld drawi ngs are rem em

,

bered and look ed up an d although a lteration s an d i mprovemen ts m ay h ave

,

b een m ad e i n th e m eanti m e th e O l d drawings are O ften worked to with

, , .

th e i nevitable producti on of scrap .

Thi s poi nts to th e advi sabi li ty O f k eepi ng a record O f al l blue pri nts
i ssued to the works so that every prin t may b e recalled when the j ob i s)
,

finished or replaced i f th e drawin g i s superseded by a later desi gn The

,
.

most econo m ical an d effective m eth od i s to keep the shop an d i n specti o n

drawi ngs i n a drawi ng stores fro m whi ch th ey are i ssued to vi ewers or
,

’
O perators i n exchange for a s e c ia l c h e c k b eari n g the borrower s n umber
‘

p .

T hus all drawi ngs an d prin ts can b e traced at any tim e To ensure l on g .
.

li fe legibili ty an d ease of storin g and to faci litate n umberin g an d

, , ,

indexin g the pri nts sh oul d b e cut to standard si z es and m ounted

,
.

Such drawi ng s tores sh ould b e easi ly access ible fro m all part s
o f the shop and shoul d b e und er th e con trol of th e D rawi ng O ffi ce or
,

I nspection D epartm ent who are respon sibl e for keepi n g th e drawings
,

u
p to date .

Th e gauge stores m ay be run i n a si m ilar m an ner but where eac h ,

v i ewer has to vi ew on e or two components on ly i t i s advantage ous for each

,

man to have a C losed cupboard ( preferably m ounted on wheels SO that it ,

c a n b e tak en to any part of the secti on contain i ng hi s gauges and drawi n gs

) .

S uch cupboards m ay be wheel ed back to th e View Room ( if n ec es sary) for

s afety duri ng th e n ight .

When th e sequence O f operati on s on each c omp onen t i s defin itely laid

d own by the D rawi ng O ffice or Plan ni n g D epartm en t a lay out is O ften ,
-

p rovided givi n g such i nstructi on s i n detai l an d i n th is even t vi ewi ng

, ,

instruction s should b e drawn up by th e I nspecti on D epartment to

c orrespond to each m achi nin g O perati on vi ewed S uch i n struction s will
.

d escribe th e gauges to be used special faults to l ook for an d wil l give any
, ,

s peci al i nstructi ons n ecessary for exam i ni ng each O peration .

1 34 E N GI N E E R I N G I NS PE C TI O N 7

The followi ng examples of a forgin g ( crankshaft) sm al l castin g ,

( pi ston ) an d large cas ti n g (gear box ) wi ll i llustrate the m ethod s used i n

, .

thi s conn ecti on

fig . Cra n ks /9m?

E NG I N E CR A N K S H A F T .

( Fi g .

MA C H I N I N G O PE RA TI O N S .
I N S PE C TI O N .

1 . C entre both en d s of s ha ft . Spi n onc entre s and see that S ha ft is

r eason ab ly tru e .

2 . Stam p with id enti fica tion mark . N ot e that mark will not be machin ed
ou t .

3 . Finish u rn fl ang e S houl d er n ext

t , I n spect wit h cali per g au g e for fl ang e .

to fl a ng e and fi r st web R a di i . Gau g e off j ournal to shoul d er ,

”
to be 3 1 6 to g au g e
-
.
examine W i d th of shou ld er ,

d iam eter of j ournal and wi d t h ,

:

of fl an g e usin g pla te g au g e for

,

cham fer
4 . Fini sh fac e last web to size Turn . E x a min e diam eter of j ournal u sin g ? ,

j ourn al and S houl d er le avin g , c ali per g au g es for end porti on and
g rin d in g a llow a nce T
. urn a nd le ng th g au g e ov e r a ll w ebs als o ,

und ercut at e nd of j ournal to u se p lat e g a u g e from shou ld e r to

“

size Turn 1 g d iam eter l eavin g i

”
rna l and l e ng th from end f
.
, j O t o
all owance on for g rindi ng and , j our nal to web .

fac e end to fi ni sh e d len g th .

5 . Machin e b oth s i d es of C /sh aft T est th ickn e ss end and see tha t ,

( e i ther p lane or mi ll) . m achini ng is c entral with j ournal .

6 . Grind one si d e of C /sh a ft . Gau g e O ff j ournal to g round S id e of

S ha ft .

7 . Grind s econ d s i de of C /Sh aft . E xamin e wi d t h usin g cali pe r g au g e

,
.

T rans f e r th e i d en ti fic ation m ark s I t 1 5 most imp or tant to see that thi s

to g round sur face O f web n ext to O peration h as been don e to l imi t s ,

fl an g e and r emove all burrs rai sed to ensur e th e next O p era ti on b e in g

by stamps . ri g h t .

8 . C entr e turn in term e dia te j our nals

,
Gau g e d iam eter also off shoul der to ,

and f ace webs . j ournal Te st from j ournal to

.

we b l en g th of j ournal and u se
, ,

ca l i per g au g e ov e r w ebs Th e webs .

must be of e q ual l en g ths to e nsure

th e f ollow i ng m achinin g ope ra ti on
b ein g corr ect .
 MA C H I N E S H O P I N S PE CT I O N 1 35

MA CH I N I N G O PE RA TI O N S . I N S PE C TI O N .

9 . Te st on c e n tr e s for conc entricity , Pas s for ward i f crank sh aft is c on

i f ou t more th an 01 5 sha ft must -
”
ce n tric wi thin r e asonab le limits for
be strai g hten ed . t urnin g th e cran kpin .

10 . Strai g ht en if foun d n ece ssary D itto .

( strai g htenin g S houl d be avoided

if possi b l e) .

11 . Finish turn all cran kpins and

, C h eck d iameter u si ng cali pe r limit
,

fac e w ebs .
g a u g e also
, g au g e cr a nk pin to
Sh ou ld e r E xamin e t h ickn ess of
.

webs a nd cr an kpin s to web

,
T est .

in spe cial ins pecti on fixture for

positi on of pins j ournals and , ,

len g th of th row .

12 . St rai g h te n if n ecessary . I nspect for conc entricity maximum ,

ecc en trici ty must not exc ee d

Mil l ra d ius at th e cran kpin e nd . E x amin e u sin g h e i g ht g au g e O ff

,

of web s . j ourn al .

Mi ll ra d ius at th e j ournal end of T est usin g h e i g h t g au g e off j ourn al

'

.
,

webs .

D ril l a ll j ournals
T ry hol es for S iz e usin g plu g l imit ,

au and m ake su re that h ol es

.

g g e ,
D rill all crankp in s and fr a z e .

h a v e not ru n ou t O ptic al v i ew . .

D ri ll h ol es in webs . D itto . A ls o see that th es e hol es

br eak in to th e 1 h ol es .

18 . D rill oil hol es in j ournal s .

Make sure tha t a ll holes g o ri g h t
’
th rou g h in to m a in oil sup ply h ole s .

19 . D rill an g ular holes in cran kpins .

See that t h e s e hol es are in correc t
positi on .

20 . Cut key way at th e end of cran k Gau g e b oth width and d e pth a lso ,

sha ft .
s e e that th e k ey way is c e ntr al .

21 . B ore count er bore

, rea m and , T est S iz es and d epth O f con e usin g ,

cone pinion end of cranksha ft .

plu g and d epth g au g es .

22 . D rill and cone fl an g e e nd of E xamin e bot h d epth and diameter of

cranksha ft a nd turn ou t dia , un d ercut Spin shaf t between
.

m eter O f und ercu t . c entres and prov e th e sha ft to be

wit h in 01 0 of be in g true
”
.
.

23 . C ut th re a d at the pini on e nd , E x ami ne diam et er and th e pitch of

u nd ercut Shoul d er to finish ed th re a d s usi ng scr ewe d rin g g au g e
,
.

S iz e T urn recess
. .
Th i s must g o ri g h t u p to end of
th re a d s C h ec k diam et er and
.

W idth o f und ercut .

Grind fl an g e and C h eck diam e ter ( siz e is v ery impor

'

diam eter of
l eave on 0 1 0 for fini shin g tan t ) usin g sna p limit g au g e
”
.
.
,

25 . Grind pini on end of sha ft and C h eck di ame ter usi ng sna p l imi t,

lea v e on 0 1 0 for fi ni shin g ”

g au g e ( size is v ery im port ant )

D ril l and re am
.
.

26 .
hol es in fl an g e . I ns pect d iam eter and positi on O f
hol es in r e la ti on to pi ns The se .

ho les are use d for g ri ndi ng l ocation

purposes .
1 36 E N GI NE E RI N G I NS PE C TI O N
7
“

MA C H I N I N G O PE RA TI O N S . I N S PE C TI O N .

27 . Fraz e . C h eck .

27 a . Te s t for truth b e t we en c entr e s . C ount er c h eck a nd ma ke q ui te sure

Strai g h t en if mor e th an 0 1 0 sh aft is r eady for n ext O peration .

e cc entric .

28 . Rou g h g rin d j our nal s leavin g , Look for fl a ws

ou t E xami ne both .

on 01 0 for fi n i shing
-
A lso fi nish . r ou g h g rin d in g and fi ni sh g rin d in g .

g rind fl an g e d iame t er and pini on Speci ally n ot e th e fi nish a nd Con

po rti on to siz e c entric it o f s h a ft L imits m ust
r
.

y .

b e stric tly ad h er e d to I f correct , .

acc ept and p ass for war d to th e n ext

r tion
ope a .

29 Grind two cr ankpins to siz e

. .
C h eck diam et er wit h l imit g aug e .

29 a Grind th e oth e r two cr an kp in s

. C h eck d iam e t er with l imit g au g
to size .

3 0 Fini sh g ri nd th e j ou rn al s
. . C heck d iam ete rs of j ournals ,
a nd l ook
ou t for fl a ws .

31 . Gri nd fac e of fl a ng e .

C h eck d i a meter of fl an g e See th at .

sh aft is tru e and fi rst c lass fi nish

32 Grind web e nd , fr az e and fi le
.

, .

33 . B a la nc e a nd strai g ht en i f mec e s C h ec k ba lanc e on parall e l kni fe e d g e

sary .
l evel stri ps Sh aft mu st not b e
.

ou t m or e t h an 4 d r ain s .

34 . Fina lvi ew . U se spefi xture cial I n spect and v eri fy th at a ll operati on s

for posi ti on of j ourn al and pins . a re c om pl et e st am p and s end to ,

s tor e s .

S A M P L E I N S PE CTI O N M ET H O D ( P I ST O N ) ( Fig . .

I B ore and Fa c e
. S kirt for Loca tion
C heck d iam eter o f bore wi th go and not go p lug gauge an d ,

d epth from face to i ns ide of cr own to ensure c orrect thi ckn ess i n the
,

followi n g O perati on s ( us i ng depth gauge ) .

II . R oug h Tu rn D iame te r an d Fa c e to Le ng th .

Gauge diam eter wi th go and n ot go combi ned gap gauge and ”

l en gth from face O f crown to bottom of sk irt with

”
go and not go ,

length gauge I nspect crown for fi n ish

. Thi s m ust be a first class .
-

machi ned face .

I I I Finish Tu rn Dia mete r a nd Form Ring Groov e s

. .

“
Gauge all d iam eters usi ng go an d n ot g o combi ned gap ,
”

gauges s e t t o correct si zes Als o gauge bott om of grooves usi n g special .

,

s em i circular plate gauge to en sure th e ri ngs fittin g correctly

-
Test .

”
cham fer on top an d form o f s craper gro ove wi th t emplates For th e .

“ ’
p osi tion of grooves gauge first groove from face of crown usi ng g o
, ,

a nd not g o length gauge an d width of top s of gro oves with g o

”

,
 MA C H I NE S H O P I N S PE CT I O N 137

a nd go gap gauge
not C heck wal l thi ckn es s wi th
. i ndi cator
calipers an d length o f gudgeon pi n bosses wi th length gauge from outsi de
,

d iameter of p iston to i nsi de face of boss Test for ovalness usi ng .

,

comparator gauge ( di al i ndi cator ) wh ich m us t read wi thi n very fin e

,

l imi ts of b ein g roun d Pi ston m ust als o pass through ri ng gauge

made to m axi mu m S iz e .

IV B ore Gu dg e on Pin H ole

. .

Tes t di am eter O f bore usi ng g o and not go plug gauge an d

, ,

i nspect for s m ooth fini sh W ith test b ar in hole check wi th dia l

.
,
“

i ndicator for parallel i s m wi th l ocati ng face Also ch eck for bei n g central
.

with bosses and b ody o f p iston C heck di s tance from top or crown of
p iston wi th g o an d n ot go combi n ed lim i t length gauge .

V Wate r Test
. .

Test at 3 5 lbs per square inch pressure

. C arefully i nspect for leaks
.
,

parti cul ar attention bei n g paid to ri n g grooves an d crown .

VI . D rill O il H oles .

that all h oles are i n th e correct p osi tion are a

Se e , C lean j ob an d
,

d rill ed righ t through to i nsi de of casti n g .

VI I Mill C lea ra nc e A round Gu dg e on Pin H oles

. .

Measure th e width and length usi n g gauges , . C heck across m illed

face to en sure that too m uch has not been machi n ed O ff .
1 38 E N GI N E E R I N G I N S PE CTI O N

VI I A PVas h
. . Clea n , R e a dy for Fina l I nspe ction .
*

VI I I . Fina l I nspe c tion .

S ee that al l op erati on s have been completed .

C heck Wei ght

‘

Pas s through ri n g gauge .

S tam p an d sen d to s tores

, .

G EAR B OX .

R ou g h B or in g O f 2 h ol s w ith plu g e
B or in g fo c n tr l is t ion w ith c st in
.

r e a a
g a .

Th ec st in g wh n pl c d up on b or in g fi tur s h ou ld b
a e a e x e e
i n s p ct d by v i w r fo p os it ion
e e e e r
O pe r
.

. 2 D i m t r of sp ig ot
a e e .

Sp ig ot fo b in g tru w it h b or
r e e e .

F c of sp ig ot fo b in g tru wit h b or
a e ls o b c k f c
r e e e, a a a e
L n g t h fr om sp ig ot f c to b c k f c
.

e a e a a e
L n g t h of sp ig ot
.

e .

lVid th of b ss s fr om f c o e a e .

C l r nc
ea on clu tch b oss s
a e nd t p oin t A on dr win g e a a a
O pe r
.

. 3 M ill d c ov r f c fo b in g squ r w ith sp ig ot f c

e e a e r e a e a e .

D ist nc fr om f c to b or
a e a e e
Fo fi n is h
r .

Di m t r Of
a e e h ol s e .

P os it ion of l oc t in g h ol on c n tr l in a e e e e .

D i m t r of
a e e h ol ls o p os it ion w it h mill d f c e, a e a e .

D i m t r nd d pt h of
a e e a t pp in g h ol se a e .

S iz of dr ill d h ol s
e th t su ffic i n t i l ft in fo fi n is h
e e , see a e s e r
dr ill in g .

P os it ion of dr il l d h ol s e e .

D pth O f sp d om t r bus h h ol
e ee e e e .

D i m t r nd d pth of ( 2)
a e e a t pp in g h ol s
e 5
1 3
”
a e .

D i m t r p os it ion nd d pth of stud h ol s

a e e , a e e .

D i m t r nd p os it ion O f s l ct or od h ol s
a e e a e e r e .

D i m t r nd d pt h of dr ill d h ol s
a e e a e e e .

D i m t r f c in g nd c ou n t rs in k of
a e e , a h ol
a e e .

F c in g nd d i m t r of
a a h ol a e e e .

F c in g nd t pp in g of 1 g
a a a 7
”
as .

F c in g nd t pp in g of 1 g
a a a
”
as .

T pp in g of ( 8)
a stud h ol s on c ov r f c fo d i nd d pth e e a e r a . a e .

O per . 12 C n tr s
e f m in b or s
e o nd vers s h f t bor
a e a re e a e .

C ntr s O f sp d om t r bush b or
e e ee nd int r m d i t b or W i t h
e e e a e e a e e

m in b or s
a e .

