Review Paper of Recycled Aggregate

in Concrete

Term Paper
Submitted By:

HUTHEFH 22MCE13011
ASIF 22MCE13005
HARIS 22MCE13005

MASTERS OF ENGINEERING
IN
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT

Submitted to: Er. Khushpreet Singh

Assistant Professor
Subject Name: Advanced Construction Management
Subject Code: 22CEF-639
05-01-2023

2022-24
1 ABSTRACT

The production of solid waste has always been an undesirable byproduct of industrialised
civilizations' daily activities. As a result of economic growth, there has been a global
reevaluation of the methods used to dispose of the increased amounts of solid waste, waste
that was previously dumped in landfills and contributed to soil, water, and air contamination
from toxic substances such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), asbestos, construction
chemicals, and heavy metals. Recycled aggregate produced from C&D waste may be used in
a vast array of civil engineering projects, each of which can substantially contribute to the
economic and environmental sustainability of their respective home countries. With adequate
investment in research and development targeted at overcoming both technical and economic
limitations, it is conceivable to increase recovery rates in industrialised nations using existing
technologies. The primary objective of this research was to conduct a literature review on the
production and use of recycled aggregate in concrete, concrete pavements, highway
construction, and other civil engineering works, with a secondary objective of discussing the
savings on CO2 emissions. Standards (normative documents) for recycled aggregate from a
variety of nations throughout the world have been rigorously analysed, and several obstacles
have been highlighted. Potentially useful in calming consumer fears and bolstering the case
for using recycled aggregate in more civil engineering projects, this analysis should be made
available to anyone interested.

2 INTRODUCTION
There is an urgent need for trash recycling as a result of the massive amounts of C&D
waste generated by expanding population levels, continued industrial growth,
construction of infrastructure, and new housing construction. The construction industry
is a major consumer of natural resources, with global production almost tripling from 21
billion tonnes in 2007 to 40 billion tonnes in 2014. China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Thailand, the Gulf States, Turkey, Russia, Brazil, and Mexico have had some of the most
significant rises in demand for waste recycling. Due to the continual depletion of natural
resources and the increasing awareness of sustainable waste management among both
developed and developing countries, recycling and reusing C&D waste in civil
engineering projects has assumed growing importance.

Although recycled and reprocessed C&D waste may replace a substantially larger
quantity of construction materials, these options have not yet been studied and
implemented in the majority of developing countries. It is predicted and projected that
the usage of recycled aggregate derived from C&D waste will increase and become a
significant percentage of the market in the near future, despite the fact that the process of
encouraging the use of C&D waste in industrialised nations varies in size.

The globe's total annual output of 40 billion tonnes (shown in Fig. 1) is indicative of the
massive construction efforts now underway in many parts of the world. C&D garbage is
growing important due to regulation, being cheaper and more readily accessible, and the
fact that landfill space is becoming restricted as global aggregate demand exceeds an
astonishing 40 billion tonnes yearly. However, much more study and development is
required to reliably use other materials in the manufacturing of concrete using recycled
aggregate. In some modern economies, there is a growing sentiment that trash is really a
valuable resource or by-product with many potential applications.

In the 1980s, the developed world began its first programmes to minimise and repurpose
construction and demolition (C&D) detritus. The Federal Quality Association for
Recycled Building Materials was established in Berlin, Germany in 1984. The original
goal of the organisation was to unite the biggest German recycling companies; however,
in 2006, it also became the home of the European Quality Association for Recycling, the
EU's apex body for quality groups.

Since the 1980s, C&D waste management systems in the industrialised world,
particularly in Australia, Western Europe, and North America, have seen significant
changes.

