Indian Journal of Geosciences, Volume 73, No.

4 Research Article
October-December, 2019; pp. 281-290

Classification and genetic consideration of laterites of West Khasi Hills, Meghalaya

Rohini Das*, Shampa Halder and Bashab N. Mahanta

Geological Survey of India, North Eastern Region, Shillong-793003

Corresponding author email: romiyadas@gmail.com, rohinidas@gsi.gov.in

Abstract: Intense sub aerial weathering is the predominant cause of laterite formation and this process can also be
considered as the re-equilibrium of the mineral phases of a rock to the temperature, pressure, and other environmental
conditions present in the earth surface and in a directly underlying zone of variable thickness. As a result, laterites
are characteristics of past and present humid or arid tropical regions. Occurrences of latosols with associated meta-
bauxites were observed in parts of West Khasi Hills of Meghalaya Plateau and an attempt was made to classify them
on the basis of its physical, geochemical and mineralogical properties. These properties indicate that the Meghalaya
laterites were formed under conditions of high humidity with moderate to high temperature. On the basis of the
paleoclimatic conditions and prevailing in the area, it was also concluded that these laterites were formed during
Tertiary period accompanying the process of dehydration and desilicification.

Keywords: Latsol, meta-bauxite, geochemical, mineralogical, paleo-climate.