D i m t r nd d pth of b l l r c h ous in g ls o fi n is h
a e e a e a a e , a .

D i m t r of r v rs s h ft b or s ls o fi n ish
a e e e e e a e , a .

D i m t r nd p os it ion of s l ct or od h ol s try w it h b fo
a e e a e e r e ,
ar r

linea b ility .

D t r
ia m e e of br k stud h l s
a e o e .

P s t n O f br k stud h l s
o i io a e o e .

O pe r . 13 D t r
ia me e p st n
a nd o i io r c ss nd c h mf r fo r r f c
of e e a a e r ea a e .

R c ss
e e a ndch f ram e of llé h l
”
o e .

cn l sh ft h l
F a i g of a y a o e .

D t r f cn p s t n clutch f or k h ol s W i th m m
ia me e , a i g a nd o i io of e a

b or s e .

D is t nc fr om sp ig o t f c to f c in g on lu g s n d fly w h l
a e a e a I sI e - ee

e nd .

Di a me t e r ,
p itc h a nd d pth
e of stud h ol s e .

N ot e—Th e pr ct ic of r ly in g on v i w rs to cl n m ch in d wor k b for insp ct ion

a e e e e ea a e e e e is
b ad and u n c on omic l T h is sh ou ld in ll s s b
e a . pr oduct ion op r t ion D irt y wor k
. a Ca e e a e a . Is

bad fo t h g
r g s nd g iv s inc orr ct r sults
e au e a e e e .
 MA C H I N E SH O P I N S PE CT I O N 139

Th e degree of i nsp ecti o n required on gears depen ds to a large exten t

on th e speed an d load in g of th e gears i n actual w ork H i gh speeds and .

heavy loadi n g requi re great accuracy to prevent n oi se an d h eavy wear or

pittin g Th e teeth O f th e gear may be tested i n detai l by sui tabl e gauge s
.

and gear — tooth verni ers an d the n the wheel may b e tested as a whole by
,

mounti ng on a rotati ng table an d turn in g by han d Th e two wh eels may .

be m ounted on separate spi n dl es at a fixed d istan ce apart an d turne d ,

together at di fferen t poi nts i n thei r ci rcum ference to obs erve eas e of ,

runni ng backlash and rolli ng quali ti es I t i s not suffi cient to m ak e one

, ,
.

such test , but after turni n g on e wheel should be tak en ou t of m esh

, , ,

turned through 6 0° or put back i nto m esh an d th e tes t repeated ,

.

Thi s procedure guard s again s t the possibili ty of p ass in g two wheels havin g
equal an d O pposi te faults that n eutralis e one ano ther i n th e firs t trial A
, ,

dial i ndi cator sh ould b e used to ensure that th e wheels are truly concentri c
an d that the faces are fl at Th e usual li mi t of accur acy i n th ese cases i s
.

about Thi s is parti cularly advisabl e wi th h arden ed gears that are ,

liable to run ou t o n accoun t of d is torti on a fter hard eni n g

I n som e attachm ents th e gears are pulled together by spri ngs whi l e ,

a dial indi cat or press es agai nst a square stud i n the sli de so that a ny ,

tendency of th e gears or S li d e to m ove away fro m th e m atin g gear ( d u e

’

to eccen tri city or poorly shap ed teeth ) i s S hown on th e d ial

- Vh e n
V .

”
the i n di cator vibrates from tooth to too th not m ore than 001
the gears are usually satis factory ( for sm all S i zes an d 0 02 for large r
”
,

A furth er m ethod i s to have a m aster gear fixed on a centre so that ,

other gears can be m ated with i t for test T O en sure i nterchangeabili ty a .

,

gear may be m oun ted an d four or five pi ni on s run wi th it ; then the gear i s
removed and four or five gears run with th ese p in i on s Thus each gea r .

and pini on h a s been run wi th several other pi ni on s an d gears an d an y ,

errors are at once sh own up .

Worm s an d wheel s should b e m oun ted at the correct centre di stanc e

and in prop er align m en t to e nsure that the beari n g b etween th e worm
,

threads an d wheel i s c orrect O n very large gears wh ere a tes tin g

.
,

mach ine i s n ot avai lable th e worm can be lai d i n the wh eel an d m easure
,

ments taken fro m a straight edge ( lai d acr oss th e ri m o f the wh eel ) to a bar
-

i n th e h ol e i n th e worm or to the worm shaft I f the m easurem ents taken

, .

on one S id e or en d of th e worm d i ffer from thos e taken on the other i t is ,

evident that th e shafts are n ot at righ t an gl es to one an other .

S m l l s iz s
a e a re c ons id r d
e e to be up to 8
”
d ia .
, a nd l r g r iz s up
a e s e to 1 8 d ia .
1 40 E NG I N EE RI N G I NS PE CTI O N

I t i s advi sabl e i n all cas es to have run ni n g fixtures i n whi ch the

gears ca n b e m ounted u nd er s ervice condi tio ns an d run under l oad at ,

th e required sp eed to i nvestigate th eir behavi our i n actual us e W hen .

sp eci ally si l ent run ni n g i s required thi s fixture m ay b e used for grinding
,

in th e gears
Th e p ersonal qual iti es required i n viewers are d ealt wi th i n
C hapter XI I bu t a machi ne S hop vi ewer S hould always g e t to kn ow the
,

o p erators whos e work h e h a s to exam i n e Thi s i s as i mp ortant as i t i s for

.

th e op erator to k n ow hi s m ach i ne as every m an has h i s own p eculiarities

, ,

a nd fam i liari ty with thes e will enabl e th e vi ewer to i nsp ect the O p erator s
’

work with greater j udgm ent an d wi ll give hi m advan ce kn owledge O f the

,

ki n d of m is takes that th e op erator i n qu esti o n i s l ikely to make .

Th e n umber o f vi ewers to be employed n aturally dep en ds on the class

o f work i nvolved but for a m ass productio n j ob th e usual average i s about
,

1 0 p er cen t of the n umber of operators worki n g

. .

M any vi ewers an d O p erators d o n ot appreciate the I mp ortan ce of

rough in g O p eration s T O O d eep a cut taken a t an early stage m ay preven t
.

th e s ur fa c e fro m clean i ng up satis factori ly i n the fi ni shi n g O p erati on s or ,

m ay make i t n ecessary to gri n d s o de eply ( i n cas e hard en ed work ) that th e -

fi ni sh ed surface has so ft patches and i n th e case of a rough turn ed shaft the

,
-

t ool mark s may be l eft i n after gri nd ing unless excess ive gri ndi ng allowance
,

i s left on Th e rough m achi ni ng m ay als o be out o f square to such an extent

.

that the fi n ishi n g cut do es n ot touch som e parts o f th e surface .

At th e sam e ti me i t is useless to check work to fi n e li m i ts when a broad

,

li m i t or m ore approxi mate fin i sh will do equally well S uch a p rocedure i s .

o n ly a was te O f ti m e and mon ey .

The m etho d of paym ent O f vi ewers i s also a vexed question The _

.

p i ecework system wh ere the vi ewer i s pai d on th e numb er O f articles

,

C hecked ,
i s conducive to greater speed a nd econ omy but at th e same , ,

ti m e does n ot sti mulate accuracy O f work in g I f th e work O f the viewer

,
.

is checked i n subs equen t O perati on s the latter i s not a very serious draw
,

back as any m i stakes or scamp ed work wil l be detected before any great
,

h arm i s don e but i f no ch eck is avai labl e the resul ts m ay be very s eri ous
,

a nd wi despread before th e bad work i s d iscovered and s topp ed The .

latter also appl ies to som e exten t with paym en t by ti me but when the ,
*

v i ewer kn ows tha t h is weekly earn in gs are dependen t upo n th e am ount of

w ork turn ed out such irregulari ties are m ore likely to occur an d can only
, ,

be stopped by cl os e supervi si on and ri gorous weedi ng out O ther things .

b ei n g equal th e pi ecework system i s li kely to be m ore satis factory the

, ,
 MA C H I N E S H O P I NS PE C TI O N 1 41

greater the skill an d exp eri en ce of the vi ewers as a n exp eri en ced m an
,

knows better what d efects to look for an d s o ca n deal with work m ore
,

expediti ously than an unsk illed or sem i ski lled worker

-
.

Paymen t by ti m e combi ned with a bonus on output is probably the

, ,

best system of remun erati on as wi th thi s system an i ncentive i s given to

,

turn out as much work as p ossible and also to en sure that the work is good
,

and of usabl e di m ens ions

.
 CH AP TE R IX

FITT IN G AN D E RE C TI N G SH O P I N S PE C T I O N

The a m oun t O f han d or fitti ng work required on any m achi n ed j ob

d ep ends largely upo n th e number an d desi gn of j i gs used i n the machine
s hop . C omponents made i n large quantiti es of a precis ely S i mi lar nature
a re fi ni shed i n such a way a s to leave a m in i mum O f han d work to b e done .

in th e fitti n g shop an d exp ensive j i gs and gauges are frequently made to

,

e nab le operati on s to b e p erform ed i n the m achi n e shop that wi th s maller ,

q uan ti ti es woul d b e l eft for s crap in g an d fili n g i n the fi tti n g s h o p The .

e xp ens e of such fixtures an d i n strum en ts m ak es thi s procedure p ossible

o nly when very large quan titi es have to be produced .

I t m ay gen erally b e tak en that han d work is c onsiderably m ore

e xpens ive than m achi ni ng w ork but th e additional exp en s e O f j igs and
,

t ools mu s t be O ffset agai ns t th e savi ng produced by subs tituti ng th e latter

for th e form er . Thus th e am ount an d s cop e of work don e i n the fitting
,

S h op d ep en ds alm os t enti rely on th e quan tity of si m ilar parts that are

b ei ng produced i n the m ach i ne sh op .

Wi th m ass producti on sch em es th e fi ttin g an d erecti ng O f m achi nes

,

is gen erally divid ed i nto three stages

C ompon en t fitti n g and assembly th e fi tti ng t ogeth er o f the
( )
1 e
g ,
. .
,

vari ous p arts of a c on n ectin g rod crank case cyli nd ers or other engine
, , ,

d etai ls .

su c h W O
'

Sub ass embly wh i ch i nclud es rk as th e fitti ng t ogether

( )
2 -
,

o f the vari ous d etai ls com prisin g an en gi ne gear b ox fr ont axle or other
,
-
,

c ompon en t parts of a m otor car -

.

( )
3 Fi na l ass embly e, g . th.e fi
,
tti ng t ogether of th e vari ous com
p on en t parts from ( )
2 t o m ak e a fini sh ed chas si s .

Betwee n ( 2) an d ( 3 ) it i s pr obabl e that th e vari ous c omp onent parts

( W h ere n ecessary ) wi ll be put through a p erform ance tes t of s om e ki nd
t o ch eck th e d esi gn and previous erection .

’
I n th e cas e O f com p on ent fi tti n g the arrangem en t o f th e vi ewer s
,

w ork i s very si mi lar to the procedure i n th e machi ne S h op save that in ,

thi s case the arti cles to b e vi ewed are m ore com pli cated and a s each ,

d etai l i s c om posed of a number o f parts th e di m en si on s to b e checke d ,

1 42
 FI TTIN G AN D E RE CTI N G S H O P I N S PE CTI O N 1 43

a re c ompos i te rath er than s imple di s tances between two machi ned faces
,

o n a s olid p i ece o f m etal Th e obj ect O f th e detai l vi ewer is to se e that

.

al l the detai ls are fitted up i n such a way that th ey will g o togeth er

W i thout causi ng undue fri cti on or play Th e typ e of fi t required i s .

gen e rally speci fied on th e drawi ngs and th e co mpleted d etails m ay b e se t

,

on gauges or other detai ls to se e that th e prescrib ed clearances are

u
p
d uly O bserved I n th is co nnecti on feelers are very useful i nstrum ents
.
, ,

as wi th them any tightness O f fi t or irregulari ty O f C learan ce can be quickly

,

a nd easi ly detected H owever good the m achi ni n g m ay be th ere i s

.
,

enerally a certai n am oun t o f scrap ing beddi n g fil ing o r re a me rin to

g g , ,

be don e i n th e fi tti ng sh O p an d it i s the vi ewer s bus i ness to s e e that

,
’

t hi s is no t under or over don e -

.

D i stortion after m achi ni n g i s often due to th e reli evi ng of casti n g or

f orgi ng stresses wh en th e ou ter s ki n is rem oved Such d istorti on does .

n ot always take place i m m ediately after th e completi on O f m achi n in g ,

’

.
and SO cann ot i nvari ably b e d etected i n th e m achin e sh op i n specti on .

T h e fitti ng S h op i nspector shoul d therefore try i mp ortan t faces for fl atness ,

a nd holes for round n es s b efore fitti n g proceed s too far Light cas tin gs
,
.

o r forgings are parti cularly liabl e to be pull ed ou t of S hap e by th e undue

o r irregular ti gh ten ing O f nuts on studs or bolts Thi s i s parti cularly .

i mportant to th e comp on ent vi ewer ( S tage 2) wh o m ust se e therefore , ,

t hat holes and bush es a re not pulled ou t of li n e or shafts b en t wh en th e ,

v ari ous com pon en ts are fi tted togeth er Thi s can usually be detected by .

t i ghtness i n a rotati n g shaft or by un du e pres sure or S lackn es s b etween

flat surfaces . Th e am ount O f S lackn es s or tightn ess that can be al lowed

at thi s stage i s largely a m atter of j udgm en t a nd i f th e vi ewer has had ,

test or runn in g exper ience h e is better abl e to p erform h is duti es wi th

.

c om m on sen se and di screti on

-
I n any cas e th e vi ewer on thi s an d th e
.
, ,

fi nal erection secti on m ust be a man wh o has had fi ttin g experi en ce

, ,

a s otherwis e ,
wi th out c ontinual supervi si on by th e forema n m i stak es or ,

e rrors of j udgm en t are liabl e to b e numer ous .

The fin al erecti on i n sp ectors have to see that th e complet e m achi n e

is s en t out in g ood runn i n g order that all n eces sary accessori es an d con
,
’

ne c tions are present that al l b olts or stud s are fitted wi th n uts an d

,

p r operly l ocked that lubri ca tors are fixed i n th e proper places an d that
, ,

al l O il and oth er p ipes are i n p ositi on —in S hort to se e that th e m achin e ,

i s qui te ready for a complete runni ng test or test und er load A S th e .

detai ls to be i nspected are usually numerous i t i s us eful for th e final ,

e rection vi ewer to be provi ded with a sch edul e of p oi nts t o be observed

"

,
1 44 EN GI N EE R I N G I N S P E CTI O N

SO that i n finally C hecki n g th e m achin e th e p oss ible faults m ay be deal t

,

wi th i n th e order given i n th e li st I f th i s i s don e system ati cally ther e

.
,

i s not m uch li kelihood of m is tak es or om iss ions bei n g m ad e .

Th e followin g i s an example of such a li st

F I N A L I N S PE CTI O N B E F O RE R O A D T EST OF A M OT OR C Y CL E E QU IPM ENT
Fau lts to be look e d for

( )
1 Are all cab les and wires th e correct length ?
( )
2 I S swi tch bol t hol e dri lled i n correct posi ti on ?

( )
3 Are l evers a ll free wh en bolts are tigh t also can ai r throttle and
,

m agn eto con trols b e adj usted ?

( 4) Are handle bars reces sed for cap ?
(5 ) D oes fron t brak e work freely and are bl ock s se t evenly an d
,

ti ghtly
( )
6 I S half compressi on correctly S et ?
-

( )
7 I S s teeri n g h ead fairly ti ght ?

( )
8 I s fron t wh eel cen tral i n fram e an d are cone s correctly adj usted
,

( )
9 Are forks se t prop erly an d free ?
( 1 0) Are greas e caps fast i n fork s ?
(11) D o es g uard C l ear i nsi d e forks ?
( 2)
1 I S radiator fi lled and are there n o ki nks i n rubber co nnecti ons ?