Due to the increasing demand for aggregate in countries like China, India, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Thailand, the Gulf States, Turkey, Russia, Brazil, and Mexico, Asia/Pacific,
Russia, and South American areas have emerged as major producers and sellers of
aggregate in the current decade. Between 2010 and 2015, China is responsible for 50%
of the world's new aggregate demand [2]. In Fig. 2 [3], we can see the estimated
worldwide aggregate use of recycled materials, broken down by regions.
In addition to recycling a high percentage of construction and demolition debris, eco-
conscious neighbourhoods and businesses are increasingly adopting a "zero waste"
policy, which entails not only eliminating all discharges to land, water, and air, but also
ensuring that all products are designed to be reused, repaired, and recycled.

While the concept of zero waste originated in California, United States in 1975, it has
since spread around the world and is particularly popular among local governments in
Australia and New Zealand. As shown by the wealth of research, there has been a major
increase in both the methods of recovering C&D waste into recycled aggregate and the
methods and techniques of its usage in the building industry [4].

India
13%
C & S America
6%
Canada
1%
China Mexico
37% 1%

USA
6%

Middle east
4%
Russia
2%
EU
8%

other Asia Afica

Oceania 8%
12%
4%

Figure 1. Global aggregate production [1]

Markets for construction materials and goods made from C&D waste streams have been
shaped and established by regulations and laws enacted by governments throughout the
globe. According to [5], construction, refurbishment, and demolition are the three
primary stages of a building's life cycle in which C&D trash is generated. Demolition
seems to be the critical point at which more environmentally friendly procedures might
be used to increase C&D waste contributions.

Figure 2. Worldwide consumption of recycled aggregate (by regions) [3]

In European Union, the revised Waste Framework (Directive 2008/98/EC) [6] said that
by 2020 all member states will have recovered 70% of the non-hazardous C&D trash
produced by building and public works construction sites. Yet, in 2011, EU figures
indicated that recycling and material recovery from C&D waste varied widely
throughout the region, from below 10% to well over 40% [7]. While C&D waste
management is a well-established issue in Denmark, much attention has been paid there
to improving the quality of recycled materials while also maintaining a high recycling
rate. In France, on the other hand, this is a relatively new problem that has yet to attract
significant political attention or consumer interest.

The European Aggregates Association, or UEPG, was created in 1987 to represent the
industry's interests. Since then, it has worked to assure a constant supply of aggregates
and enhance the sector's competitiveness and overall growth. In 2014, recycled and re-
used aggregate production climbed to 228 million tonnes, accounting for 8.6% of overall
production of 2.65 billion tonnes [8].
The environmental concerns in Australia, including all waste streams, are normally the
responsibility of Australian state and territory governments; the management of C&D
waste, however, is not required by the Central Government. Australia produced 43.78
million tonnes of rubbish in 2006-2007, 13.8 million tonnes of which was building and
demolition waste [9].

Yang et al. [10] a growing quantity of construction and demolition debris is being
produced in China's main cities, according to reports. About 40% of China's municipal
solid trash comes from construction and demolition projects; this includes the 100
million tonnes produced yearly from new building construction and the 200 million
tonnes produced annually from the destruction of existing structures. Although there are
waste management regulations in China, there is no comprehensive national law
addressing construction and demolition debris. In Hong Kong, according to the Waste
Statistics 2015 [11] Waste from construction operations such as site clearing,
remodelling, demolition, refurbishing, road works, etc. amounted to about 1.533 million
tonnes, that 28% of the total disposal. Cement mortar/plaster and concrete batch plant
waste are also included. Inert materials (rubble, debris, concrete, and soil) are recycled
on-site as public fill, whilst non-inert construction and demolition waste is transferred to
landfills [11]. Instead of being recycled in Hong Kong, the materials collected at public
fills are sent to mainland China for use as reclamation fills. In actuality, only a tiny
fraction of Hong Kong's C&D waste is recycled. The review [11–14] tax is just one of
several factors impacting recycled aggregate uses, such as legislation and national
circumstances; yet, the goal of taxing aggregate is to promote the use of recycled and
alternative materials. It is widely acknowledged that regulations on C&D waste disposal,
and in particular taxes on the landfill tipping, are major contributors to the efficient
management and recycling of C&D waste. Söderholm [16] found just a marginal
difference in total taxes across three European nations (Sweden, Denmark, and the UK).
Taxes in the United Kingdom and Denmark are more comprehensive since they apply to
a wider variety of (e.g., sand, gravel, stone, etc.) only natural gravel is subject to taxation
in Sweden. The analysis by Söderholm [16] reported substantial changes in aggregate
and material substitution behaviour as a result of taxation. The United Kingdom,
with its high tax rate, is an example of a country with a high recycling rate. Concrete
recycling is a well-established sector in many countries, and most C&D waste is
crushed and repurposed as aggregate. Recycling programmes exist in many countries
to collect recovered aggregate from C&D trash for reuse as recycled aggregate.
Those with high rates of construction debris sent to landfills have very low rates of
recycled aggregate recovery, whereas countries with high rates of recycling have
recovery rates of almost 100%. Japan, for instance, is one of the world's leaders in
recycling concrete waste and has implemented recycling rates of 98%, with most of
the material going into structural concrete uses [17].