Introduction bauxites based on the relative distribution and nature of iron

Laterite is a rock type, rich in iron and aluminium and commonly
considered to have formed in hot and wet tropical areas
(Schellmann, 1982). They used to be developed by intensive
and prolonged weathering of the underlying parent rock and the
mineralogical and chemical compositions are dependent on the
parent rocks.
Worldwide, laterites are restricted mainly to Koppen’s “A”
climatic zone, extending from 30° N to 30°S latitudes. Major
part of India falls within this climatic zone with alternative
wetting and drying conditions. These alternate climatic
changes provide the required seasonal contrasts for formation
of laterites irrespective of the rock types (Wadia, 1919; Prasad
and Parthasarathy, 2018). Most of the world’s laterites were
formed during the time domain between mid-Tertiary to the
mid-Quaternary periods i.e. 35 to 1.5 Ma ago (Tardy, 1997).
Tardy (1993) has classified laterites based on physical properties
and clay mineralogy into ferricretes, latosols, conakrytes and
bauxites. In ferricretes, hematite is associated with kaolinite
and sometimes gibbsite develop at the expense of hematite and
kaolinite. In ferricretes the most common iron accumulations
occur in the form of hematite and kaolinite concretions.
Latosols with micro-glaebular structure occur as lateritic
covers. Red latosols or ferricretes, are usually formed hematite-
kaolinite association, having greater proportions of goethite and
gibbsite. Bauxites were again classified into four major types
viz. proto-bauxites, ortho-bauxites, meta-bauxites and crypto-
and aluminium (Tardy, 1993) Proto-bauxites are lateritic soils
where gibbsite and goethite occur together under very humid
climates. Ortho-bauxites are Al-ferrites, rich in gibbsite and red
in colour, which do not exhibit a concretionary structure. Iron
may be concentrated in hard caps called conakrytes and located
close to the top of the bauxitic profiles (Tardy and Roquin, 1992;
Tardy, 1993). Meta-bauxites are rich in boehmite and show a
concretionary or pisolitic structure; iron is dissociated from
aluminium and is frequently occur as hematite in a kaolinitic
ferricrete located at the bottom of the bauxitic profile. A typical
meta-bauxitic profile exhibits, about 10 m of thickness with an
increase in aluminium, gibbsite and boehmite and a decrease in
silicon towards the profile surface. The ratio of gibbsite/ (gibbsite
+kaolinite) and ratio of boehmite/ (boehmite+hematite) is high
in meta bauxites (Tardy and Roquin, 1992; Tardy, 1993). Meta-
bauxites are deferruginised at the top but ferruginised at the
bottom of profiles. The massive gibbsitic structure is replaced
by a boehmitic, pisolitic structure. Kaolinite always appears at
the bottom of meta-bauxite profiles and less frequently at the
base of ortho-bauxites. In crypto-bauxites, kaolinite occur at
the top and bottom of the profiles so the gibbsitic layer appears
sandwiched between two kaolinitic horizons (Tardy, 1993;
Beauvais and Tardy, 1991). In ortho-bauxites, iron in hematite
and aluminium in gibbsite are associated at the top of the profile
forming conakrytes of massive structure but in meta-bauxites, at
the surface of profiles, iron and aluminium in boehmitic pisolites
get separated. Aleva, (1994) has divided the lateritic bauxites
into thirteen classes based on SiO2, Fe2O3 an Al2O3 content.
282 Das et al. / Indian Journal of Geosciences, 73 (4): 281-290
In India laterites occur in diversified geological provinces such
as the Deccan Traps in Maharashtra, Eastern Ghats Mobile
belt in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, Chotanagpur Gneissic
Complex in Jharkhand, Precambrian Gneissic Complex in
Tamil Nadu and Assam Meghalaya Gneissic Complex. These
laterites occur in various bedrocks such as sandstones, granites,
Khondalites, charnockites, etc. (Roy Chowdhury et al., 1965;
Roy Chowdhury, 1986). These laterites are mainly recorded
from the flat uplands as well as in the western coastal region
with heavy rainfall. Though these laterites forming over
various parent rocks have similar physical properties, there are
variations in their geochemistry. There are marked differences in
the titanium (TiO2) content and in trace element compositions.
The laterite of Angadipuram, Kerala has been declared as
National Geological Monument by Geological Survey of
India as Francis Buchanan gave the first occurrence of this
rock from this particular area (Buchanan, 1807).The laterites
of Meghalaya are occurring as discontinuous isolated patches
over the rocks of Proterozoic Assam-Meghalaya Gneissic
Complex along with development of bauxites at few places.
Few Laterite occurrences are recorded in the southwestern
part of West Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya developed over
gneissic charnockite with an average thickness of 4.4 m.
The present paper aims to classify the laterites developed in
parts of West Khasi Hills of Meghalaya, based on their physical
properties, geochemistry and clay mineralogy to have an insight
regarding the paleoclimate of the area and age of these laterites.
Brief geology and physiography of the
study area
The study area is mainly composed of gneissic charnockite,
gabbroic rocks of Proterozoic Assam Meghalaya Gneissic
Complex and Pan African porphyritic granites of South
Khasi Batholith. The gneissic charnockite has greasy lustre
and are mesocratic, coarse grained, pyroxene-bearing with
feebly developed gneissosity. It is composed of orthoclase
and plagioclase feldspar, quartz with biotite, orthopyroxene,
amphibole with accessory minerals of muscovite, rutile,
zircon, apatite and allanite etc. The litho-units mapped in
the area are criss-crossed by several sets of faults of varying
intensity. The Kynshi Fault trending 150°W-S50°E with a
strike extension of about 10 km (Gogoi, 1968), dislocates the
metamorphics and the porphyritic granite. Laterite cappings
were developed over charnockites as isolated patches. There
are development of bauxites at the top of the profiles at few
places.
The geomorphology of the area is characterised by rolling
mountainous and dissected topography cut across by several
streams. Undulations, steep hillocks, open scrubs and dense
jungles were characteristic of the area. The elevation of the
area ranges between 1200 m to 1600 m above MSL. The area
is drained by Kynshi River which is the major perennial river
flowing south westerly along with UmWg River, joined by
several tributaries like Um Arling, Um Ritha, Um Rilang,
Wah langr, Wah Sala etc. The drainage pattern of the area is
structurally controlled.
Laterites of the study area
The outcrops of laterites found in the study area are developed
over gneissic charnockite as isolated patches (Fig. 1). The
thickness of the laterite profiles developed in the study area
ranges from 1.72 m to 8.3 m. The thickest laterite profiles
are developed in the northern part of the area over gneissic
charnockite. Laterites of this area were of rusty-red to greyish
whitein colour and composed dominantly of quartz and Fe-
Al oxides. Both hard, massive as well as friable varieties are
recorded. Pisolites of clay were observed in the aluminous
laterite of the Lawse area. A representative vertical profile of
the lateritic profile of the area is shown in Fig. 2.
Analytical Technique
XRF: The samples for chemical analysis were collected in
one meter interval for the whole profile. The sample surface
was thoroughly cleaned by removing the soil debris etc before
collecting the sample. Samples were then powdered to –120
mesh size and after thorough mixing and reduction in size by
conventional coning and quartering method were analysed
by XRF using instrument Panalytical Model Magix 2424 at
Chemical laboratory, Geological Survey of India, Shillong.
The principle constituents of aluminous laterites sample
include Al2O3, Fe2O3 (T), SiO2, and TiO2.The collected samples
were finally powdered to -200mesh size. The representative
fraction of the samples was taken for XRF analysis. The
sample was taken and mixed with sodium tetraborate flux in
a crucible (95%pt and 5%Au) and fused in a bead preparation
unit. Initial fusion start at 500°C for oxidation and gradually
the temperature raised to 1200°C and final melt is cooled
under the controlled environment. The final glass bead was
used for the whole rock analysis by XRF. The standard used
for XRF analysis is GABP-13.
XRD: The X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies were carried
out in the Mineral Physics laboratory, NCEGR, Geological
Survey of India, Faridabad to identify clay mineralogy of the
latosol and bauxites of the area as per the method adopted by
Loubser and Verryn (2008). For XRD analysis the samples
were scanned from 2° to 32° 2Θ at 0.2° min− 1 using CuKα
radiation and a graphite monochromator. The instrument
used was PAN-Analytical X’PERT powered by a Phillips
X-ray generator. The radiation can be Fe-fiitered CoKa, Ni-
filtered CuKot or Mn-filtered FeKa radiation depending on
the chemical composition of the samples analyzed in order to
eliminate fluorescence which would cause, high background
and poor peak to background ratio. The phases are identified
using PANalytical X’Pert Higliscore plus software.
 Das et al. / Indian Journal of Geosciences, 73 (4): 281-290
283