( )
1 3 H as O i l b een pump ed through th e engi n e ?
( )
1 4 I S there any O il l eaki n g from lubri cator glass glan d nuts s eating
, , ,

or O i l p ip e u ni on s

( )
1 5 I s tank fast ?
( 1 6) I s th ere a cl ear passage through p etrol p ip e wi thout l eakag e
fro m any un i on s ?
( 7)
1 D oes tank fill er cap fit an d has i t a w a sh er i n ?
,

( 8)
1 I s s addle p illar re a me re d ou t ?

( )
1 9 Are chai n s adj usted ?
( 20) D O chai n s clear O il pip es ?

( )
2 1 D oes drivin g C hain cl ear gear C otter ( wi thout cotter b ei n g pulled
t oo far through lug)
( 22) H as s tarti n g d evi ce su ffi ci en t cl earan ce and i s i t free to com e
,

back righ t over ca m wi thout touchin g lug ?

( )
28 I S there a nut on chai n bolt ?
’

( 24) DO starti n g chai n an d rod clear back guard ?

( 25 ) D o both tyres clear guard s ?
”

( )
26 I s back wh eel central in fram e ?
 FITT IN G AN D E RE CT I N G S H O P I N S PE C TI O N 1 45

( 27 ) D oes chai n guard C lear back sprocket an d chai n ?

( 28 ) D oes back brak e gui d e work freely on fram e ?
( )
29 D oes stan d clear starti n g crank bol t wh en clipp ed up ?
( 3 0) Are nuts fre e on s ecuri ty b olts ?
(3 1 ) D oes starti ng crank cotter C lear back hub ?
( )
3 2 Are n ew typ e s i len cer ends fitted an d b ol ts lon g enough ?
( )
3 3 Are C hai n fasten ers righ t way roun d ?
( )
3 4 I s th ere s id e play i n th e half compressi on lever and brake l ever ?
-

(3 5 ) I s th e p etro l drai n cock i n correct p osi ti o n ?

I t s om eti m es occurs that large quanti ties of work are passed on to
th e fitting secti on th e di m ens ion s O f whi ch are sligh tly outsi de the li m i ts
,

laid down on the drawin gs O f course t hi s sh ould not b e th e case an d

.
, ,

n o work should be pass ed un less i t con form s to th e drawin g li m i ts but ,

someti mes th e error i s very S li gh t and i f th e quanti ty i s large pressure i s

, ,

occasi onally brought to b ear from th e m an agemen t up on th e i ns pectors

, ,

to pass such work i n order to avoi d seri ous fi nanci al loss to th e firm Th i s .

is a bad p ol i cy an d wh ere i t occurs particular care m ust b e taken to keep

, ,

such parts s ep arate i n th e compon en t s tores an d to mark th em S peci ally

,

so that they m ay be readi ly recogn is ed on arrival at th e fi ttin g sh O I n

p .

such i nstances p arts m achi ned over S i z e m ust be m ated wi th other c om

,

p o ne n ts near th e h igh l im i t and

, si mi larly wi th un der si zed parts
- —thi s
procedure i s called s elective ass embly an d i s O ften resorted to when m
, ore
than on e s tandard s i z e of part i s sch eduled or where th e li mi ts of accuracy
are wi de A record m
,

. us t be kept O f th e n umbers an d des ti nati on s of all

mach ines carryi ng over S i zed or under si zed comp on ents SO that th e fact
- -
,

may b e known i f any complai nts are received subs equently O r i n cas e of , _

replacem en ts be ing requi red .Where such exp edi ents are resorted to ,

c omplai nts are li kely to b e num erous and i t i s n ot i n frequently foun d

,

that the l oud es t comp laints are m ad e by th e very m embers O f the manage
ment or d irectorate wh o forced th e faul ty compon ents through th e
unwi lling i nsp ecti o n depart m ent i n th e firs t i nstan ce I n such cases th e
.

possessi on of such a record i s n ecessary for th e protecti on of thos e

members O f th e i n sp ecti on sta ff through whos e han d s th e faulty article s
passed and wh o are thus f orced i n to a fals e posi ti on through n o faul t
,

of thei r own .
 CHAP TE R X

FI NAL TE STS

When a n engin e or m ach in e is fi nally erected a t s om e s tage duri ng ,

or

th e cours e of erecti on runn i ng or p roof tes ts are m ade to d em onstrate

,

that th e requi rem en ts of th e purchaser or th e guarantees O f th e manu

facturer wi l l be fully m et by th e com pleted m ach in e .

Roughly such tests m ay be divi ded i n to three clas ses an d tests

, ,

w i thi n any or all O f th es e classes m ay b e m ad e o n any one m achi n e i n th e ,

o rder given b elow

( )
1 R u nnin
g or Proof Te sts .

Th ese are th e first tes ts taken after th e machi n e i s m ade and usually ,

a re accom pan i ed by n o m easurem en ts of con sump ti on p erforman ce or ,

o th er detail s They are s imp ly undertaken to tes t th e m echani cal d etai ls

.

o f the desi gn an d to prove ( a ) that th e d es i gn i s a workable one i n

,

p racti ce ,an d ( )
b that th e ass embli n g ha s been prop erly d on e an d c on ,

n e c tions m ade i n accordan ce with th e drawin g I n th e case O f an engi ne .

i t i s n ecess ary to O b s erv e wh eth er i t is runni ng i n th e righ t d irecti on ,

w h ether th e vari ous workin g parts are O perati n g properly with ou t foul in g
o r rubb in g agai ns t one an oth er and wh eth er th e vari ous p ip e and wiri ng
,

con n ection s have been correctly m ad e I n all cases th e obs ervati on O f

.
,

runn i ng clearan ces supply of O i l or oth er lubri can t to b eari ngs or S li di n g

,

surfaces m echan i cal d efects l eakages of oil ai r g a s or s team from j oints

, , , ,

or valves o v erh eati ng of run ni ng parts supply of cooli ng water tim in g

, , ,

o f i gnition or valve m oti on an d oth er si m i lar p oi nts m ust b e n oted I f

,
.

th e m achi n e i s d efective i n any O f th es e p arti culars i t i s sent fro m th e test

h ous e back to the fi ttin g shop for a lterati on Wh en th e adj ust m ent .

r equi red i s co mparatively si mpl e i t i s often p erform ed by th e tes t h ouse

,

s ta ff or by a fitter detailed for th e purpose .

Machi nes or parts that are n ot power driven such as boilers ropes , , ,

chai ns etc are subj ected to proo f tests A boiler i s usual ly put und er
,
.
,
.

a hydrauli c pressure greater than th e worki n g pressure and i s then ,

exam i ned for leakages a t the various s eam s an d places wh e re weak ness is
s uspected R op es an d chai n s are pull ed wi th a force much greater than
.

1 46
 F I NAL TE STS 1 47

th e worki n g l oad and occasi onally a s mal l pi ece i s cut out of th e rop e or
,

C hai n an d test e d to destructi on Sh ells are tested by a certai n p ercentage

.

bei ng fired fro m a s ui tabl e gun and up on th e behavi our of thi s p ercentage
,

t h e whol e con si gn m en t i s pa ss ed or rej ected .

( )
2 C onsu mption a nd Pe rf ormanc e Te sts .

Th e runn i ng or proof test alon e is n ot suffi ci en t i n the cas e O f pri m e

m overs p ower producers or m achi nes —it mus t b e supplem en ted by
,

i nform ati on con cern i ng th e ec on omy of th e m ach in e and i ts output both

q ualitative and quanti tative .

For i nstance i n th e cas e of a pri m e m over or engi ne th e followi n g

, ,

oints sh ould be know n z —C on sump tio n O f fu el O il and water at vari ous

p , ,

loads th e p ower given ou t i n the cyli nders an d a t the fly wheel or pulley

,
-
,

t h e temp erature of th e vari ous fl ui ds us ed the S p eed a t whi ch the engi n e ,

ru ns un der vari ous loads th e press ure of th e vari ous fl ui ds such as live
, ,

s team exhaus t s team gas oil etc

, , , , .

M easurem en t of quan titi es i n th e cas e of s oli ds and liqu ids m ay be

made by weight or from graduated tanks as may b e m ost conveni ent and ,

t emperatures may be m easured wi th ordi nary m ercury th erm o m eters up to

4 OO°F . but above this pyro m eters of th e therm ocoupl e or ,

latinum resista nce types are gen erally used As th e boi li ng poi n t Of
p .

mercury i s G5 O°F ( 3 44°C ) th e me c ry th erm om eter can n ot be used

.

beyond thi s p oi nt and th erefore for tes tin g fl ue gas es producer or coal
'

, ,

gas tests an d furnace tests pyrom eters mus t be employed Th e C ent i

,
.

grade scal e of temperature i s gen erally us ed i n s ci en tific work but th e ,

Fahrenh ei t scale is m ore often used i n E nglish en gineeri ng practi ce Th e .

former i s gai ni ng ground h owever parti cularly i n hi gh temperature work , ,

and as i t i s m or e conven i ent than th e Fahrenh ei t scal e an d i s extens ively

.

used i n Am eri ca and on th e C onti n ent it wi ll probably replace th e ,

Fahrenh ei t scal e i n ti m e
"

S en tin el pyr om et ers an d S eger con es c on

.
,

sisting of sm al l cyli nd ers or pyram i ds m ad e of sal ts havi n g d efini te m elti n g

points are us ed for approxim ate i ndi cation s of temperature S everal O f
“

, .

these havi n g di fferen t m elti ng p oi n ts are put i n th e flue or furn ace an d ,

t h e temperature i s i ndi cated by that m elted c on e whi ch has th e h igh es t

melti ng p oi nt I t must b e noted that one or m ore of th e con es m us t b e

.

u nmelted oth erwi se th e actual tem p erature m ay b e far ab ove th e hi gh es t

,

melting p oi nt O f th e i nd i cators used Th es e i n strum ents are surpri s ingly .

accurate bu t th e tempera ture O f th e furnace or fl ue mus t be known wi thi n

,

certain li m i ts for th e correct range of i ndi cators to b e us ed

.
Plati num .
1 48 EN G I N E E R IN G I N S PE C TI O N

r es i stan ce therm om eters th ermocouples and O pti cal pyrom eters are us ed
, ,

for m easurin g high temp eratures and their pri nciples cons truction an d, , ,

m ethod O f calibrati on are d ealt wi th i n Th e H eat Treatm en t of Too l “

S teel by H Brearl ey an d other S i mi lar works

.
, .

70 6 3 c m e fe/ r

R st r in g Sp d I nd ic t or
eg i e ee a .

( B yp r m i ion of M
e ss L S
e s s rs . . . S t rr
a e tt Co L td .
)

Speeds are m easured by Tach om eters ( Fi g 7 5 ) i n whi ch th e speed s .

are i nd icated i n revolutions p er m i nute ( thes e are n o t always reliable ) or ,

by speci al counters of various ki nds I n the l atter cas e readi ngs of the .
,

revolution s m ad e durin g one m i nute or hal f m i nute give th e actual S pee d ,

 F I NAL TE STS 1 49

a t th e m om en t an d such readin gs sho uld b e taken at freque nt i ntervals

,

throughout th e test to enable th e regulari ty O f speed an d h orse —

, ,
p ower
d eveloped or absorbed to b e accurately calculated
, .

I n b oi ler and fu e l tria ls it i s n ecessary to know th e quality of th e

x

fuel used an d als o th e a m ount O f h eat lost i n cli nk er an d ashes an d for

, ,

th is purp os e a calori meter i s used Th e best form of calori m eter for

.

s olid fuels i s th e B omb typ e shewn i n Fi g 7 6 I n this i ns trum en t

. .

th e S teel bomb is filled with oxygen at a pressure of 20 t o 25 atm ospheres

,

( 3 00 to 3 7 0 lbs p er sq i nch ) an d th e fuel i s burn t o n a plati num tray

. .

which holds one gram m e O f th e p owdered fuel Th e sample i s fired

'

electrically by a thi n fuse wire and th e h ea t thus liberated i s abs orbed by

,

the water i n wh ich the bomb i s i m m ers ed A th ermom eter graduated to

.

°
T%U C . i s pr ovi ded to register th e rise in temperature thus produced a nd ,
150 E NG I N EE RI N G I N S PE C TI O N

a s ti rrer keep s th e water i n constan t m oti on so tha t the tem peratur e ,

through out th e water i s as un i form as p oss ibl e Th e calori m eter i s well .

lagged outsi de to preven t th e es cap e of heat to th e a tm osph ere and th e ,

read in gs are Worked out as follows

W ei ght of coal burn t i n p lati num tray = 1 gram m e
Ri se i n temp erature of water
Water equivalen t O f calori m eter 5 1 0 gram m es
Weigh t of wa ter i n calori m eter 2200 gram m es

Th erefore total equivalen t wei ght O f water = 27 1 0 gram m es

Total calori es given to water by b ur nin g coal = 27 1 0 x 28
7 5 80
Th erefore heati n g value of coal = 7 5 8 0 calori es p er gram m e
Bu t 1 cal ori e per gra m m e = 1 8 Bri ti sh Thermal Un i ts per lb ~
.

Thus Ca lorific or h eati n g value O f coal = 7 5 8 0 x 1 8 .

1 3 600 B Th U per lb . . . .

I t is advisabl e that th e combusti on i n th e calori m eter should n ot tak e

p lace at a pressure of les s than 20 atm ospheres a s below thi s pressur e ,

compl ete co mbusti on i s not always O btai n ed *

.

For com pl ete tests i t is advisable i n th e cas e of sol id fuel to O btai n , ,

th e am oun t of m oi sture and ash i n th e coal For th i s p urpos e th e coal .

i s sam pled by quarteri ng i un ti l abou t 1 lb i s left and s om e of thi s i s "s

.
,

groun d up u ntil i t pass es a s i eve O f 80 m esh es to th e i n ch A p orti on O f .

th is i s used for th e calorific test an d a furth er 1 gram m e i s wei ghed out ,

for th e m oi sture test I t i s then heated for s om e ti m e in an oven kept

.

at a tem perature O f 1 1 0°C so that all m oi sture is driven O ff an d the .

, ,

contents are then re wei gh ed I f th e net weigh t O f fuel i s th en 95 gramm e

-
.
‘

th e m oi sture con ten t i s 1 00 —9 5 or 5 per cen t A si m i lar procedure is .

adopted for ge tti n g th e p ercentage of a sh save that i n thi s case the ,

roc e la in crucibl e con tai n in g th e fuel is put i nto a mu f

fi e kep t at a bri gh t
p
red h eat Th e fuel S h ould be c on ti nually s tirred wi th a p lati num wire
.

u nti l all traces O f black have di sapp eared Th e ash i s th en weighed and .

For furth r p rt icu l rs e E xp r im n ts on B omb C l or im t r

a a se e E n g in r in g
e e a a e e ee ,

D c mb r 2
e e e by E A All t M S
, . . cu , . c .

T To s mpl s ol id fu l by qu rt r in g th l r g s mpl ( O bt in d b y pu tt in g o t ”
a e e a e e a e a e a e u a
,

sh ov lfu l of fu l t r g u l r in t rv ls wh n fir in g ) i br ok n up in t o lu mps of q u l iz nd
e e a e a e a e s e e a s e, a

a ft r m ix in g u p is d iv id d in t o f ou r qu l p rts O n of t h s p rts i t k n nd br ok n up
e .
e e a a . e e e a s a e a e

ev n ly in t o s m ll r p i c s nd g in d iv id d in t o f ou r qu l p rts th pr oc ss b in g r p t d
e a e e e a a a e e a a , e e e e ea e

u nt il b ou t 1 16 of fu l i l ft Th is i tr nsf rr d to c or k d b ottl nd k pt irt ig h t u nt il

a . e s e . s a e e a e e a e a

th e n l y s is moistur nd c l or ific t sts

a a , e, t k n
a a e a re a e .
 F I N A L TE ST S 151

i ts p ercentage calculated Thus all th e con d iti ons of th e fuel fed i nto th e
.

furnace boi ler or engin e are k nown

, .

The h eating value of gas eous fuels i s calculated i n a di fferen t way .