Demolished concrete buildings, scraps from the manufacturing line, broken pavers, and
shattered bricks and blocks all qualify as construction and demolition debris. Recycled
aggregate may be sourced from a wide variety of sources, including demolished concrete
buildings, airport runways, bridge piers, bridge supports, roadbed, factory rejects, etc.
Recycled aggregate concrete is concrete that has been constructed using recycled
materials as the coarse aggregate (RAC).

Therefore, the process of converting C&D waste to recycled aggregate may be done both
in developed and developing nations [18], as the existing equipment for doing so is
reasonably affordable and easily accessible. This is especially true when using
mechanical crushing. The facilities used to treat C&D garbage fall into two distinct
types: fixed and mobile [19]. Both factories employ the same procedures to sort out the
impurities from the bulk material and produce a usable grade [20]:

Separation;
Crushing;
Separation of ferrous elements; Screening; and
Decontamination and removal of impurities (i.e. wood, paper, plastics).

Hansen cited in De Brito [21] The majority of recycled aggregate is utilised as bulk
backfill, sub-base, base or surface material in road construction, lean concrete bases,
hydraulically bound materials, and in the production of fresh concrete, as was recently
reported. In the absence of harmful impurities, recycled aggregate from waste materials
may be utilised in hydraulically bonded material or to make fresh concrete. Recycled
aggregate will often only include trace amounts of potentially dangerous impurities since
the contaminants are typically only present on the top layers of old concrete. Recycled
aggregate concrete may be safe to use since certain pollutants that might be detrimental
in other contexts are not water soluble.

The majority of C&D debris utilised in Australia's concrete manufacturing comes from
recycled aggregate (both coarse and fine aggregate). Sydney and Melbourne have access
to around 5.0 million tonnes of recycled concrete and masonry, of which 0.5 million
tonnes is recycled aggregate [22]. Recycled aggregate from C&D waste makes up
between 6-8 percent of aggregate in Europe [23], however this varies widely between
countries. Major markets include the UK, NL, BE, CH, and DE [24].

Over the last 30 years, the production of recycled aggregate in the United Kingdom has
steadily expanded, and it is now employed in several building projects. Recycled
aggregate accounted for 26% of all aggregate used in the UK in 2009, up from an
estimated 20 million tonnes in 1980. This figure represents a steady climb from 2007's
high of 71 million tonnes[25].

According to research conducted in the United States by the National Ready-mix

Concrete Association (NRMCA), using up to 10% recycled aggregate is an acceptable
replacement for virgin material in most concrete applications [26]. Based on the results
of a study conducted in the United Kingdom, up to twenty percent of recycled aggregate
may be utilised in structural applications [27]. In accordance with Australian regulations,
up to 30 percent of aggregate may be recycled, and this includes structural concrete [24].
In certain cases, depending on the concrete's exposure class, 45 percent of the aggregate
may be recycled according to German regulation [28].