Fig.1: (a) Geological Map of Meghalaya (after Mazumdar, 1976, Nandi, 2001), (b) Geological Map in and around Nongjylllieh area, West Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya
284 Das et al. / Indian Journal of Geosciences, 73 (4): 281-290

Laterite profile Divisions Texture Colour Thickness

Bauxite Pisolitic,massive or Pinkish white to 0.2-1.5 m
cemented texture greyish white

Latosol Microglaebular, Rusty orange to 1-8.3 m

lumpy brownish red

Saprolite Greasy, Hard Mesocratic Extends at deeper level

below surface

Fig. 2: Representative vertical profile of the laterites of the area

Classification of laterites
Based on physical properties: The laterites of the present
area can be grouped into latosol and bauxite on basis of
Tardy’s classification (Fig.3 a-d). The physical characteristics
of the laterites are tabulated below (Table 1). Ore petrography
of aluminous laterite was carried out under transmitted and
reflected light. The colour of the aluminous laterite samples
under microscope varies from reddish white to light brown
(Fig. 3e). The pisolites observed have circular, lensoidal oval
or irregular outline with size ranging from 50- 100µm (Fig.3f).
The possibility of formation of these spheroidal particles
can be associated with weathered crusts of terrigenous
laterite (Esmaeily et al., 2010). Some pore spaces formed by
dissolution in the aluminous laterite samples were filled by
minerals such as hematite (Fig.9a). Hematite was identified
by it gray-white colour with bluish tint and deep red internal
reflection.

Table 1: Classification on the basis of physical properties of laterites of the study area (after Tardy, 1993)

Texture (based on Mineral constituents

Locality of occurrence Colour Hardness Classification
physical characteristics) (based on XRD)
Lawse (top of profile, pisolitic) Reddish Pisolitic, clayey Moderate Al-high, Fe-poor, Si-high Bauxite
white
Mawduh (Top of profile, Greyish Massive, Cemented Hard Al-high, Fe-poor,Si-high Bauxite
massive) white
Nongjyllieh (top of profile, Pinkish Cemented, Massive Hard Al-high, Fe-moderate, Si- Bauxite
cemented) white high
Lawse (Below the pisolitic part) Rusty Microglaebular Soft Al-moderate, Fe-moderate, Latosol
orange Si-high
Mawduh (Below massive part) Rusty Microglaebular Soft Al-moderate, Fe-moderate, Latosol
orange Si-high
Nongjyllieh (Below the massive Rrusty Microglaebular, lumpy Soft Al-moderate, Fe-moderate, Latosol
part) orange Si-high