The Junk e rs calori m eter ( Fi g 7 7 ) cons i st s of a copp er vessel i n th e m i ddl e

.

of whi ch th e g a s burn s a t a constan t rate whi ch is O bs erved by m ean s

O f a s mal l gas m eter Thi s combus ti on chamber i s s urroun ded by a wate r

.

j ack et through wh ich pass tubes whi ch take the h ot products of combusti o n
through th e water Thus th ey are cooled down an d pas s out i nto the a ir
.

practically at atm o sph eri c temp erature Th e water form ed by th e c om .

b u stion O f any hydrogen or hydrocarbons i n th e g as i s con den sed by thi s ,

cooli n g acti on and fl ows away fro m th e i n strum ent i n to a m easuri ng glass
,
.

T he cooli ng water i s regulated to p ass through th e j acke t a t a constan t

rate an d therm om eters read in g to { 6 degree C en tigrad e are placed a t
,

th e i nl et ( bottom ) an d outle t ( top ) o f th e cal ori m eter an d th e quanti ty ,

us ed duri ng th e test i s als o m easured by run n in g the outlet water i nto a

m easuri n g tan k or glas
Wh en th e condi ti on s are cons tan t readi ngs O f th e volum e of gas us ed
, .

wei ght O f cooling water weigh t O f condens ed water an d i nl et and outle t

, ,

temp eratures of gas are taken ove r a d efini te p eri od say 1 0 or 20 mi nute s ,

and the heating value of the gas calcul ated as follo ws

W = lb s of cooli n g water used i n ti m e T
,
.

11 and t2 = i nlet an d outlet temp eratures O f cool ing water i n °F .

V = c u bic feet of gas burn ed in ti me T .

m= lb s of water cond ensed fro m burni n g gas at D°C an d 7 6 0 mi lli

. .

m etres pressure i n ti m e T .

Then Hi gh er C a lorific Va lu e = w{ 7
— B Th U p er cu ft
t2 ’
. . . . .

Lower C a lorific Value

W( t 1
-
w x 96 6
B Th U per cu ft
. . . . .

We t a nd dry bulb th erm o m eters are used to i ndicate th e am ount o f

water vapour presen t i n th e atm osphere, and a barom e ter to i ndi cate th e
atm ospheri c pressure so that the results may be reduced to standard
,

condi ti on s for th e purp ose O f compari son .

T O correct volum e O f gas used to 0 C an d standard atm ospheri c

°
, .

pressure ( 7 60 m illi m etres of m ercury)

Let t°C be the temp era ture at wh i ch test was taken
. .

= ressu re of gas i n i nch es of water

p p .

Z te nsion O f water vapour a t t C i n m illi m etres of m e r

= ° cury . .

( Not e — 1 i nch water pressure = 1 8 7 m i lli m etres of m ercury°

) .

B = h e ig h t O f barom eter i n m i lli m etres O f m ercury .

152 E NG I N E E R I N G I N S PE CT I O N

fig 77 . fl/ayra m Ga :
 FI NAL TE STS 153

T hen actual pressure of gas P= ( B + 1 -

87p —Z) m i lli m etres O f m ercury at
13°C an d Volum e o f °
as a t 0 C and 7 60 m m m ercury
, g . . .

P 27 8
f
m x
t + 27 3
'

E X A M PL E .

Ti m e O f test = 9 0 m i nutes .

Average i nlet temperature of cooling

outl e t 2D5 °C
.

Temp erature of
T emp erature o f we t bulb
Temp erature of gas leavi n g
Volum e O f gas us ed duri n g test = 2 29 cu feet °

. .

Pres sure of gas i n i nl et p ip e = 4 8 i nches water

‘
‘

Volum e of water condens ed fro m gas = 1 3 cub ic cen ti m e tres .

Wei gh t O f cooli ng water us ed = 2 4 lbs .

R i se i n temp erature O f cooli n g water = 20 5 '

—9 8 -
x 18 °
F .
( 1 8 ° F . 1 °C .
)

24 x 1 7 6
H igh er *
Calorifi c Value O f gas B Th U . . . p er cu ft . .

22 9
0022 X 1 3
Wt . of water cond ens ed p er c ft O f gas . . 0 1 25 lb s .

(
cu cm water wei ghs 0022 lbs )
1
’

. . .

Laten t heat O f water condens ed

01 25 x 966 = 1 2 B Th U per cu ft O f gas
’

. . . . . .

Lower C alorific Valu e of ga s = 1 8 4 5 12 °

1 7 25 B Th U p er cu ft . . . . .

C orre cte d Fig u re s of C a lorific Va lu es for Stand ard Pre ssure and

T e mperature .

Barom etri c pressure O f atmosph ere = 7 44 m m m ercury . . .

Vapour tension of water a t m m m ercury . . .

Actual pressure O f gas = 7 44 + x 5 145

7 3 8 5 m i lli m etres m ercury .

Th erefore corrected volum e O f g a s a t D°C and 7 60 m m m ercury . . .

7 38 5
-
27 3
2 29 X
7 60 - 17
cubi c ft .

Th e H ig h e r v lu i th h t g iv n o t by h bur n in g g if ll th pr oducts
C a lorific a e s e ea e u t e as, a e

o f c ombust ion c ool d d ow n to t mosph r ic t mp r tur

a re e nd thus includ s th
a l t nt e e e a e, a e e a e

h t of th w t r f or m d dur in g c ombust ion I n g

ea e a e e n g in s b oil rs nd ot h r n g in r in g . as e e , e a e e ee

a pp r tus th xh ust g s s
a a , e e g n r lly t
a m uc h h ig h r t mp r tur t h n th b oil in g
a e a re e e a a a e e e a e a e

p oin t of w t r ( 1 00 C ) nd t h r f or t h is l t n t h t i usu l l y d duct d nd th L ow r

a e
°
, a e e e a e ea s a e e a
”

e e

C lo ifi v l u us d fo c lcul t ions in p r ct ic
a r c a e e r a a a e .
154 E NG I N E ERI N G I N S P E CTI O N

C orrected H igher C alorifi c Value

2 29
1 84 5 0 B Th U per cu ft
‘

x “ . . . . .

2 09

and C orrected Lower C alorific Valu e

—1 7 2 5 —1 89 B Th
333
-
. . U . per cu . ft
.
*

C h em i cal
analys i s i s al s o a valuable gu ide i n the testin g of fuels a nd
pri m e m overs Th e cal orifi c value of coal m ay b e calculated from its
.

analysi s as follows —C H O and S are th e percentages of C arbon , , ,

Hydrogen O xygen an d Sulphur resp ectively presen t i n th e c oal used for

,

tes t .

Then C a lorific Value : 1 45 C + 4 28

( 3)
H +28 S E Th . . U per lb.

an d this m ay be used as a bas is where n o calori m eter i s available .

Th e analysis of gases als o en ables th e cal orifi c value t o b e cal culated

as follows

H ig h e r C a lorific V lu a e . L owe r C a lorific

'

V lu a e .

B Th . U pe r cu ft . . B Th . U pe r cu ft
. .

H ydr og e n
M rsh G ( C I IA)
a as
-
.

C r b on M n O id
a o x e (C O )
E t h yl n ( C 2 H 2 )
e e .

A c tyl n
e e e

A lc oh ol ( A bs ol u t ) e .

B nz i n
e e

°
Th e ab ove calorifi c values are given at 0 C an d 7 6 0 m m m ercury . . .
,

an d correcti on s m us t b e appli ed to obtai n th e actual calori fic value un de r

tes t con di ti ons .

°
I f th e actual temp era ture be t C and th e pressure of gas p m m .
“

. .

m ercury th e corrected calorifi c value w ill be

,

Th e calorific values of oil fuel s vary con si d erably wi th th eir c om

p o si ti o n bu t usual ly ran ge i n the n eighb ourh ood of
,
to

B Th U per lb
. . Petrol ha s usually about
. . B Th U p er lb . . . .

I n en gi ne testin g th e fuel or steam con sum pti on i s m os t i mportant ,

an d th e latter i s taken by m easuri n g or weigh ing th e am oun t of feed wate r

pu t i nto the bo iler wh ile th e en gi n e i s on test ( always provi ded that th e
F u rt h r de t
e ai ls of c onstruct ion a nd d scr ipt ions of oth r c l or im t rs m y b f ound
e e a e e a e in '

T h e C a lorific V lu of C o l G
a e a a s,
”
by J H C ost
. . e, nd Pr oduc r G by a e a s,
” “

D ow s on a nd L a rte r .
 F I NAL TE STS 155

runn i ng condi ti ons are steady an d th e boi ler i s supplyi ng o nly the engi n e
,

under test ) The am oun t of m oi s ture i n th e steam m ay b e obtained by

.

m ean s of a stea m calori meter s o that th e wei ght o f dry s team suppl ied
*
,

to the engi n e under test con di ti on s can be ascertain ed Th e result is .

usually plotted on a co n su mpti on curve whi ch gives th e weigh t o f steam ,

or fuel used p er hour for every 1 h orse power ( In di cated or Brake ) -

develop ed by th e engin e wh en run ni n g a t vari ous loads

,
I n thi s way th e
.
.

cost of run ni n g can be calculated

C M t g b

on M an n e x

Pres sure readings m ay be tak en wi th an ordi nary water or m ercury

gauge wh en the pressure i s sm all an d sligh t di fferences i n pressure m ay b e
,

read by th e m agn i fyi ng pressure gauge shown i n Fi g 7 8 wh ere th e re d u c .

,

tion of area i n the tube together with th e d i fferen ce i n den si ty b etween

,

water an d para ffin are uti li sed to obtai n read ings of greater m agni tud e
,

than can be obtained wi th an ordi n ary water gauge H i gh p ressures are .

i ndi cated by m ean s of pressure gauges which shoul d b e ch ecked at ,

frequen t in terval s agai ns t a standard gauge or l oaded plunger ( Fi g .

Th e pressure gauge shewn i n Fi g 7 8 m ay be us ed for m easuri ng .

quanti ti es of air or clean gas pas si n g along a p ip e ( Fi g When a larg e .

Ford scr ipt ion

e S t m nd S t m E n g in s b y Pr of J mi s on nd ot h
se e ea a ea e , . a e , a er

st nd rd wor k s on S t m E n g in s I t s h ou ld b n ot d h ow v r t h t th c orr ct mpl in g

a a ea e . e e , e e , a e e sa

of st m to obt in th dr y n s fr ct ion i
ea a e v r y d ifficu lt m tt r nd fo t h is r s on th
e s a s a e a e , a ,
r ea , e

r su lt g iv n b y t h r ot tl in g c l or im t r
e s e a l i bl to b misl d in g
e e s S uc h c l or im t r
a re a e e ea . a e e s

c orr ctl y ind ic t th w tn ss of th st m p ss in g t h r ou g h t h m bu t th r i no c rt in ty

e a e e e e e ea a e , e e s e a

th t t h is st m i s imil r to th v r g q u a l it y of t m n t r in g th n g in
a ea s a e a e a e s ea e e e e e.
156 E N GI N EER I N G I NS PE CTI O N

g m eter or holder i s n ot available for m easurin g volum es th e drop i n

as ,

p ressure down a lon g strai gh t pip e m ay b e us ed to i n di cate th e velocity of

the gas Th i s drop is very s m all an d th e pressure gauge sh own inFi g 7 8
.
,
.

gives a readi ng wh i ch i n di cates th e volum e of ai r or gas p assi ng through

th e p ip e p er m i nute or per ho ur .

LO A o z o
FL U H G E R

/I 0 7 e
/ ‘
Way/ff; a nd fa ée m rou n d 7 6 /d
9 04 a ka

fi f/ a fl a / fi es /5 727 0 ( da g / e fa /r/ bg fi end / 0 g :

0

/c e

fig E ff/27y Press u r e fi a t/y e .

For th i s purp os e the p ip e an d gauge m us t be calibrated agai nst a gas

m eter or h older so that the veloci ty or volum e whi ch corresp onds to a
,

g iven reading of th e gauge m ay be k n own A calibrati o n curve o f this .

ki n d i s sh own i n Fi g 8 1 .

D ep os its of tar m oi sture or dust on th e i n n er surface of th e pipe

,

a ffect i ts accuracy so tha t thi s m ethod can only b e used with clean gases
, .

T he pi p e shoul d b e s trai gh t uni form i n secti on an d s m ooth insi de

, , .

H rs W | U m -o k
r
‘
m B o ne .

s-
GA
‘

u a s
R u oe z a T u e a c: G ON G

f ig ( 90 . Arra ng em efl f of flx fi f en fi b / 6 27 q 6}
m ea su ring o Q af fi x : A/f
‘
i
‘
r ua /7 f/ xa af .

S tandard orifices an d Ven turi m eters are m ore frequently us ed for this
urpos e parti cularly i n test in g th e output of ai r compressors
p ,
.

Th e p ower devel oped i n an engin e cyli nd er i s obtai ned by taking

i ndi cator d iagram s whi ch give a record of th e variation s of pres sure d uring
e ach s troke mad e by th e en gi n e Engin es of m ed ium speed m ay be .
 FI NAL T E STS

indi cat ed by a sprin g controlled pi sto n ( Fi g

-
. whi ch autom ati cally
draws a di agram s i m ilar to th ose shown i n Fi g . 83 , but the i nertia of th e

Co/z éf a /x ofl fé / d /o lba f ca fe
'

c a n/ e o f fi’erenf/ a /
g a ug e a: Ag e
ro/w n e: af a /r or
g ajpa jfl bg 05/ 0 q fu é ej,ae r b ow :
1

Com ad mire ” ma d e m l}? ma d / fig ; o/ Va /ye 6 b ; Me /e r

/
.

m ovi ng parts of such i ndicators i s too great to enable them to be used i n

high sp eed engi n es such as petrol engi n es For very high speeds opti cal
-
, .

i ndicators are used cons isti n g of a n osci llati ng mirror reflecti ng a bea m
,
 1 58 E N GI N E E RI N G I N S PE C TI O N

of li ght on to a pho tograph i c p late Th e i ndicator diagram not only gives

.

a record of th e p ower d eveloped i n the cyli nder but also i ndicates ,

m echan i cal an d ti m i n g defects ( Fig whi ch m us t b e rectified before

.

t h e engin e is all owed to leave the factory .

RO T A Y 'N G D e on

PA R A L L E -l.

L"H K Mo r e° N
PA PE R

C o n t: T o
Ro w-T i: D Rum

C onfl E C T ! O r-
G

To CY L ‘H D E ZR

Th e p ower delivered to the crank sha ft is m easured by m ea ns of a

r op e brak e ( Fi g 8 4) or water brake ( Fig Th e form er ab s orb s the .

p ower by th e fri cti on between the rope an d pulley an d th e h eat thus ,

g enerated is usually ab sorbed an d conducted away fro m th e pulley by

m ean s o f water fed i nt o the h oll ow ri m .

I f R i s the distan ce between th e cen tre o f th e pulley an d centre o f

th e rop e i n feet ;
N i s th e number of revoluti ons p er m inute o f the engi n e ;
W is th e readin g on th e mai n spri ng balan ce ( or wei ght ) i n lbs .

S i s th e readin g on th e m i n or spri n g balan ce i n lbs ; .

( w S) 2 7 R N
T h en H P
3 306 0
.

The principle of th e Fr oude water brake is d i fferen t from the ab ove .

Th e ro tati n g shaft i s keyed to a casti n g con tai n ing elli p ti cal cavi ti es ,

a nd the cas ing has si m ilar cavi ties but i ncli ned i n the oppos ite directi on
,

( see Fig . Th e space between th e rotor and th e casi n g i s fi lled with

w ater and the cas in g i tsel f i s m ounted on ball or ro ller beari ngs so that
, ,

it tend s to ro tate freely .

I t carries h ow ever an arm conn ected t o a spri n g balan ce whi ch

, ,

m easures the rotative e ffort The power is thus abs orbed by hydraul ic
.

fri cti on wh i ch h eats up the water a cons t ant stream of the latter being
, ,

s uppl i ed to the brak e to prevent over heati ng -

.
 F I NAL TE STS

Th e p ower develop ed i s calculated from th e foll owi n g formula

W R eadi ng of spri n g balan ce at en d of arm i n lbs
,
.

N Revoluti on s per m i nute .