There is still a lot of room for growth in the market for coarse recycled material used in
concrete. Some nations, such as Germany, Switzerland, and Australia, are currently
selling pre-mix concrete made from recycled aggregate. Boral's "Green" concrete, made
from pre-mixed concrete made from recycled material, has been utilised in many
Australian construction projects [24].

3 GENERATION AND RECOVERY OF CONSTRUCTION AND

DEMOLITION WASTE
Although construction and demolition debris (C&D) accounts for a significant
fraction of global solid waste production, as much as 90 percent of this material may
be diverted from landfills for recycling or repurposing, according to some studies.
More extensive testing is required for such investigations, based on indicative
analysis of real practise. During the last 20 years the recycling of C&D waste has
emerged as socio-economic priority mainly in the developed countries and in the
present decade, developing countries are also gradually joining in.
 Construction Waste occurs on account of building constructions and building
renovations and results from surplus material (excess supplies), damaged or broken
material (thus unusable), cut-off pieces, processing waste (saw dust, metal spoils)
dismantled shuttering, used-up tools and accessories, packaging and garbage generated
by the people on construction sites.

Demolition waste results from demolition of built structures, bridges, roads etc. their
complete removal or renovation. It also includes demolition debris caused due to natural
disasters (earth- quakes, hurricanes and tsunamis), civil conflicts, vandalism, explosions,
fires, collapse of weak structures etc."

C&D waste is divided into five main fractions i.e. metal, concrete and mineral, wood,
miscellaneous and unsorted mixed fractions. More precisely, it may contain:

 Concrete
 Bricks, tiles and ceramics
 Wood
 Glass
 Plastic
 Bituminous mixtures and tars
 Metals (ferrous & non-ferrous)
 Soils (contaminated) and stones
 Insulation materials (including asbestos)
 Gypsum based materials (including plasterboard)
 Waste electronic and electrical equipment
 Chemicals (including solvents)
 Packaging materials
 hazardous substances
Materials on the list may cause pollution, health risks, and aesthetic problems if they
aren't handled properly. Construction debris often contains harmful chemicals since they
are employed with concrete to realise the structure's finishing touches. Asbestos (found
in insulation, roofing materials, and fire-resistant sealing), lead-based paint (found on
roofing materials and electrical cables), phenols (found in resin-based coatings,
adhesives, and other materials), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are all examples of such substances (frequently present in
roofing felt and floorings). Since even trace levels of hazardous waste in C&D waste
may represent specific dangers to employees and the environment and can hinder
recycling, it is essential that hazardous waste be separated at the source. Some of the
materials that make up C&D waste have a high resource value, therefore there is a great
deal of opportunity for recycling and reusing them. In particular, the aggregates mined
from C&D trash have a second life in the building of roads, drainage systems, and other
infrastructure. C&D waste separation and recovery technologies are mature, widely
available, and relatively low-cost. Despite its potential, recycling and material recovery
rates vary widely (from below 10% to well over 90%) among nations. About 850 million
tonnes of construction and demolition trash are produced annually in the European
Union [29,30]. Among EU member states, France averaged 349 million tonnes in 2014
[31], while the United Kingdom produced an estimated 90 million t ons [32]. Building
and demolition debris is created at a rate of roughly 534 million tonnes per year in the
United States [33], 77 million tones per year in Japan [34], and 20 million tonnes per
year in Australia [35].The annual C&D waste production figures for Hong Kong, China,
India, and the United Arab Emirates are as follows: 15.4 MT [36], 200 MT [34], 17 MT
[35], and 7.0 MT [34] for Dubai and Abu Dhabi, respectively.C&D trash is often
recyclable and therefore recycled and reused for both economic and environmental
advantage; for example, in Germany the resource recovery rate was 91% in 2011 while
in France the recycled rate was 50% of the total produced quantity of C&D garbage in
2014. In 2011, the annual recycling rate for construction and demolition (C&D) debris in
the United Kingdom was over 62% [37], whereas in the United States it was only around
48%. About 64% of building and demolition debris was recycled in 2014 in Australia
[35] and 38% of Hong Kong's solid trash comes from the construction sector [38]. This
amount of recovered concrete, however, varies from area to region owing to enormous
disparities in building customs, landfill regulations, and the perspective and acceptability
level of constructors/contractors and builders. Questions about the procedures used in
Australia, the EU (including the member states of Belgium, France, Germany, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Denmark, Great Britain, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Greece,
Austria, Finland, Sweden, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,
Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Malta, Cyprus, Bulgaria, and Romania), Hong Kong, and the
United Kingdom with regards to waste management. Tam and Lu [39] indicated that
trash generation has decreased markedly as a consequence of governments' and councils'
increased attempts to encourage a "greener" building sector via regulation and a more
favourable public image. After World War II, Germany was the first country to begin
recycling demolition debris [40]. Since then, studies conducted in a number of other
nations have shown that building debris can be used as a useful ingredient in fresh
concrete, thus recycling is now a common practise in many places. Article 11.2(b) of the
Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) of the European Union and EU Parliament
[41] stated that "Member states shall take the necessary measures to achieve by 2020 a
minimum of 70% (by weight) of non-hazardous C&D waste, excluding naturally
occurring material defined in category 17 05 04 (Soils and stones, other than those
mentioned in category 17 05 03), in the list of wastes shall be prepared for reuse,
recycled, or undergo other material recovery Also included are backfilling processes
employing trash in lieu of other resources.In the late 1970s, RILEM initiated a number of
research projects on recycling technology, including material resulting from the
demolition of buildings. These projects have since been adopted by numerous
universities and research centres in Europe and many other countries, including Portugal
and Brazil. The RILEM renamed this group in 1981 from Technical Committee 37-DRC
(Demolition and Reuse of Concrete) to Technical Committee 121-DRG (Demolition and
Reuse of Concrete).