 Das et al. / Indian Journal of Geosciences, 73 (4): 281-290 285

Fig. 3: (a) Cemented bauxite in Nongjyllieh village , (b) Pisolitic bauxite of Lawse village, (c) Latosol developed over porphyritic granite
near Mawduh village, (d) Latosol developed over porphyritic granite at Lawse village, (e) Aluminous laterite of Lawse under reflected
light (Al-Lat- aluminous laterite, hem- hematite) and (f) Development of pisolites in aluminous laterite sample of Mawduh under
reflected light.
286 Das et al. / Indian Journal of Geosciences, 73 (4): 281-290

Based on geochemical properties: Chemically, the laterites of
the area have Al2O3 in the range of 5.76 % to 37.17 % and SiO2
values are within 31.18 % to 66.59 % range (Table 2; Fig. 4a-
c). Along the profiles the silica shows increasing downward
trend with slight reduction in the middle parts. The alumina
trends are different for the three localities. In Lawse, it is
decreasing downward, in Mawduh, it is increasing whereas
in Nongjyllieh, the alumina is consistent. Titanium oxide is
constant and Fe oxides have slightly increasing downward
trend in all the areas.
The ternary classification by Aleva, 1994 was based on
the percentage of Al2O3, Fe2O3 and SiO2. According to this
classification, the bauxites from the Lawse, Mawduh and
Nongjyllieh areas fall in the zone of bauxitic kaolinite whereas
latosols from the same localities fall in zone of laterite (Fig.5).
Based on clay mineralogy: The clay mineralogy deciphered in
the XRD analysis of the representative sections are tabulated
below (Table 3)
The bauxites of the Lawse area have a boehmitic pisolitic
structure, followed by Nongjyllieh bauxite having about 10m
thickness with high boehmite/(boehmite+hematite) ratio of
0.2 to 0.5 and Mawduh bauxite having high gibbsite/(gibbsite
+kaolinite) ratio varying from 0.71 to 0.9.
Discussion and conclusion
As per the physical, mineralogical and textural properties
the laterites of the study area can be classified into latosol

Table 2: Oxides percentage in Laterites of the study area

Location Sample No. SiO2 (%) TiO2 (%) Al2O3 (%) Fe2O3 (%)
BR 8 45.13 2 35.7 3.89
Lawse (top of profile, pisolitic, depth 0-0.5 m)
BR 25 57 1.27 28.91 3.08
S1 50.58 1 35.49 1.75
S2 62.7 1.18 27.04 0.27
S3 61.46 1.17 29.02 0.45
Lawse (Below pisolitic part, depth 0.5 m-3.5 m)
S4 45.99 3.55 34.07 2.32
S5 43.49 4.82 37.17 0.78
S6 58.4 2.43 29.33 0.60
BR 27 59.75 0.95 27.95 2.81
Mawduh (top of profile, massive, depth, 0-0.58
BR32 77.04 0.2 5.76 13.09
m)
BR34 56.51 1.04 28.41 4.71
Mawduh (Below massive part, depth 0.58 m-1.72 S17 53.27 1.15 31.89 5.23
m) S18 66.59 0.42 17.79 10.29
BR43 42.98 2.05 35.96 4.47
Nongjyllieh (Top of profile, cemented, depth, BR46 48.30 1.35 31.24 4.63
0-2.6 m) BR47 50.09 1.59 30.82 3.16
BR48 54.35 1.88 12.15 8.76
S46 51.31 1.21 31.23 1.92
S47 48.06 1.23 32.77 3.65
S48 32.37 1.29 37.11 14.75
S49 46.50 0.71 31.1 6.83
Nongjyllieh (Below cemented part of the profile, S50 46.25 0.82 30.95 10.64
depth 2.6 m-8.3 m) S51 43.22 0.92 32 9.25
S52 55.84 0.81 28 5.41
S53 31.18 1.54 33.80 13.99
S28 23.12 2.22 31.37 22.44
S29 34.32 1.46 33.12 15.55
*(Remaining part of the analyses are LOI)
 Das et al. / Indian Journal of Geosciences, 73 (4): 281-290 287

and bauxites whereas, as per the clay mineralogy these are

classified into metabauxites.