K C onstan t suppl i ed by the m akers for each m ach in e .

HP .
W
.
x N
K

Thi s is the best and m ost co nvenien t form of brake but th e r ope brake
,

che aper an d can readily be fitted up from m ateri al s usually kept i n

,

. s tock i n engi n eerin g works

.

The foregoi n g is a bri ef descri pti on of the pri ncip les i nvolved i n
measurin g temperatures pressures calorifi c values speeds v olum es an d
, , , , ,

conn ecti on with p erformance or consumpti on tests Space does

.
1 60 E N G IN EE RI N G I N S PE CTI O N

not p erm i t of thi s part of th e subj ect b ei ng deal t with i n grea t detail but ,

for other apparatus an d engin e testin g devi ces referen ce should be m ad e ,

to standard work s o n H ea t Engi n es or E xperi m ental E n gi neeri ng .

( )
3 A c c e ta nc e Te s ts
p .

Thes e tests m ay i n clud e any of th e tests m enti oned ab ove but th e ,

ti tle is h ere appli ed to the final tests of the co mp leted engi ne machi ne , ,

vehi cl e or shi p up on th e results of whi ch th e work i s accep ted or refuse d

, ,

by th e custo mer The tests co mi n g under (2) are o ften mad e on vari ous
.

s eparat e co mpon ents of th e com pleted j ob but i t i s n ecessary to show tha t ,

N CI
‘’
BA LA N C E .

for { fig/fi e 7é s f/flg .

when thes e compon en ts or parts are assembled togeth er they will run in
harm ony with one an other an d produce the results required by th e
,

custom er or guaranteed by th e makers For ins tan ce autom obiles are

.
,

given a tes t on the road on hi lls an d under abn ormal con di tion s to
, ,

d em on strate th e p owe r fl exibili ty silence an d acceleratin g properti es of

, , ,

th e cars th e p ower of the brakes ease of gear changi n g and gen eral
, , ,

p erforman ce of th e co mplete vehi cle Bridges an d other s tructures are

.

tested with fixed and m ovi ng loads of d efini te i nten si ties to dem onstrat e
th e load beari n g capaci ty of the structure an d th e absen ce of un due strai n
-
,

a s shown by the defl ecti o n i n each span Speed trials for shi p s an d fl i ght
.

tri als for aeropla nes sh ow their capabil ity of resistin g the forces of nature ,

a nd of producing th e speed an d reliabil ity that was anticipated by the

desi gn ers Thes e quali ti es can only b e tri ed by a tes t m ade under worki n g
.
 F I NAL TE STS 1 61

condi tions. Although s om e of those con di tion s m ay be approached by

sui tabl e testin g arrangem en ts i n th e works th e fi nal test mus t always b e ,

th e p erforman ce of the m ach i ne i n practi ce A farm er is n ot parti cularl y .

i nterested to kn ow th e am oun t o f h ors e p ower devel oped by his tracto r '

engin e when run un der i d eal condi ti on s on the testin g ben ch — h e wants to
kn ow whether it will plough hi s lan d an d n o th in g short o f thi s will sati sfy
,

O U T L C
' ‘

C A s tH G

WA T E R lN L E T lN Lt
‘
f

C A s ma

C AS lN CI

W A T E R GA S 'N G

F ’
C A N

51 . fi ’
aa a e Wa fer flra /fe

hi m Therefore although th e performan ce tes t gives useful i n formati o n

.
,

both to m anufacturer an d custom er i n such cases the pl oughi ng tes t sh oul d

,

be appli ed as a final proof Thi s need n ot b e appl i ed i n every cas e as

.
, ,

afte r a number of si m i lar machi nes have b e en m ad e thei r po ten ti ali ties i n ,

thi s direct ion b ecam e su ffi ci en tly well kn own to enabl e their p erform an ce s
-

to be pred icted wi thi n fai rly narrow li mi ts .

After one or m ore of thes e tests have been made i t i s custom ary to
‘

s tri p down th e m achi n e an d exam i n e d etails for undue wear p itti ng , ,

M
 E N GI N EE R I N G I N S PE C TI O N

burni ng or over h eatin g any faulty parts bei ng weeded out an d rep laced
,
-
,

by new on es before th e fi nal tes t i s m ade Any such replacem en ts should

.

o nly be m ade by th e s tores o n receip t o f a credi t sl i p si gned by th e f oreman

i nspector as i f unsui tabl e p arts arrive at th e fin ish ed m achi n e one ( or
, , ,

m ore ) o f th e viewers i s probably a t fault an d th i s procedure en ables the

,

fore ma n to check the work don e by the i nspectors and viewers and to fill
,

up gap s i n hi s own organ i sati o n through whi ch unsatis factory w ork m ight
pass o n future occasi on s .
 CHAP TE R XI

RE PAI RS ,
RE CT I FI C AT I O N S ,
AN D O B S O LET E PARTS

I n a m ass productio n schem e arti cles p r oduced i n the ord inary run of ,

manufacture f oll ow certai n wel l kn own an d recognised chan n els and a -

,

sp eci al organ i satio n i s laid d own to see that the proper sequence o f
.

operati ons i s observed Rej ected arti cles put asid e for recti fication
.
,

p rocesses are i
, n a sort of backwater and before they can be return ed to ,

the mai n stream of producti on vari ous special m achi ni ng or other O pera ,

tion s m us t b e don e up on th em .

A s i t does n ot pay and i n m any cases i s i mposs ible to se t up

, ,

machi nes whi ch are already occupi ed on producti on w ork to d eal wi th ,

t hes e articles i t i s usual to set asi de a sp eci al secti on o f th e m ach in e sh op

,

for any m achi n ing work that c om es outsi de the n orm al producti on
.

program m e an d th ere repai rs re c tific a tions and obs olete parts are d eal t
, , , ,

w ith .

Th e w ork don e on thi s s ection i s of a vari ed character an d requires ,

n ot only a large n umber o f dra w i ngs an d gauges but i n m any cases ,

a cquai ntan ce with th e m ach i n es turn ed ou t by th e manufacturi n g firm over

a p eriod o f m any years S om e firm s were systemati sed at an early date

.
,

and good drawin gs an d rec ords were kept of early desi gn s an d types of ,

machines I n m any cases however su ffi ci ent i nformati on i s not avai labl e

.
, ,

t o enable parts of m ach i nes m ade m any years a g o to be m anufactured wi th

t hat certai n ty an d preci si on that i s p ossible wi th present day drawi ngs -
,

j igs and gauges I t may be that wh en the parti cular m achi n e was m ad e
,
.
, ,

for whi ch a replace part is required the w orki ng drawi n gs c ontai n ed few , ,

i f any li m its th e m achi ni n g was n ot d on e i n j i gs an d gauges were of a

, ,

v ery rudi m en tary descri pti on I n such cases fam iliari ty wi th old types o f
.

m ach ine an d wi th m eth ods an d di ffi culti es of m anu facture a t that tim e

, ,

c onsid erably ass i st i n produci ng a sati sfact ory j ob wh en th e compl ete

machin e i s not avai lable Th e vi ewer therefore must n ot o nly be an
“

.
, ,

e xperienced workman but i f p oss ible should be an old empl oyee of the
, , ,

fi rm so that h i s m em ory ca n supplem en t the i n form ati on given on th e

'

d rawings .
 EN G I N EE RI N G I N S PE CT I O N

These p oin ts d o no t ari se h owever i n th e case of work to be rectified

, , .

This i s usually curren t p roducti o n work whi ch by reason of faulty materia l

, ,

or workmanship , cann o t b e taken through th e ordinary productio n pro

cesses but must be specially an d carefully operated up on to enable the
, ,

remain in g p roducti on processes to b e p erform ed at the earl ies t p ossibl e

stage .

For thi s reas on th e ordi nary producti on gauges can not be used durin g
th e recti fyi n g processes an d considerabl e cauti on m us t be exerci sed i n
,

al lowi ng departures from s tandard di m en si ons as for i nterchangeabi li ty , , ,

th e fina l product m ust con form to the s tandard gauges an d for reasons of ,

econ omy sp ecial processes must be reduced to a m ini mum I t i s desirabl e .

,

therefore that th e recti fyi n g process es shoul d be s o arran ged as to bring

,

the d i m en s i ons of th e arti cles to corresp on d to those i n one o f the ordi nary
pro ducti o n stages a s s oon a s p ossib le so that they m ay then be s ta mpe d
, ,

up by th e ordi nary producti on vi ewer an d return ed to th e n orm al channel

,
.

I n th e m eanti m e h owever such p arts m us t be carefully watched and

, ,

sp eci al ly m arke d t o ensure that they are n ot taken away an d pu t i nto

production op erati ons before the rectificatio n i s compl eted an d passed .

C are should als o b e taken to ensure that the m ethod o f rectificati on chosen
d oes n ot spoil any work previous ly don e For i nstance i t i s quite com mon
.
,

for broken drills or taps to b e extracted fro m work by heati n g but i f that ,
.

work has previ ously been heat treated th e advan tage of such treatmen t
,

m ay be compl etely l ost an d th e arti cle m ad e unfit for use

,
I n such .

i nstan ces the article should be returned to th e hardeni ng shop for re h ea t -

treatm en t before any further m ach in in g i s don e Thi s h owever may .

, ,

d istort or scal e th e work to such an exten t that i t becom es useless and ,

th ere fore i t i s o ften cheap er to scrap th e faulty work i n th e firs t case rather
than to attempt rectificati on Als o i f the recti fyi n g process costs m ore
.
,

than the partly— finish e d articles are worth i t i s obvi ously un econ omi cal
, ,

an d sh ould not be proceeded with unles s th e parts are urgently required

,

for production purp oses when thei r value i s artifici ally an d temporarily
,

ra ised I f an d when any d eparture fro m standard d im ensi on s i s m ade to

.
, ,

avoi d scrapp ing a very i mp ortant or exp en s ive part i t i s necessary for the ,

i nsp ector to k eep a record of such departure i n a suitable referen ce b ook .

Thi s book should be designed an d i ndexed i n such a way that vari ations .

on parti cular machi nes ca n be readily an d qui ck ly referred to when

repairi ng or overhaulin g th e mach i n e or i n m aki n g replacem ents

,
.

A further p oin t i s th e s crapp in g of i mportan t castin gs due to bl ow

holes or other i mperfecti on s whi ch are reveal ed i n the cours e of m achining .
 R E PAI RS , R E CT I FI CAT I O N S , AN D O BS O LETE PARTS 1 65

S uch cas tings m ay o ften b e saved ( i n the case of a b ored h ole for i n stan ce ) ,

by taki ng a li ttle m ore off th e m achi ned s urface an d i nserting a plate or

b ush to restore th e part to i ts c orrect di men sion s U n fortunately m any .
,

d es ign ers d o n ot al low for thi s but it sh ould always be borne i n m i nd that
,

such operati on s may save m aterial an d workman ship am ounti n g to

h undred s or even th ousands of p ounds i n th e cours e of a year I t i s there .

fore advisabl e i n places where blow holes or other troubles are an ti cip ated
,
-
,

to allow su fl i c ie nt m etal for machi ni ng ou t such i mp erfection s so that ,

repairs of the nature outl in ed above m ay b e m ade .

Broken or defective m achi n e parts return ed fro m custom ers are often
u naccompan ied by a clear s tatem en t as to the m ann er o f breakage or
fai lure the condi ti on s obtai ni ng at th e ti m e or i n s om e i nstances by any
, ,

inf orm ati on at all I f th e machi n e i s supplied un der a guarante e i t i s

.

n ecessary to fin d ou t defini tely the cause of th e fai lure s o that the ,

e xam ini ng i nspector m ay advi s e free replacem en t or n ot I n many cases .

,

fractures or cracks can be traced to fl aws wh ich were i nvis ibl e when th e
p arts were m ad e Breakage through b low —
. holes or other i nternal caviti es
'

a re als o quite frequen t and easily ass essed Un due wear however or
.
, ,

fractures due to fouli ng are l es s easily d ealt wi th W ear m ay result fro m .

s o ft m ateri al fault ylubri cati on grit or dirt b etween wearin g surfaces or

, , ,
,

improper fitti ng S om e of these are faults of manu facture and others are
.
,

d u e to bad usage an d often a very careful scruti ny is necess ary to decide

,

b etween th e two S o meti mes repairs are p ossible to m ake the faul ty part
.

agai n usable an d i n that event th e exam i ni n g inspector m us t state on h i s

,

c erti ficate what step s are n ecessary for thi s purpose and a copy of thi s ,

certi ficate sh ould be s en t to th e i n spector i n th e d epartmen t where the

‘

work i s to b e don e so that he will k now what s tep s to take when the faulty
,

p art arrives on h i s s ection .

 CHAP TE R XII

THE H U MAN E LE M E NT

Th e p ers onn el of th e I nspecti on D epartm ent i s one of th e crucial

factors that determ i n e th e success or oth erwi se of th e sys tem i n any
, ,

w ork s D urin g th e Great War diluti on of labour due to th e deman ds of

.
, ,

the m il i tary m ad e i t n ecess ary to e mploy as i nspectors many m en an d

,
‘

wom en wh o had n o previ ous acquai ntan ce wi th or k n owledge of engi n eer , ,

i ng processes S om e of thes e rose to th e o ccas i on bu t th e i gn oran ce an d

.
,

arbitrari n ess of m any others brought i n sp ecti on i nto di srepute an d m ade ,

p erm an en t en em ies of m any en gi n eers an d mechan i cs The bad reputation .

gai ned for in specti on by thi s class of labour has n ot yet b een lived down ,

b ut th e b etter class of m echan i c n ow available for i nspecti on purposes

shoul d consi d erably assis t i n m aki n g th e dep artmen t m ore e fficient an d
help ful i n quanti ty p ro ducti on work .

I n th e firs t place it sh ould b e clearly understood that there are two

,

d i sti nct classes of i n sp ectors nam ely th e v iewers wh o m erely exami ne

, , ,
”

th e work for si ze faul ts an d general sui tabil ity an d th e h igher class of

, , ,

i nspectors wh o have a con si derable am ount of di screti onary p ower an d

,

resp onsibi lity an d i t i s up on th e latter that th e succes s or fai lure of th e

,

i nsp ecti on syste m dep ends to a very great d egree .

The vi ewer i s ofte n me re ly a gauge operator—h e has n o dis cretionary

‘
“

p ower an d si mp ly exam i n es the work produced to see i f i t will or wi ll n ot ,

p ass the gauges s uppli ed for m easurin g th e op erati on s vi ewed by hi m I n .

m any i nstances therefore th e vi ewer need n ot be a ski lled worker but

,

, , ,

th is dep ends to a great exten t up on th e nature of th e op eration viewed .

I n vi ewi n g gear wh eels an d other arti cl es for h ardness drop s tamp in gs for ,

fl aws an d other faul ts i mp ortan t forgi n gs an d castin gs for m achi nability

, ,

e tc a con s iderabl e am oun t o f ski ll an d experi en ce i s n ecessary and th e

, ,

vi ewer con cerned must be a first—

.

class man Vi ewers of th is class ris e

.

even tually to the grad e of foreman wh ere th e sam e characteri sti cs are
,

required i n a m ore m arked degree as th e a m oun t of respon sibi li ty

,

i n creases .

Th e viewer m ust be abs olutely reliabl e as any scamped or m i ssed work

on h is part m
,

a
y cause consi derabl e tr ouble an d expens e at a later stage .

H e mus t n aturally h ave good eyes ight to m ak e a pr oper u s e o f th e

1 66
 TH E H U MAN ELE MENT 1 67

gauges an d m easurin g i ns trum en ts suppli ed to hi m an d to d etect m i n ute

,

fl aws an d defects wh ich m i gh t otherwi se escap e observati on H e m us t .

als o have a good m em ory to retai n the n um er ous i ns tructions an d warni ngs
that are i s sued fro m ti m e to ti m e i n conn ectio n w i th his work I n thi s .

conn ection i t should b e n oted that an i n structi on may be i ssued several

,

m on ths before th e work i n questi o n actually reaches th e vi ewer an d for ,

thi s reaso n all in structi on s sh ould be wri tten an d not verbal so that n o ,

excus e can be put forward by th e vi ewer i n cas e of m istakes bein g m ad e .