Table 1. Recovery of construction & demolition waste [24]

Countries Total construction and Total construction and Construction and References
demolition waste (million demolition waste recovery demolition waste
tons) (million tons) recovery (%)
OCEONIA
Australia 19.30 12.00 62.20 [43]
ASIA
China 300.00 120.00 40.00 [10]
Hong Kong 24.30 6.80 28.00 [11]
Japan 77.00 62.00 80.50 [34,43]
Taiwan 63.00 58.00 91.00 [44,45]
Thailand 10.00 3.20 32.00 [46]
EUROPE
Belgium 40.20 34.57 86.00 [47]
Denmark 21.70 20.40 94.00 [48]
Finland 20.80 5.40 26.00 [48]
France 342.60 212.40 62.00 [48,49]
Germany 192.30 165.40 86.00 [48]
Ireland 16.600 13.30 80.00 [48]
Italy 46.30 n.a n.a [48]
Netherlands 25.80 25.28 98.00 [48]
Norway 1.30 0.87 67.30 [48]
Portugal 11.4 5.52 48.40
Spain 38.50 5.39 14.00 [48,50]
Sweden 10.20 n.a n.a [48]
Switzerland 7.00 2.00 28.00 [48]
United 114.20 74.23 65.00 [48]
Kingdom
AMERICAS
Brazil 101.00 6.20 6.14 [51]
Canada 0.66 0.20 30.00 [52]
USA 534.00 256.30 48.00 [33]
AFRICA
South Africa 4.70 0.76 16.00 [9]

Figure 3. Comparison of total aggregate vs recycled aggregate production of some European

countries in 2015 [8]

Guidelines) which drafted guidelines published in 1993. Since 2001, a RILEM Technical
Committee is operating about the ‘‘Use of Recycled Materials in Construction” [42].

Some of the materials found in construction and demolition debris have a high resource
value, making them ideal for recycling and repurposing, and this is especially true in the
recycled aggregate market. Recycled aggregate made from C&D wastes may be used in a
variety of applications including roadways, drainage, building projects, structural
concrete, and the manufacturing of concrete goods, among others.