On the basis of geochemistry, these were classified into

laterites and kaolinitic bauxite. It was also observed that in the
deeper part of the laterite profile, iron content increases and
alumina decreases. The kaolinite content increases towards the
top of the profiles as observed in the area. A12O3/Fe2O3 ratio
increases towards the top of the profile, indicative of higher
rate of dehydration as well as deferuginisation in the upper
parts. After the formation of laterite over saprolites in the
zone of saturation, fluctuation of water table creates changes
in environment i.e. changes in Eh and pH simultaneously, or
in either one of them independently (Norton, 1973). In the
shallower horizon, less acidic to basic conditions prevail
(pH>5.0), where aluminium was insoluble and leaching of
ferrous iron leave behind an aluminium rich residue. It is also
may be the case that differential leaching and migration of Al
and Fe, led to lateralization, in the area of study under different
Eh and pH conditions (Norton, 1973). The above observations
indicate that these laterites were formed under conditions of
high humidity with moderate to high temperature (Aleva,
1981; Bardossy, 1989; Tardy, 1993).

India was located at low northern latitudes during the

Cambrian period and moved during the Ordovician to lower
latitudes in the hemisphere (Klootwijk, 1979; Kumar, 1986).
After crossing the equator, to the south during the Silurian, it
continued to be in the southern hemisphere till the late Tertiary.
In the southern hemisphere, the subcontinent was beyond
Koppen's "A" climatic zone (30°S latitude) which is ideal for
laterite formation (Selby, 1971), for a long time from the Early
Carboniferous to the Late Cretaceous (Kumar, 1986). The
Cretaceous paleogeography of the Indian subcontinent can
be attributed to the break-up of the Greater Indian continent.
Series of linear fluvial to shallow marine basins opened
up during the Aptian with basaltic eruption close to some
basins, and extensively in east and northeast India (Acharya
and Lahiri, 1991). A rift basin opened up in the southern
part of the present-day Himalayas which was followed by a
mid-Cretaceous transgression in central India from the west
(Acharya and Lahiri, 1991). As a result of this, the Cauvery
Basin in south India and the Shillong shelf in northeast India
separated and opened eastward. The Shillong shelf developed
during Campanian-Maastrichtian time. According to Gertsch
et al., 2011, Meghalaya witnessed an arid climate during
the late Maastrichtian of the Cretaceous. This was followed
by the Tertiary period with much humid condition, and the
Fig.4: (a) Variation of major oxides across Lawse profile, (b)
overall climate of the Earth was much more consistent
Variation of major oxides across Mawduh profile and (c)
regardless of proximity to the equator (Gertsch et al., 2011).
Variation of major oxides across Nongjyllieh profile.
Thus it can concluded that the laterites of the West Khasi
288 Das et al. / Indian Journal of Geosciences, 73 (4): 281-290

Fig.5: Classification of bauxites of the area (after Aleva, 1994)

Table 3: Clay mineralogy of laterites of the study area:

Constituents detected in semi quantitative analysis of crystalline portion of samples by Peak height
ratio
Sample
Locality
No. Considerable
Major Small amount Trace amount Likely Trace
amount
(>50%) (25-15%) (5-10%) (>5%)
(40-30%)

Nongjyllieh(top of SL-1 Boehmite, Anatase,

Kaolinite     -
profile)   Hematite, Illite

SL-2 Quartz, Anatase,

Lawse(top of profile) Kaolinite     Bixbyite
  boehmite

SL-3 Kaolinite Quartz   Illite -

Lawse(below
SL-4 Kaolinite   Quartz Anatase Krausite
pisoliticpart)
SL-5 Kaolinite   Quartz Anatase -

Mawduh(top of SL-6 Gibbsite Quartz Kaolinite - Matulaite

profile) SL-7 Gibbsite Quartz Kaolinite, Anatase - -
 Das et al. / Indian Journal of Geosciences, 73 (4): 281-290
Hills of Meghalaya were of Tertiary age based on the climatic
condition. Unlike the laterites of West coast of India which
were developed over the Deccan basalts, the laterites of North
east India are developed over granite or charnockites and can
be related to those of East coast Bauxites (Nahon, 1986).
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the Dy. Director General,
Northeastern Region, Geological Survey of India, Shillong
for permitting to publish the paper. The work was carried out
as a part of FSP:2017-18 of SU: Meghalaya, NER, GSI.
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