I t i s n ot always p ossibl e h owever for th e v iewer to l ook back through al l

, ,

hi s i nstructi on s a s each j ob com es al on g an d th erefore i t i s advi sabl e that

,

h e should carry as m any of them as p ossibl e i n h is h ead .

H e should also be of steady temp eram en t and h ab its as an exci tabl e ,

or un stabl e n ature i s unsui table for th i s class of work whi ch gen erally ,

d em and s a cl ear head an d steady han d A certai n am oun t of tact i s als o

.

advi sabl e so that h e can i nduce th e op erator to do work correctly or

, ,

recti fy fau lty w ork wi th out th e co nti nual neces sity of approach in g th e
,

foreman . N oth in g i s so troublesom e or causes s o much friction as a

cantank erous or quarrels om e viewer wh o i s always in confl i ct w i th th e
operators whose work h e has to i nspect an d the irri tati on caus ed by h i m
,

often refl ects on th e departmen t as a wh ole I n addi ti on th e ti m e of th e C hi ef

.
,

I nsp ector i s o ften wasted i n deal in g wi th s i tuation s created by hi s acti ons .

Above al l ( an d this rem ark appli es to i nspectors of all grades ) th e

vi ewer mus t be h onest an d con sci enti ous i n hi s work a nd m ust n o t b e i n
,

league with any of th e m en whos e work h e h as to i n spect When th e .

operators i n questi on are pai d upon th e work pass ed by th e inspector ther e ,

is a direct i n ducem en t for th em to in gratiate th em selves wi th h im an d t o ,

obtai n by any possible m ean s hi s conn ivan ce i n passi n g bad or doubtful work
‘

I n too m any work s the i nspect or bec om es a sort of i ndustri al I sh m ael

”
hi s han d again s t every m an an d every m an s han d against hi m
,
’
He .

i s frequen tly regarded as th e offi cial scrapper whose s ol e duty i s to rej ect
as much work a s po ssibl e Thi s i s ab surd as n o i nspector i s likel y to
.
,

scrap work for th e fun of the th ing but s o me m en by th ei r over beari n g

, ,
-

atti tude get th e reputati on o f doin g s o

, These are excepti on al cases
.
,

h owever .

The Chi ef I nspector m ust be s om ethi n g of a dipl om at an d m us t ,

p ossess abundan ce of tact as h e has to d eal wi th m any tangled s ituati on s

, ,

an d al so wi th m en wh o h ave th eir ow n en ds to serve I t i s frequen tly found

.

that th e superint en den t of a m achi n e or fitti ng sh op is m ore i nterested i n

output than i n quali ty an d i nterchan geabi li ty Th e C hi ef I nspector m us t
.
1 68 E N GI N E E RI N G I N SPE C T I O N

t h en se e that th e n ecessary standard is adhered to and whe n thi s en tai ls a ,

consi derable a m oun t of s crappin g h e m us t b e prepared to d iscuss th e ,

m atter w ith th e sup eri ntenden t con cern ed an d m us t b e strong enough to ,

c arr
«
h i
y s p oi nt otherwi se future decis ion s wi ll not b e respected
, H e m ust .

th erefore be firm but n ot ob sti n ate I f fresh evi den ce i s brough t forward
, .

w hi ch tends to revers e hi s deci s ion h e m us t b e prepared to exam i ne th e ,

s i tuation again an d to wei gh up th e value of the n ew evidence i n rel ati on

,

t o that up on whi ch h is previ ous d eci sio n rested Havi ng ascertain ed all .

t h e known facts h e m ust be a m an of qui ck deci si on a s i t is very con fus i ng

, ,

a nd i rritatin g to have a number of batches of work lyi ng about wai tin g for ,

t h e i nspector s deci si on
’
An in competen t i nspector gen erally delays hi s
.

d ecisi o n as lon g as p ossible i n th e hop e that so methi ng wi ll turn up to

,
“

t ake the resp onsib il ity off h i s sh oulders There i s n o roo m for M r . .

Mi cawber i n m odern engi neeri n g ; he i s too cos tly a luxury .

Wi th quicknes s of deci si on abun dant co m m on s en s e an d caution m us t

,

b e blended as much m on ey may b e wasted by i nd iscri m inate s crappi ng

, ,

a nd n o firm can survive that treatm en t for lon g All the avai labl e facts .

m ust first b e obtai n ed an d si fted by a logical m i n d s o that the ri gh t c on ,

e l us io n m ay be arrived at i n th e sh ortest p ossible ti m e I n many cas es .

that h e i s called upo n to decide there i s a mass of ev idence relevan t and ,

irrel evant th e latter bei ng s ometi m es brough t i n for th e expres s p urp ose
,

o f cloudi n g the i ssue Th e i nspector m ust therefore h ave th e abili ty t o

.

d isti ngui sh ess enti als fro m non essentials an d to classi fy th e facts i n order
-
,

o f i mp ortan ce .

I t is very advantageous for th e C hi ef I n spector to have a knowledge

o f design an d stress es i n addi ti on to m ach ini n g and fitting processes as
, ,

t h en h e i s i n a b etter p ositi on to decid e on th e relative i mportan ce of m any

factors i n the cas e an d thi s kn owledge m ay enabl e h i m to make re c om
,

m e nd ations to th e des igners an d producers whi ch will have i mp ortan t

results i n th e qual ity or ch eap n ess of the product Thi s also m i n im i ses th e .

ri sks tak en by reducin g th e number of unkn own factors i n d oubtful cases

,
.

I t i s obvi ous that an i nsp ector m ust p ossess a vigi lan t eye to detec t
faul ts an d i rregulari ties an d th at h e hi m s el f m ust be regular and punctual
, ,

a s otherwi se hi s departmen t i s likely to get slack wh i ch i s th e worst thin g ,

t hat could p oss ibly happ en to any i nspecti on system .

As th e i nsp ecti on departm en t i s not usually a compact un i t but i s ,

s cattered all over th e works th e C hief I n spector m us t be a good and

,

system ati c organi ser i n order to se e that the wh ol e works i s a dequate ly

,

c overed by hi s organ i sati on an d th at each m an i n th e sys tem h a s plenty of

,
 TH E H U MAN ELEM E NT 1 69

e mp loym ent There i s a great ten d ency i n m os t i n specti on departm ents

.

towards over s ta ffi n g an d con sequent un der e mploym en t or overlappi ng

- -

when ti m es are good and to fl y to th e opp os i te extre me o f un d er staffi ng

,
-
,

o verwork an d b ig gaps i n organi sation whe n ti m es are p oor s o that a good

, ,

d eal of work then passes through wi thout exam i natio n .

As th e C hi ef I nsp ector has m any deali ngs with p eop le outsi de th e

w orks such as contractors repres entatives etc i t is n ecessary tha t he
, , ,
.
,

s hould b e very d is creet as by th e nature of hi s p osi tion h e gets to kn ow

,

al l th e troubles an d weakness es o f the works a nd i ts products an d gath ers ,

m uch in form ation o f a confidential nature about hi s vari ous supp liers The .

r eputati ons of h is own an d oth er firm s are largely i n hi s hands and accord ,

ing ly he m ust b e absolutely ho nes t and trustworthy .

H e wi ll also have m any letters and reports to write an d these m us t b e ,

luci d bri ef d escrip tive an d to the p oi n t

, , ,
They mus t give all n ecessary.

in formatio n i n an eas ily accessibl e form and m ust be stri ctly accurate ,
It .

sh ould always b e b orne i n m i n d tha t these letters and reports m ay be

b rough t as evi d ence i n case of l egal acti on and th erefore they m ust be s o ,

word ed that they can no t be read i n a s ens e d etri m ental to h is firm by

p rej ud iced p arti es .

Th es e are th e quali ti es that i t is desirable for a n i nsp ector to p os sess .

O bvi ously n o on e m an can have a ll thes e characteri stics but th e successful ,

m an selects h i s s ta ff i n such a way that h e has as m any as p ossible of th e

a b ove quali ti es a t hi s co m mand .

I t is a com m on sayin g tha t to err i s h um an but there i s a d isti n ct ,

d i fference between errors and mi s takes An error i s a m atter of j udgm en t

. .

a nd gives an approxi m ati on to th e des ired res ul t wh i ch mi gh t have b een

m uch clo ser S om e errors are perm i ssible as that i n work in g a slid e rul e
.
,

o r m i crom eter wh ere th e d egree of accuracy i s bounded by the m echani cal

,

p erfection o f the i n strum ent O thers such as those

. due to
,
defective eye
s i gh t or sen se o f touch vary with the i ndividual concerned an d have a
, ,

p urely hum an basis As all.i nsp ectors are hum an it i s only n atural to ,

assum e that errors wi ll take place an d that th e extent of thes e wi ll

d i m in ish as th e i nsp ectors b ecom e sk i lled i n th eir work .

M istakes are largely tem peram ental i n th eir origi n an d resul t from ,

i naccurate observation i ncorrect deduction s an d want of m em ory Whi le

, ,
.

e rrors are to a certai n exten t unavoi dable m i stakes are di sti nctly avoid ,

abl e and are general ly th e result of carelessn ess An in spector wh o after

,
.
,

warni n g m ak es repeated m istakes can usually only be cured by h is rem oval

, ,

t o an other sph ere of activi ty .

 A PPE N D I X I

P H YS I CAL T EST A N D A CC EPTA N C E S H EET

D S I PT I o M T I
E CR ON r A E R AL D t
M k rs —B r it ish C r n k sh ft C o
. a e

O rd e r — No
X 3 24
K ind of M t r i l—S t l S t mp in g s
a e
—2890
a a . . .

a e a a B ond No
M t r l M r k—B Y 5 1
ee . . .

S iz nd Sh p ia
C o nd it ion of M t r i l —N or m l is d
e a a e a e a .

Pr v ious T st N o
Fo P rt N o —
a e a a e e e
H t Tr t d by— H rd n in g Sh op
. .

Q u nt i t y —
ea
20a
ea e

.
a e .

S h op O rd r N o —
r a S 23 4
M31 6 e
.

.
.

T ST P I
E EC E S .

Te s t s Re q u i rd e T e ns io n T w is t D i r ft F r t r
ac u e

No of T sts 2
of T st Pi c s —I ns
. e

D ia 564
'

. e e e .

Ar ea of T st P i c s Sq in
e e e -
. . 25

F or m p rt fr om w h ich T st P i c i cu t —E nd st mp in g
Wh n t st d —
of a e e e s of a

C ond it ion of T st P i c ( 1 ) A s cut —N or m l is d

.

e e e a e .
( 2) e H t tr t de e ea ea e :

D t M c h in d
a e a e

T ST R S TS
E E UL . Sp c ific t ion
e a No . CS 5 .

'

S p e c ifi n
At l
c ua Fi g u r es C a lc u la te d FI g u re s
FI g
'

u re s
Re ma k s r

1 3 -6 1 43
jU lt m t
Y ie Id
i
.

a e
Tons /sq in . .

S tr n g th e
E l on g t ion a

R duct ion P c n t e . er e .

R duct ion of A r e ea
I ncr s of A r ea e ea
I mp ct ( I z od) Ft L bs
B r in l l I mpr ss io n —
a

Mm Di
. .

e e . a .

N u mb r e
T w ist ( N o of Turn s o A n g l ) . r e
B nd ( A n g l )
e e .

( R d ius ) a

F l tt n a e
Dr ift
F F F r ctur a e F . F .

G n r l R
e e a e ma r k s
A ll fr ctur s s t isf a ct ory
a e a .

T st e ma d e by C — J ns . o e . D t a e

VVitne ssed by W ith e rs .

P ss d
a e by
M a t e r ia l a cc pt d e e

( Sig ned ) L . V A N N A N , I nspe c tor .

Da t e
 A PPEN D I X I 173

TABLE I

Reducti on of area i n tens il e test pi eces expressed as a percen tage of

the ori ginal area .

Re d u c t io n of are a Re duc ti on of a e ar
I te d u c e d
. A re a
. It e d u c ed Ar
. ea

d ia me te r O r ig in al O rig in a l di a me te r O r ig i n al O rig i n al
10 8 S‘
l ” 13 0
di a me t e r di a me te r 1 11 3 ST m di a me te r di a me t e r
'
5 6 4 in s .
'

3 9 9 ins .
'
5 6 4 ins .
'
3 9 9 ins .
 EN G I N EE R I N G I N S PE CTI O N

T A BLE III

Bri n el l N u mb e rs an d approxi mate Tensi le Stren gth s for a load of

k g on a ball of 1 0 m m di am eter
. . .

T n s il S t r ng t h
e e e Te n s il e St r ng t h
e

T on s p S q u r I nc h
er a e Ton s p er Sq u r I n
a e ch

Di
ame te r d n ss
Har e Di ame t er H a rd n e ss
mm .
No . mm . No .
 A P P EN D I X I 17 7

T A B LE IV

Bri nell H ardn ess Nu mbers for Pressures les s than Kg .

D ia of bal l 1 0m m .
, .

Kg . P res su re on Ba l l Kg . P ssur
re e on B a ll
178 EN GI N E E RI N G I N S PE CT I O N

T A BLE V

H A RD N E S S VA LUE S O F M E T AL S O N S H O R E S C L ER O S C O PE S C A LE *

A nn l dea e Cold
N a me O f M t l e a o C st
r a Wor k d e h ll d
C i e

—
. . .

Lead 2—4 3 7
Gold 4 to
0
14 carat —
5 25 24—70
S ilver 20—
37
C opper 6—
8 1 4 20-

—
8 10 1 8 20 —
Babbi tt m etal 4 9
-

8—9 12 14 —
8—
—
B ism uth 9
Brass 7 35 204 5
Platinum 1 0—15 —
1 7 30
Bron z e ph osphor —
1 2 21 25 —
40
—
,

Bron ze man ganes e —

1 6 21 25 4 0
— 25 —
,

Iron wroug h t pur 1 6 18 80

—
, ,

N i ck el wrough t —
17 19 3 5) 40
—
,

M i ld steel 005 to 0 1 5 carbo n —

1 8 25 3 0 40
—
-
,

Iron gray ( san d cast )

, 25 4 5
Tun gsten 60 7 0
-

I ron gray chi lled

,

—
,

Steel tool 1 % carbon

, , 40 5 0
S teel tool 1 0 5
,
carbon ,

S teel vanadium
,

S teel , 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

S teel n i ckel
,

Steel hi gh speed
,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

H ARD N ES S S TA N D A RD S A D O PTED BY A U T O M O B I LE E N G I N EE R S
Th e hardn ess stan dards whi ch were fi nally ad op ted an d as are given~
h ere as m ay b e exp ected d o not apply to all ki nds of st eel parti cularly
, , ,

plai n carbon steel whi ch so rap idly loses i ts tough n es s wi th the i ncreas e
,

of hardn ess .

Fmme s—I f chrom e n i ckel s teel , 40 to 45 hard . Plai n carbon steel 35

hard to 40 .

Ax le s— I f chrom e n i ckel s teel carb on ) 40 45— hard .

3’
F r om t bl s issu d by
a e e th e S h or Scl r osc op e e e C om p ny
a .
 A PPEN D I X I 1 79

S pring s—Very elasti c an d superior O f vanad ium s teel from 6 5 to 8 0 hard

, , .

O f p lai n carbo n s teel fro m 6 0 to 7 5 hard ,

Wh en springs show .

o nly 5 5 hard and are thus hard ened all through th e y wi ll surely fai l
by saggi n g Wh en hard enough bu t crys tallized by too l on g
.

exposure to fire or over h eated fai lure by breaki n g will ensue

-
,
.

Wh en only surface harden ed by too low a quench in g heat an d th e

hardn ess th ere i s h igh en ough th e spri n g wi ll be weak a nd will sa g
,
.

C rank S h af ts—Chrom e n ickel steel ( 0 3 5 carbon ) h eat treated to 5 5 ,

45
hard Wh en th e hardn ess i s as low as 40 as costly experi ence proves
.
,

the elasti c li mi t is m uch too l ow and th e rate of weari ng is very fas t .