In Table 1 we can see a global summary and overview of the most recent statistics on
concrete recycling recovery. Even though many developing and emerging economies
have yet to gather national recovery statistics, it is generally accepted that smaller and
larger nations would have more modest recovery rates. Further research and
development, improved laws, increased public knowledge and acceptance, and a
reduction in mis- conceptions and misunderstanding about the potential of its application
might result in a significant rise in recovery rates in certain nations using current
technology.
In "Europe's "Construction and Demolition Waste Project Group" developed a paper
titled "Recommendations" in 1995. This document outlined a number of steps and
activities that, if implemented by different member states, might significantly advance
the recycling of C&D waste. The proposal was as follows; Prevention: knowledge of
innovative methods to design materials by considering their disposal, recycling, and
environmental effect Separation: promoted recycling and discouraged landfill discharge

It recommended the implementation of a system based on permits and licences provided

to firms producing C&D waste. The certified contractor must specify the quantity of
trash generated, the method used to treat it, and its destination. The market for C&D
waste might grow if suburban public administrations play a leading role as purchasers.
Concrete recycling from C&D waste has not been a high priority in many developing
countries, primarily due to abundant supplies of natural aggregates and relatively fewer
environmental benefits; therefore, in the legislation, the energy advantages in the use of
recycled aggregate and the long life of concrete should be emphasised and
acknowledged, as recycling is one of the key components of sustainable development
[42]".

4 PROCESSING OF CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE

Still, there is a lot of room for growth in the use of recycled aggregate in construction
materials like concrete. Currently, you may buy concrete that has recycled aggregate in
several countries including Germany, Switzerland, and Australia. For the most part,
dried, hardened concrete is crushed and reused in the aggregate. Construction sites often
adopt the use of mobile sorters and crushers to facilitate processing onsite. On the other
hand, in certain cases, dedicated processing facilities are set up, and these facilities tend
to be able to generate aggregate of a better grade [24]. Figure 3 displays the most
credible estimates of the aggregate output and recycled aggregate production of
European Union nations like Ireland and the United Kingdom for 2015. For the
European Union to meet its 70% recycle and recovery goal by 2020, the Waste
Framework Directive mandates that construction waste (concrete, brick, asphalt, and
stone) be processed into aggregate that complies with European Standards for aggregate
and that material specifications be developed to allow this aggregate to be used in
construction applications [45]. Working together with business and other regulatory
stakeholders, Environment With input from the industry and other regulatory parties, the
Environment Agency, the Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA), and the Waste
& Resources Action Programme (WRAP) created a Quality Protocol for use in England,
Wales, and Northern Ireland. The production of aggregate must adhere to the standards
described in Sections 2.3–2.5, which include the use of suitable raw materials,
compliance with the BS EN aggregate standard, and the absence of any further
processing of the aggregate. Waste recovery, defined as the process of repurposing inert
waste into a usable good, is governed by the waste management standards stated in the
Waste Framework Directive and national legislation. [27]

5 CONCLUSIONS
Including recycled aggregate in concrete mixes is an encouraging step toward
reducing the environmental impact of demolition and building demolition debris.
Although the most majority of recycled aggregate is being put to use in lower-end
applications, in certain developed countries it is also utilised in structural concrete,
thanks to its quality being verified and bearing the Confirmite Europeenne (CE)
Certificate. Producers and end-users alike may rest easy knowing that recycled
aggregate will always be of a high grade thanks to the standards (or normative
guidelines) that govern and manage it. While countries like China and India, which
consume a lot of construction aggregate, have a lot of potential for recycling and
reusing C&D waste, actual rates of recycling and material recovery vary greatly from
country to country, ranging from 6.14 percent in Brazil to 94 percent in Denmark
and 98 percent in the Netherlands. This disparity is a result of the perspective and
level of acceptance of builders and construction workers, as well as the varying laws
governing landfills. A tabular comparison of the Standards (normative documents)
from these countries has provided producers, consumers, and academics with a better
understanding of the desired and required qualities of recycled aggregate as
described by the laws of various nations.
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