T ra nsmission S h af t —( Square ) 5 0 to 5 5 hard O f chrom e n i ck el o vanadiu m r

steel when of plain steel sam e h ardn ess but h eavi er .

T ra nsmission Ge a rs —Th e hardness allowed for thes e parts run s from 60

to as h igh as 90 dependi n g on th e character O f the s teel used a s wel l
,

a s that of th e work an d th e s trai n s i mp osed Th e s tandard stri ctly

.

adh ered to by the manufacturers of guara nteed cars i s 8 0 to 8 5 wh en ,

04 5 carbon chrom e n ick el s teel of good quality is used These gears .

are light i n weight but a mply p owerful an d are sui table for clash
, ,

or chan ge s ervi ce s om e all ow a hard n ess O f 8 8 or 9 0 to eli m i nate a ll

,

p ossibi li ty of batte ri n g When plai n steel i s us ed much extra

.
,

weigh t m us t b e allowed and the m os t ri gid care m us t b e us ed i n

cem en tation an d hard en i ng Three an d a hal f p er cent ni ckel s tee l
. .

harden s well bu t unless th e hard n ess i s kep t down to from 7 0 to 8 0

, ,

a t wh ich th ere is ri sk of batteri n g and d eformatio n of c orners th e ,

weight mus t be i ncreased as agai n st th e sup erior and tough alloys .

C ontinuous m esh gears m ay ei ther have a high er or lower hardn ess

than th e shi ft gears I n h igh grad e m ach ines chrom e n i ckel steel
.

from 80 to 90 hard i s used for two reasons one the extrem e l ight , ,

n ess and s econd h igh resis tance to wear S o m etim es a six or

, ,
.

s even p er cen t n i ckel s teel i s us ed becaus e o f i ts extrem e tough n es s

.

wh en th e hardn ess m ay b e as low as 5 0 wh en quenched i n O i l ,

but thi s li ke m angan es e steel has a h igh attri tion res istance
, ,
.

Gears of thi s m ateri al mus t b e m ad e h eavi er than those o f chrom e

n ick el steel .

S ta rting Cra nk Sh af t—00 hard .

Pu mp S h af t—7 0 to 8 0 hard .

Piston Pins—O f cold drawn steel tubing 9 5 to 1 00 hard ( case hardened )

S te e ring A rms—9 0 hard .
1 80 E N GI N E E RI N G I N S P E CT I O N

—5 5 to 7 5 hard
Ste e ri ng B a lls . .

Spring S t —6 0 to 7 0 hard
ea s .

M in Co nt r Sh ft W h —8 0 hard
a u e a as er .

V l Lif t r R oll Pin—6 0 to 6 5 hard

a ve e er .

C lu tc h S h af t Ge a r— 7 0 to 80 hard .

E x h au st C a ms —8 5 hard .

Va lv e Lifte r R olle r —85 to 1 00 hard .

I nle t Cams —85 hard

C lu tc h S h a ft —8 0 hard
s

—7 0 to
.

Fa n C ones 75 hard .

B a ll Ring s—8 5 hard .

L ow Spe e d B e v e l Pinion wh en m ad e in one pi ece of

a nd C ounter S h af t
chro m e ni ck el s teel are 82 for th e Gear and 7 0 for th e S haft
'

Va lv e s—5 0 to 6 0 hard .

C a m S h af ts—80 to 90 hard .

S te e ring Worms— 7 0 to 80 hard .

T h ru st a nd B a ll B e a ring R ing s—8 0 to 9 5 hard th e lower hard ness i s

_

confi ned to tough alloy steels wh i le th e h igher appl i es to plain steel ,

after drawi ng temp er .

E ng ine Va lv e Plung ers—9 0 to 1 00

C ones—
.

7 0 to 8 0 hard .

K eys h a rd ene d —7 5 to 8 0 .

N u ts ( sp ecial hard en ed ) —90 to 1 00 .

D owe l Pins ( h eat treated ) —5 0 to 7 5 .

S cre ws and B olts—all 40 to 5 0 hard .

 A P PEN D I X I 1 81

T A BLE VI

SH E E T GAU G E S

L bs .
pe r sq ft
. . T h ic kn s
e s 8 . G W .

( steel) in c h s
e c
th i kne s i nss .

N O TE .
—B y an O rder i n C ounci l ( July 1 6 the above gauge ( kn ow n
,

as B G ) was ad opted as B oard of Trade S tan dard as fro m

. .

N ovember lst 1 9 1 4 The c orresp on di ng I mperial S tandard Wir e

, .

Gauges are given for conven i en ce .

1 82 EN G IN E E RI N G I N S PE C T I O N

T A BLE VI I

C O N TR A CT I O N OF C AS T I N G S

Thi n B rass L ead

Thick A lu m i ni u m
Gu n Me tal Rods D e lta Me ta l
Zi nc Man g an e s e B r on z e
C opp e r C as t
iron pip e s
-

Tin Mon e l Me tal

T A BLE VI I I

M E TR I C E QU I VAL EN T S

m illi m e tr e 0 393 7in c h e s

m e tr e 3 9 8 7 04 3 i n c h e s 8 28 1 f e e t
l i tr e pi n t s 6 1 0 25 cu b i c i nch es
c ubi c m e tr e c ubi c f e e t

k ilo g ram m e lbs .

C alori e 8 96 8 B Th U . f oot lbs

. . .

k ilo g ra m m e pe r s q c e n ti m e tr e . 1 4 223 lb s pe r sq i n c h . .

kilog ra m m e pe r sq m i lli m e tr e . 6 3 5 t on s pe r s q i n c h .

l i tr e pe r s e c . 1 3 2 g a ll on s pe r m i n .

cu m e tr e per s e c
. .
g all on s pe r m in .

m e tr e pe r se c . 3 28 1 fe e t pe r s e c .

C al per l i tr e
. 1 1 28 6 B Th U pe r c u f oot
. . . .

C a l per kil og ra mm e
. 1 8 B Th U per lb
. . . .

Inch m ill i m e tr e s ( m m ) .

f oot 3 04 8 m e tr e s ( m )
'

cubi c foot 0283 cu m e tr o ( on m )

'

. . .

lb 4 5 3 5 kilo g ram m e ( kg )
'
.

B Th U
. . . 25 2 C al ori e
lb per sq i n c h
. . 07 03 k i l og r a m m e s pe r sq c e n t im e tr e ( k g /cm 2) . . .

f oot per se c . 3 0 48 m e tr e s pe r se c .

ton per sq i n c h . k il og r a m m e s pe r s q m ill i m e tr e ( kg /m m 2) . . .

B Th U per c u f oot
. . . . C al ori e s pe r cu m e tr e .

B Th U
. . .
pe r 1b .
‘

5 5 5 C al ori e s pe r kilo g r a m m e
 I N DE X

A l p rs
C a i e , 91

A b y nc e st or s
e a e
Ve rn r
ie , 1 1 6

A br s io n t sts 26
a e
,
‘ C a m- a sh fts , 87

A cc pt nc t sts 1 60
e a e e
,
rb n st ls
C a o - e e , 40
A c m thr ds 1 04 ea
,
Ca rbur s n c p u nds
i i g om o 87 ,
e
A d j ust bl g a u g s 98
a e
,

e
st n s lu n u
C a i g , a mi i m , 6 7
n n cyl nd r pl t n
Ac rO - e g i e i e , a i g
,
B a l c k h rt
-
ea , 38
A nc s nsp ct n
g e ie , i e io , 9
Co n tr ct n
a io , 1 8 2
A rcr ft f br c
i a a i , 58
D ns ns
ime io of, 6 8
D ie , 7 1 , 7 8
A ll ys
o , 70 1 74 ,
Gun t l
me a , 6 7
A ll y st ls
o ee , 40
-

I nsp ct n O f
io
A ll nc e 64 8 1
ow a e , 91 , ,

A lu n u ll ys
mi i m a o , 7 1 M ll bl r n
a ea e i o 3 8 (i t , .

r nz
B o e, 70
P r us
o o , 67
st n s
C a i g , 67
S
e m i- st l
ee , 3 7

St l
ee , 42
S t l nsp ct n
ee , i e io of 3 , 6 4
mt h rt
,

“ i e 38
A sl r M ssr
m e , e s , 1 3, 30
Ca st r n
i o , 36
ea ,

An l u s
g e g a g e , 1 08
An n l n
ea i g of c st n sa i g , 6 7 69
C om o i iop st n of 37 ,

A n n l d tub s
ea e e , 80
,
s h rd n n st l
Ca e a e i g ee 43 , 49 , ,

A sh d n s ty
e i , 56
C e me , n t t sts
e on 53 .
,

A ss bly O f c p n nts
em om o e 1 42
Ce n tr s pr t ct d
e , o e e , 97

A u t r ph c r c rd r
og a i e o e , 19
,
h ns
C a i , 82
A v ry W
e 8: T , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , C h a rpy m a I p c t T st e ,
28
,

5 8 , 82
. .

h f ns ct r
C ie i p e o , 1 6 7
C h r u st l
om i m ee , 41

B l r nc
C e a a e , 92
C oa l h t n v lu
ea i g a e, 1 49
B a i e , Sir \V H 8 C o , 1 3 , 6
l y ,

. .
:
.
7
C om i e b n d c rb n c st r n
a o in a i o 37
Ba rs trud d
ex, e , 51
C om o e p n n ts b u h t o g ou t , 9
,

t st n
B a r e i g ma ch n s i e 15 , C om o e
,

p n n ts f u l tya 1 45
ss
B a i of i nsp ct n
e io , 1 C om o e
,

p n n t fi tt n i g , 1 42
,

Be nd n t sts
i g e , 1 4 , 1 5 , 48 p s t n c st r n
C om o i io of a i o , 37
Be nd n t st
i g e t br
on im e , 5 6 C om o p u nds c rbur s n
a i i g 87
l t r l syst
S i- a e a u n
e m of g a g i g ,
C om e io pr ss n t sts e
,

14 18 53
,

l c k h rt c st n s
B a -
ea a i g , 38 Co nsu pt n t sts
m io e 1 47
, , ,

l r pl t s t sts
B oi e a e , e on, 5 0 Co n tr cts nsp ct n dur n
a i e io i g 9
,

Bo nd r l s , t r l fr
e e a e o f ma e ia om ( 3 .
Co n tr ct n
a io
,

c st n s
of a i g , 1 82
.

R v l
e mo a t r l fr
of ma e ia om 8 ,
Co e p nh n n tch
ag e o 28
St l
ee 43 ,
Co e pp r pl t n
a i g , 89
,

r ss s
B a e , 51 , 70 Co e pp r tub s e , 78
r ss tub s
B a e , 78 rr s n pl t n b th
C o o io in a i g a 89
r n ll Ha e
rd n ss T st .

B i e
r n l l n u b rs
e

m e , 23 , 1 7 6 , 1 7 7
22 8 5 , 8 8 9 0 , , .
Co o tt n f br c
a i , 60
B i e
r qu tt s c n t
B i e e , e me , 5 4
C a r cks c st n s
in a i g , 3

r t sh A ss c t n th r ds C a r c k s c s h rd n n
a e, a e i g , 86
B i i o ia io
r t sh S t nd rd Sp c fic t ns
ea 1 04 .
C a r n k sh ft nsp ct n
a i e io , 1 3 4
B i i a a e i a io 5 3, 81 ,
C rush n t sts
i g e t b r
on im e , 5 5
r nz
B o e, 70
C urv s str ss str n
e , e - ai 20, 21
M n n s
a ga e e, 70
yl nd rs c pp r pl t n
C i e , o e a i g of 89
,

B uc k t n
o , J, 1 3 .

C i yl ndr c l u s
i a g a ge 96
.

u lt u s
B i -u p g a g e , 1 01
,

B ur u V r t s
ea e i a , 9

u n f c
B yi g o fi e, 7 D
C
D f cts in st l 4 7
e e ee ,

D lt m t l 5 2 7 1
e a e a , ,

l br t n O f t st in g
C a i a io e ma ch in e s . 15 D n is on S 1 3
e , .
,

l r t rs 6 3 1 49
C a o ime e , . D pth g u g s 1 1 6
e a e , , 1 18
l r t r lun k r s
C a o ime e . e
’
, 151 D s ig ns I n flu nc
e , e e of i nsp c ti n e o o n, 4, 5
St m 155 ea ,
D i g r m ind ic t or
a a a , 159
1 84 I N D EX
D i l g u g s 94
a a e , G u g s plu g 95
a e
I nd ic t ors 1 20 a , Pr ofi l 1 03
,

e,
,

D i phr g m ind ic t ors

a a a , R d ius 1 03
a
D i c st in g s 7 1 7 8
,
e a , , R f r nc 110
e e e e,
D i s f or g in g 7 6
e , , R in g 98
D ist ort ion 1 43 , Scr w 1 03 e
,

Dr win g st or s 1 3 3
a e , Sh t 1 8 1 ee
,

Dr op f org in g s 2 7 3 , , S n p 94 98 99 1 07
a
,

T st 3 1 e , S t or g of 1 25 1 3 3
a
,

e
, , ,

D uct il ity 1 0 , T p r 1 00
a e
, ,

D ur lu min 5 2
a , Th ic k n ss 1 02
,

e
Dyn mom t rs 1 5 8
a e e , Thr p oin t 1 07 ee -
,

G u g in g syst ms of 9 3
a , e ,
E G u g r oom q u ip m n t of 1 21
a e- e e
E rth s 5 3
a , G r bo insp ct ion 1 3 8
ea - x
,

e
,

E ff ct iv d i m t r of scr w th , .

e e a e e e re c d s , 114 G rs in sp ct ion 1 3 9
ea e
Effi c i n cy of I nsp ct ion 1
e e , G r t th 83
ea -
,

ee
,

E l st ic l imit 1 0
a , G r t ooth V rn i r 1 1 8
ea -
,

e e
E l ctr ic str in in g g r 1 1
e a ea , G lu t sts on 5 6
e, e
,

E l on g t ion of t s t p i c 1 0 1 8
a e e e, , , 19 G r ph it in c st ir on 3 7
a e a
,

E m r y M ssrs 1 3
e , e .
, G r n w ood B tl y M ssrs 1 3
ee a e
,

e
E n g in r in g S t nd rds C ommi t , .
,
ee a a t ee , 18 G r y ir o n 3 6
e
E qu ip m n t t st in g m ch in 3 2
e , e a e, G r ips t n s ion 1 6 e
,

E r ct in g sh op in s p ct ion 1 42
e e ,
,

G r ind in g c s h rd n d surf c s a e
,

a e e a e
Er ic h s n S h t m t l t st 3 1
e ee e a e , G u ill ry imp ct t st 30
e
,

a e
,

Err ors 1 69 , -
e a
,

G u n m t l c st in g s 6 7 7 0 a
,

E rr ors in scr w thr ds 1 06 e ea ,

, ,

E xt ns om t rs 1 9
e e e ,
H
E trud d b rs 5 1
x e a
H a ema t it e ir on 3 7
.

H a rd e n in g 1 30 ,

F a br ic ai rcr ft a
‘

58 H a rdn e ss d e fi ni ti on of 22 , ,

H a rdn e ss n u mb e r B r in e l l 23 1 7 6
, ,

tt n 60
Co o , , . ,

H a rdn e ss n u mb e rs Sh or e 1 7 8
,

L n n 60
i e , , ,

F ct ors of s f t y 1 0
a a e H a rdn e ss t e sts 22 ,

H ea t tr e a t me n t 46 83 88 1 3 0
,

F t ig u t sts 3 2
a e e , , , ,

H e ig h t g a u g e s 1 02 1 1 6
,

F u lt y m t r i l 6 7
a a e a , ,

H ig h c a rb o n st ee ls 41
, ,

F l rs 1 02
ee e ,

H irth m inime ter 1 20

,

F r od o 60
e ,
”
.

F rr ous m t r i ls 3 6 H ook e s L a w , 1 0
’

e a e a

F ibr in f or g in g s 7 6
e ,
,
H rd ra u lic ai i g g ea str n n r , 11
F i n l i w 1 3 1 1 44
a V e

F in ish d m t r i l 8 1
e
,

a e
,

a ,
I
F its 93 , Id n t ific t ion m r k 7 7
e a a ,

F itt in g h p insp ct ion 1 42

s O e , S t mp in g of 7
a ,

F l s h p oin t O f oil 6 2
a -
, I mp ct t sts 26
a e ,

F or g in g s 7 3 8 1 , , A ccur c y O f 3 0 a ,

F or g in g t sts 39 e , on t imb r 56 e ,

F ou ndr y t st p i c s 1 5 e e e , I mp ct t st v r i t ion s in
a e ,
a a ,

F r oud w t r br k 1 5 8
e a e a e, I nd ic t ors d i l 1 20
a , a ,

F u ls 6 1
e , D i ph r g m 1 3
a a ,

F u l c l or im tr y 1 49
e a e , P ndul u m 1 3
e ,

I nd ic t or n g in 1 5 7
a , e e,

G I nd ic t in g g u g s 1 1 9
a a e ,

G u g s 91
a e , I nsp ct ion ob j cts of 1
e , e ,

G u g s d j ust bl 98
a e , a a e, ou ts id 9 131 e, ,

A n g l 1 08 1 1 0 e, , I nsp ct or ch i f 1 6 7
e , e ,

B u il t up 1 01 I nsp ct or s st mp 8 ’
, e a ,

C y l indr ic l 96 a , I n t rf r nc fi t 93
e e e e s,
'

D i l 94 a , I n w rds r c iv in g n ot 8
a e e e,

D pth 1 1 6 1 1 8
e , , I r on c st 3 6
, a ,

H rd n d 1 08 a e e , G r y 36 e ,

H ig h t 1 02 1 1 6
e , , H m t it 3 7
ae a e,

I nd ic t in g 1 1 9 a , M ottl d 36 e ,

Joh nn on 99 1 09 a ss , ,
Pig , 36
L imit 96 ,
\Vh ite , 3 6
M t r 110 as e , r u ht
\\7 o g , 39
O p r t ors 9 6 e a ,
I z od imp ct t sts
,
a e , 26 . 49
 IN D EX ND

J M ot or cycl insp ct ion O f 1 44 e, e ,

J c k m n J \V 23
a a
M ottl d ir on 3 6
e ,

M u lt ipl l v r t st in g m ch in
, . .
,

Job n u mb r 1 24 12
e e e e a e,
e

Joh nn on g u g s
a ss
,

a e , 9 9 , 1 09 , 1 1 0 M u n tz m t l 7 0 e a ,

J oi n ts g lu d 5 7 e
N
, ,

K N a t ion a l Ph ys ic a l L a b or a t ory , 1 22
N ic k e l st ee l 42 ,

K n if e e d g s t st in g e , e ma ch in e , 12 f rr ous m t r i ls 5 0
N on- e a e a ,

N on-me t ll ic m t r i ls 3 5 5 3a a e a , ,

L N otc h s in imp ct t st p i c s 27
e a e e e , , 29
N ot in w rds r c iv in g 8
e, a e e ,

L a min a t e d spr in g s 8 2 ,

L ps 48
a ,

L C h t l i r g ug 54
e a e
L n g th of t s t p i c s 1 8
e a e,
O bs ol e t e p a r ts 1 6 3 ,
e

L imit g u g in g 92 96
e e e ,
O ils 6 1
,

L imits 92
a , ,
O ls e n M essrs 1 3
, .
,
,

I nsp ct ion 1 45 O rd e r n u mb e r 1 24 ,

L in h m W J 1 08
e ,
O rd e rs c op ie s of 5 , ,
e a

L in n f br ic 6 0
, . .
,
O uts id e in sp e ct ion 9 , , 1 31
e a

L l oyd s insp ct io n 9
’
,

e
O v e rh ea t in g f or g in g s , 74
, ,

P
M P tt rns insp ct ion O f 6 8
a e e
, ,

M ch in s h op insp ct ion 1 24
a e- e , P y m n t of O p r t ors 3
a e e a ,

M ch in s rr n g m n t of 1 25
a e ,
a a e e ,
V i w rs 1 40
e e ,

M ch in in g ll ow nc s 6
a a a e , P n tr t ion t sts 22
e e a e ,

M g n l iu m 5 2
a a ,
P ndu lu m ind ic t ors 1 3
e a ,

M l l bl ir on c st in g s 3 8 6 4
a ea e a , , P rf or m nc t sts 1 4 7
e a e e ,

M n g n s in c st iro n 3 7
a a e e a ,
Ph osph or br on z 7 0 e,
B r onz 70 e, P h osph orus in c st ir on 3 7 a ,

S t l 41 ee ,
Wr ou g h t ir on 40 ,

M r k in g s y st m s t l 45
a e , ee , P h ys ic l T s t Sh t 1 7 2
a e ee ,

M st r g u g s 1 1 0
a e a e , P ic k l in g dr op st mp in g s 7 3
, a ,

M t i l fi n ish d 81
a er a , e , P ic k l in g of c st in g s 6 5 a ,

m r k in g of 6
a ,
Pig ir on 3 6 ,

P rtl y fi n ish d 6 4
a e , P ip s 7 8
e ,

R w insp ct ion of 3 5
a , e , P ip in g 47 ,

R c ipt nd st or g 5
e e a a e, P ist on insp ct ion of 1 36
, e ,

R ct ific t ion of 7
e a ,
P itch d i m t r 1 1 4
, a e e ,

R j ct d m r k in g O f 8
e e e ,
a , E rr ors 1 06 ,

R j ct ion of 7
e e , P l t in g 88
a ,

R pl c m n t of 6 7
e a e e , , P lu g g u g s 95 a e ,

R tur n of 6
e , P ois t st in g m ch in 1 5
e, e a e,
S mpl s 1 0
a e , P ow r m sur m n t of 1 5 6 1 5 8
e , ea e e , ,

Sp c ific t ions 5 1 0 3 3
e a , , , Pr sur m sur m n t of 1 5 5
es e, ea e e ,

T sts 1 0
e , Pr sur t st on c st in g s 6 6
es e e s a ,

M t r i ls f rr ous 3 6
a e a , e , Pr oduct ion in flu nc of insp ct ion on , e e e ,

M t ll ic 35
e a , I nsp ct ion dur in g 3 e ,

N on f rr ous 5 0 -
e , Pr ofil e g u g s 1 03 a e ,

N on m t ll ic 35 5 3
- e a , , Pr oof t sts 1 46 e ,

M sur in g instru m n ts 9 1
ea e , Pr op rt i s of m t ls nd llo 1 7 4
e e e a a a vs ,

M c h in s 9 4 1 1 8
a e , , Pr ot ct d c n tr s 9 7
e e e e ,

M d iu m c rb on st ls 4 1
e a ee ,

M t ll ic m t r i ls 3 5
e a a e a ,
Q
M t ls pr op rt i s of 1 7 4
Q u a li t y ma t e r ia l
e a e e
10
,
of
,

M tr ic qu iv l n ts 1 82
e e a e ,
,

M icr om t r t h r d 1 1 4
e e ea ,
R
T h r p oin t 1 1 5
ee -
,

M icr om t rs 94 1 1 1e e , , R d ius g u g s 1 03
a a e ,

M ild st l 3 9 ee , R w m t r i l insp ct i n o f
a a e a ,
e o 33
Minim t
,

H irt h 1 20
e e r, , C l ss ific t ion of 3 5
a a ,

M ist k s 1 69
a e , R c ipt of g oods 2
e e ,

M oistur in t imb r 5 5
e e , R c ipt nd t or g of m t
e e a s a e a e ria l, 5
M olybd n u m st l 42 e ee , R c iv in g d p rt m n t 6
e e e a e ,

M on l m t l 5 2
e e a , R cl im st or s 1 3 2
e a e ,
 I N D EX

R c ord r u t og r ph ic 1 9
e e , a a , S t l c s h rd n in g 43 49 8 3
ee , a e- a e
R ct ific t ion of wor k 2
, , ,

e a , C st in g s insp ct io n of 6 4
a e
M t ri l
, ,

C h r omiu m 41
H
a e a , 1
,

R tifi tion
ec 1 63 ca s, D f cts 4 7e e
R duct ion of r in t st p i c s
,

e a ea e e e , H t tr t m n t of 46
ea -
ea e ,

1 73 H ig h c rb on 41 a ,

R d wood isc os im t r 6 1
e V e e , M n g n s 41
a a e e,
R f r nc g u g s 1 0
e e e e a e , M r k in g syst m 45
a e
R j ct d m t r i l m r k in g of 8
,

e e e a e a ,
a , M d iu m C rb on 4 1
e a ,

R j ct ion O f m t r i l 7
e e a e a , M ild 3 9 40 , ,

W or k 1 28 1 30 1 3 1 1 6 1 1 6 3
, , , , , M ild C rb on c on t n t 40
, a e
R p irs 1 6 3
,

e a , M olybd n u m 42 e ,

R pl c m n t of m t r i l 6 7
e a e e a e a , , N ic k l 42 e ,

R pu t t ion of fi m 3
e a r , Sh t 5 0 ee ,

R turn of m t r i l 6
e a e a , S t or g nd h ndl in g 43
a e a a .

R i h lé M ssrs
e ,13 e .
, S urf c x min t ion 46 a e e a a ,

R in g g u g s 98 a e , Tub s 7 9 e ,

R iv ts t sts on 90
e , e , Tu n g st n 42 e ,

Ro k a 47 s, V n d iu m 4 2
a a ,

R op br k 1 5 8
e a e, S t l s m i c st in g s 3 7
ee -
e , a ,

R op s 8 2 e , S t on s 5 3e ,

R ou g h st or s 1 29 e , S t or g nd h ndl in g of st l 4 3
a e a a ee
R ou g h v i w in g 6 9 1 29
,

e , , S t or g g u g 1 25 1 3 3
a e a e, ,

R ubb r t sts on 60
e , e , S t or s b y nc 1 3 2
e , a e a e,
R u n n in g t sts 1 46 e , Dr w in g 1 33 a ,

R cl im 1 3 2
e a ,

S S t or s r ou g h 1 29
e , ,

S tr n g th t ns il 1 0
e e e,
S f ty f ct ors of 1 0
a e , a , S tr ss s tr in curv s 20 21
e -
,

a e
S mpl s of m t r i l 1 0
a e a e a , S u lp h u r in c s t ir on 3 7 a
, ,

S mpl v i w 1 26
a e e , Wr ou g h t ir on 40
,

S ch opp r M ssrs 1 3 60 e , e .
, ,
,

Scl r osc op Sh or 24 1 7 8
e e e, ,

Scr g g in g t st 8 1
a e ,

S cr p d isp os l O f 1 28
a ,
a , T ac h o me te rs , 1 48
Scr tch t sts 26
a e ,
T p r g ug s
a e a e , 1 00
Scr w g u g s 1 03
e a e , T mp r tur
e m sur m n t ol
e a e, ea e e ,

Thr ds 1 04 ea , T n s il tr n g th 1 0
e e s e ,

S ms 4 7
ea ,
T st in g m ch in 1 0
e a e,

S ct ion v i w 1 29
e e ,
T ns ion g r ips 1 6
e ,

S ll rs th r ds 1 04
e e
’
ea , T sts br s ion 26
e , a a ,

S ll in g pr ic r duct ion of 4
e e, e , A cc pt nc 1 60 e a e,

S mi st l c st in g s 3 7
e - ee a ,
B nd in g 1 4 4 8
e , ,

Sh r in g t s ts 1 4
ea e ,
C m n t 53 e e ,

S h t g u g s 1 81
ee a e ,
C ompr ss ion 1 4 1 8 5 3 e , , ,

Sh t m t l t st Er ichs n 3 1
ee e a e , e ,
Dr op 3 1 ,

Sh t st l 5 0
ee ee ,
F t ig u 3 2
a e,

Sh or scl r osc op 24 1 7 8
e e e, ,
F in l 1 46 a ,

S il ic on in c st ir on 3 7 a ,
F or g in g 3 9 ,

S ilv r spruc d n s ity of 5 6

e - e, e , H rdn ss 22 a e ,

S in g l l v r t st in g m ch in 1 2
e- e e e a e, I mp ct 26 29 30 4 9 a , , , ,

S n p g u g s 94 98 99 1 07
a a e , , , ,
M t ri l 1 0 a e a ,

S oft tu b s 80 e , P n tr t ion 22
e e a ,

S oftn ss in c s h rd n d w or k 8 7
e a e- a e e ,
Scr tch 26 a ,

S p c i l is t ion 9
e a a , Sh r in g 1 4 ea ,

S p c ific t ion of m t r i l 5 1 0 33
e a a e a , , ,
T ors ion 1 4 ,

Sp d m sur m n ts 1 48
ee ea e e , T st in g m ch in q u ip m n t 3 2
e a e, e e ,

Spr in g s 81 , K n if d g s 1 2 e e e ,

L min t d 8 2
a a e , M u l t ipl l v r 1 2 e e e ,

S t mp insp ct or s 8
a , e
’
, P ois s 1 5 e ,

I nd e ntifi c a tion, 7 7 S in g l l v r 1 2 e e e ,

Vie we rs ’
, 8 , 1 26 S tr in in g g r 1 1
a ea ,

St p n s dr p
am i g , o , 73 T ns il e 10 e,
St a nd rd s t n
a i a io , 3 9 1 , W ig h in g g r 1 2
e ea ,

St a rr tt L
e , S , 1 02,
-1 1 2 to 1 1 9
. . T st in g m ch in s b 1 5
e a e , a r,

St ea m c l r t r
a o ime e , 1 5 5 C l ibr t io n of 1 5
a a ,

St l
ee , 4 0 T st p i c E l on g t ion of 1 0 1 8
e - e e, a , ,

A lu n u
mi i m, 42 R duct ion O f r 1 0
e a ea ,
 I N D EX 18 l

T s t p i c s L n g th O f 1 8
e e e , e , V rn i rs 94 1 02
e e
I mp ct 27 49 a , , V ic t n dl a 54
,

ee
,

e,
T n s il 49 88
e e, , V i w fi n l 1 3 1 1 44
e a
Th ic k n ss g u g s 1 02
e a e , S ct ion 1 29
,

e
, ,

Thr d micr om t r 1 1 4
ea e e , V i w rs 1 40 1 6 3 1 66
e e
,

Thr ds scr w 1 04
ea , e , A rr n g m n t of 1 24a
,

e
,

e
,

Thr pl y wood 5 7
e e- , V i w r s s t mp 8 1 26
e e
’
a
,

Th r p oin t micr om t r 1 1 5
e e- e e , V i win g r ou g h 6 9 1 29
e
, ,

T hurst on il t st in g mach in
, , ,
O - e e V isc os im t r R d wood 6 1 e e e
T imb r 5 5 e ,
, ,

B nd in g t st on 5 6
e e ,

T ol r nc 91
e a e, W
Toot h d g r in g 8 3
e ea ,
W a ln u t
’
d nsi ty
e o f, 56
T ors ion t sts 1 4 e ,
'

W t r br k 1 5 8
a e
,

a e,
Tr ns it ion fi ts 93
a ,
W r 1 65
ea
Tub s 7 8e ,
e
,

W ld in g of c st in g s 6 8 a
Tu n g st n st l 42 e ee ,
VVh it h rt c st in g s 38
e- ea a
,

Tu rn r Pr of T 22 3 7
e , . .
, ,
Wh it ir on 3 6 e ,
,

M t ls 7 1 7 8 e a , ,

U Wh it w orth t h r ds 1 04 ea ,

VV d t h r pl y 5 7
U ni- l t r l syst
a e a e m of ga u g in g , 93
OO ,

Wor k s h op t sts on r iv ts
'
e e-

e
,

W or ms 1 3 9
V Wr ou g h t ir on 3 9
,

V n d iu m st l 42
a a ee ,

V l oc ity m sur m n t
e , ea e e of, 1 56
V rn i r c l ip r 1 1 6
e e a e s,
G r t ooth 1 1 8
ea , Y i ld p omr
e , 10

r t
P in ed in G r t rt P intingr Wor k s r
‘

B i a in by St S teph e n
'
ea . s , B is tol .